Africa and global developments in the twenty-first century

International Journal

Volumn 51, Issue 1, 1995, Pages 1-25

  Shaw, Timothy M ^a   Adibe, Clement E ^a  

^a DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0010109549     PISSN: 00207020     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/40203749     Document Type: Article

References (82)

1. Ange Séverin Malanda, as quoted in William Pfaff, 'A new colonialism? Europe must go back into Africa,' Foreign Affairs 74(January/February 1995), 2.
2. Thomas M. Callaghy, 'Africa: falling off the map?' Current History 93(January 1994), 31.
3. See, among others, Ali A. Mazrui, 'Decaying parts of Africa need benign colonization,' International Herald Tribune, 4 August 1994; William Pfaff 'A new colonialism?' 2-6.
4. Jane I. Guyer, 'African studies: a new tradition?' Issue: A Journal of Opinion 23(winter/spring 1995), 13.
5. For interesting, albeit contrasting, reviews and insights, see L.H. Gann, 'Ex Africa: an Africanist's intellectual autobiography,' Journal of Modern African Studies 31 (September 1993), 477-98; and Colin Leys, 'Confronting the African tragedy,' New Left Review 204(March/April 1994), 33-47.
6. For interesting, albeit contrasting, reviews and insights, see L.H. Gann, 'Ex Africa: an Africanist's intellectual autobiography,' Journal of Modern African Studies 31 (September 1993), 477-98; and Colin Leys, 'Confronting the African tragedy,' New Left Review 204(March/April 1994), 33-47.
7. World Bank, Accelerated Development in Sub-saharan Africa: An Agenda for Action (Washington DC: World Bank 1981).
8. Robert Kaplan, 'The coming anarchy,' Atlantic Monthly 273(February 1994), 48. Kaplan's invocation of Malthus to sensitize his readers to the demographic and ecological predicament of Africa derives from an earlier tradition rooted in the works of Harold and Margaret Sprout, which treats the man-milieu relationship as the foundation of international politics. See Harold Sprout and Margaret Sprout, Foundations of International Politics (Princeton NJ: Van Nostrand 1962), esp. chap 13; and The Ecological Perspective on Human Affairs With Special Reference to International Politics (Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press 1965).
9. Robert Kaplan, 'The coming anarchy,' Atlantic Monthly 273(February 1994), 48. Kaplan's invocation of Malthus to sensitize his readers to the demographic and ecological predicament of Africa derives from an earlier tradition rooted in the works of Harold and Margaret Sprout, which treats the man-milieu relationship as the foundation of international politics. See Harold Sprout and Margaret Sprout, Foundations of International Politics (Princeton NJ: Van Nostrand 1962), esp. chap 13; and The Ecological Perspective on Human Affairs With Special Reference to International Politics (Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press 1965).
10. Robert Kaplan, 'The coming anarchy,' Atlantic Monthly 273(February 1994), 48. Kaplan's invocation of Malthus to sensitize his readers to the demographic and ecological predicament of Africa derives from an earlier tradition rooted in the works of Harold and Margaret Sprout, which treats the man-milieu relationship as the foundation of international politics. See Harold Sprout and Margaret Sprout, Foundations of International Politics (Princeton NJ: Van Nostrand 1962), esp. chap 13; and The Ecological Perspective on Human Affairs With Special Reference to International Politics (Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press 1965).
11. Kaplan, 'The coming anarchy,' 54 (emphasis added).
12. Jean-François Bayart, The State in Africa: The Politics of the Belly (London: Longman 1992).
13. See, for example, the special issue on African studies of Issue 23(winter/spring 1995).
14. Leys, 'Confronting the African tragedy,' 37.
15. Guyer, 'African studies,' 13.
16. Kaplan, 'The coming anarchy,' 76.
17. Olufemi Taiwo, 'Appropriating Africa: an essay on the new Africanist schools,' Issue 23(winter/spring 1995), 39. This is a brilliant critique of the many forms of the appropriation of Africa.
18. Michael Chege, 'What's right with Africa?' Current History 93(May 1994), 193. Chege does not link this view with any specific authors. We have not discussed the 'ultranationalist' school because we could not associate any body of scholarly work with it. However, there is a strong possibility that such a view exists in Africa, especially within the privileged circles of the ruling élites. For incisive comment on this and other developments in Africa, see Anthony Lake, 'U.S. support for democracy in Africa,' United States Department of State, Dispatch 6 (9 January 1995), 13-19.
19. Michael Chege, 'What's right with Africa?' Current History 93(May 1994), 193. Chege does not link this view with any specific authors. We have not discussed the 'ultranationalist' school because we could not associate any body of scholarly work with it. However, there is a strong possibility that such a view exists in Africa, especially within the privileged circles of the ruling élites. For incisive comment on this and other developments in Africa, see Anthony Lake, 'U.S. support for democracy in Africa,' United States Department of State, Dispatch 6 (9 January 1995), 13-19.
20. Chege, 'What's right with Africa?' 193. This may explain the rising tendency of many urban Africans to seek solace and hope in multiplying numbers of new-age religious organizations, especially the Pentecostal churches.
21. Ibid, 194.
22. Ibid, 195. See also John Holm, 'Botswana: one African success story,' in ibid, 198-202.
23. Ibid, 195. See also John Holm, 'Botswana: one African success story,' in ibid, 198-202.
24. Chege, 'What's right with Africa?' 196.
25. The following year the army launched a historical study by Johnson Asiegbu which credited British colonial rule with patriotism, self-discipline, and probity - attributes which successive post-colonial administrations could not sustain. See J.U.J. Asiegbu, Nigeria and its British Invaders, 1851-1920: A Thematic Documentary History (New York: Nok 1984).
26. See Gann, 'Ex Africa,' 477-98; and Pfaff, 'A new colonialism?' 2-6.
27. See Gann, 'Ex Africa,' 477-98; and Pfaff, 'A new colonialism?' 2-6.
28. Ali Mazrui, 'Pan-Africanism: from poetry to power,' Issue 23(winter/spring 1995), 36. See also his 'Decaying parts of Africa'; 'Africa: in search of self-pacification,' African Affairs 93(January 1994), 39-42 ; and 'Conflict as a retreat from modernity: a comparative overview,' in Oliver Furley, ed, Conflict in Africa (London: I.B. Tauris 1995), 19-27.
29. Ali Mazrui, 'Pan-Africanism: from poetry to power,' Issue 23(winter/spring 1995), 36. See also his 'Decaying parts of Africa'; 'Africa: in search of self-pacification,' African Affairs 93(January 1994), 39-42 ; and 'Conflict as a retreat from modernity: a comparative overview,' in Oliver Furley, ed, Conflict in Africa (London: I.B. Tauris 1995), 19-27.
30. Ali Mazrui, 'Pan-Africanism: from poetry to power,' Issue 23(winter/spring 1995), 36. See also his 'Decaying parts of Africa'; 'Africa: in search of self-pacification,' African Affairs 93(January 1994), 39-42 ; and 'Conflict as a retreat from modernity: a comparative overview,' in Oliver Furley, ed, Conflict in Africa (London: I.B. Tauris 1995), 19-27.
31. Lake, 'U.S. support for democracy in Africa,' 13.
32. Mazrui, 'Pan-Africanism: from poetry to power,' 36.
33. Gerald B. Helman and Steven R. Ratner, 'Saving failed states,' Foreign Policy 89(winter 1992-93), 3-20. These options are governance assistance, delegation of governmental authority, and direct United Nations trusteeship (p 13).
34. Pfaff, 'A new colonialism?' 4-5.
35. Achille Mbembe, 'Complex transformations in the late 20th-century Africa,' Africa Demos 3(March 1995), 28-9.
36. World Bank, Adjustment in Africa: Reforms, Results, and the Road Ahead (New York: Oxford University Press 1994), 2.
37. Callaghy, 'Africa: falling off the map?' 32.
38. Ibid.
39. World Bank, Adjustment in Africa, 2 (emphasis in original). See also John Loxley and David Seddon, 'Stranglehold on Africa,' Review of African Political Economy 62(1994), 485-93.
40. World Bank, Adjustment in Africa, 2 (emphasis in original). See also John Loxley and David Seddon, 'Stranglehold on Africa,' Review of African Political Economy 62(1994), 485-93.
41. For a detailed discussion, see Grant T. Hammond and Bryant P. Shaw, 'Conflict, the rise of nations, and the decay of states: the transformation of the international system?' Journal of Conflict Studies 25(no 1, 1995), 5-29.
42. Ishrat Husain and Rashid Faruqee, eds, Adjustment in Africa: Lessons From Country Case Studies (Washington DC: World Bank 1994), 427.
43. Sulayman S. Nyang, 'Africa: a continent of unending conflicts?' West Africa, 12-18 September 1994, 1582.
44. For a conceptual and empirical examination of the phenomenon of fear among Third World élites, see Barry Buzan, 'People, states, and fear: national security problems in the Third World,' in Edward Azaar and C. Moon, eds, National Security in the Third World: The Management of External Threats (Aldershot: Edward Elgar 1988).
45. Examples include the expulsion of Nigerians from Ghana in the 1960s and from Equatorial Guinea in the 1970s, of Lebanese from Uganda in the 1970s, and, more recently, of Ghanaians from Nigeria in the mid-1980s. For details, see the special volume of African Affairs 84(no 337, 1985).
46. See among others, Timothy M. Shaw, 'Regional cooperation and conflict in Africa,' International Journal 30(autumn 1975), 671-88; John Ravenhill, 'Regional integration and development in Africa: lessons from the east African community,' Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics 17(summer 1979), 227-46; David Fasholé Luke, 'Regionalism in Africa: a short study of thei record,' International Journal 41 (autumn 1986), 853-68; Julius Emeka Okolo, 'Obstacles to increased intra-ECOWAS trade,' International Journal 44(winter 1988-9), 171-214; and Aggrey Awori, 'Seeking regional economic cooperation in Africa,' Journal of International Affairs 46(summer 1992), 119-24.
47. See among others, Timothy M. Shaw, 'Regional cooperation and conflict in Africa,' International Journal 30(autumn 1975), 671-88; John Ravenhill, 'Regional integration and development in Africa: lessons from the east African community,' Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics 17(summer 1979), 227-46; David Fasholé Luke, 'Regionalism in Africa: a short study of thei record,' International Journal 41 (autumn 1986), 853-68; Julius Emeka Okolo, 'Obstacles to increased intra-ECOWAS trade,' International Journal 44(winter 1988-9), 171-214; and Aggrey Awori, 'Seeking regional economic cooperation in Africa,' Journal of International Affairs 46(summer 1992), 119-24.
48. See among others, Timothy M. Shaw, 'Regional cooperation and conflict in Africa,' International Journal 30(autumn 1975), 671-88; John Ravenhill, 'Regional integration and development in Africa: lessons from the east African community,' Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics 17(summer 1979), 227-46; David Fasholé Luke, 'Regionalism in Africa: a short study of thei record,' International Journal 41 (autumn 1986), 853-68; Julius Emeka Okolo, 'Obstacles to increased intra-ECOWAS trade,' International Journal 44(winter 1988-9), 171-214; and Aggrey Awori, 'Seeking regional economic cooperation in Africa,' Journal of International Affairs 46(summer 1992), 119-24.
49. See among others, Timothy M. Shaw, 'Regional cooperation and conflict in Africa,' International Journal 30(autumn 1975), 671-88; John Ravenhill, 'Regional integration and development in Africa: lessons from the east African community,' Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics 17(summer 1979), 227-46; David Fasholé Luke, 'Regionalism in Africa: a short study of thei record,' International Journal 41 (autumn 1986), 853-68; Julius Emeka Okolo, 'Obstacles to increased intra-ECOWAS trade,' International Journal 44(winter 1988-9), 171-214; and Aggrey Awori, 'Seeking regional economic cooperation in Africa,' Journal of International Affairs 46(summer 1992), 119-24.
50. See among others, Timothy M. Shaw, 'Regional cooperation and conflict in Africa,' International Journal 30(autumn 1975), 671-88; John Ravenhill, 'Regional integration and development in Africa: lessons from the east African community,' Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics 17(summer 1979), 227-46; David Fasholé Luke, 'Regionalism in Africa: a short study of thei record,' International Journal 41 (autumn 1986), 853-68; Julius Emeka Okolo, 'Obstacles to increased intra-ECOWAS trade,' International Journal 44(winter 1988-9), 171-214; and Aggrey Awori, 'Seeking regional economic cooperation in Africa,' Journal of International Affairs 46(summer 1992), 119-24.
51. Strobe Talbott, 'The new geopolitics: defending democracy in the post-Cold War era,' United States Department of State, Dispatch 5(14 November 1994), 761, 762.
52. Lake, 'U.S. Support for democracy in Africa,' 19.
53. See Peter Anyang'Nyongo'o, ed, Popular Struggles for Democracy in Africa (London: Zed 1987); Richard Sklar, 'Developmental democracy,' Comparative Studies in Society and History 29(autumn 1987), 686-714; Larry Diamond, Juan Linz, and S. Martin Lipset, eds, Democracy in Developing Countries. 2: Africa (Boulder CO: Lynne Rienner 1988); George Shepherd, Jr, and Mark O.C. Anikpo eds, Emerging Human Rights: The African Political Economy Context (Westport CT: Greenwood 1990); and Goran Hyden and Michael Bratton, eds, Governance and Politics in Africa (Boulder CO: Lynne Rienner 1992).
54. See Peter Anyang'Nyongo'o, ed, Popular Struggles for Democracy in Africa (London: Zed 1987); Richard Sklar, 'Developmental democracy,' Comparative Studies in Society and History 29(autumn 1987), 686-714; Larry Diamond, Juan Linz, and S. Martin Lipset, eds, Democracy in Developing Countries. 2: Africa (Boulder CO: Lynne Rienner 1988); George Shepherd, Jr, and Mark O.C. Anikpo eds, Emerging Human Rights: The African Political Economy Context (Westport CT: Greenwood 1990); and Goran Hyden and Michael Bratton, eds, Governance and Politics in Africa (Boulder CO: Lynne Rienner 1992).
55. See Peter Anyang'Nyongo'o, ed, Popular Struggles for Democracy in Africa (London: Zed 1987); Richard Sklar, 'Developmental democracy,' Comparative Studies in Society and History 29(autumn 1987), 686-714; Larry Diamond, Juan Linz, and S. Martin Lipset, eds, Democracy in Developing Countries. 2: Africa (Boulder CO: Lynne Rienner 1988); George Shepherd, Jr, and Mark O.C. Anikpo eds, Emerging Human Rights: The African Political Economy Context (Westport CT: Greenwood 1990); and Goran Hyden and Michael Bratton, eds, Governance and Politics in Africa (Boulder CO: Lynne Rienner 1992).
56. See Peter Anyang'Nyongo'o, ed, Popular Struggles for Democracy in Africa (London: Zed 1987); Richard Sklar, 'Developmental democracy,' Comparative Studies in Society and History 29(autumn 1987), 686-714; Larry Diamond, Juan Linz, and S. Martin Lipset, eds, Democracy in Developing Countries. 2: Africa (Boulder CO: Lynne Rienner 1988); George Shepherd, Jr, and Mark O.C. Anikpo eds, Emerging Human Rights: The African Political Economy Context (Westport CT: Greenwood 1990); and Goran Hyden and Michael Bratton, eds, Governance and Politics in Africa (Boulder CO: Lynne Rienner 1992).
57. See Peter Anyang'Nyongo'o, ed, Popular Struggles for Democracy in Africa (London: Zed 1987); Richard Sklar, 'Developmental democracy,' Comparative Studies in Society and History 29(autumn 1987), 686-714; Larry Diamond, Juan Linz, and S. Martin Lipset, eds, Democracy in Developing Countries. 2: Africa (Boulder CO: Lynne Rienner 1988); George Shepherd, Jr, and Mark O.C. Anikpo eds, Emerging Human Rights: The African Political Economy Context (Westport CT: Greenwood 1990); and Goran Hyden and Michael Bratton, eds, Governance and Politics in Africa (Boulder CO: Lynne Rienner 1992).
58. See Clement E. Adibe, 'The south and changing notions of security in world politics in the 19905,' Peace Research: The Canadian Journal of Peace Studies 26(February 1994), 95-113.
59. See Jessica Tuchman Mathews, 'Redefining security,' Foreign Affairs 68(spring 1989), 162-77; Theodore C. Sorensen, 'Rethinking national security,' Foreign Affairs 69(summer 1990), 1-18; Thomas Homer-Dixon, 'On the threshold: environmental changes as causes of acute conflict,' International Security 16(fall 1991), 76-116; and Graham Allison and Gregory Treverton, eds, Rethinking America's Security: Beyond Cold War to New World Order (New York: Norton 1992).
60. See Jessica Tuchman Mathews, 'Redefining security,' Foreign Affairs 68(spring 1989), 162-77; Theodore C. Sorensen, 'Rethinking national security,' Foreign Affairs 69(summer 1990), 1-18; Thomas Homer-Dixon, 'On the threshold: environmental changes as causes of acute conflict,' International Security 16(fall 1991), 76-116; and Graham Allison and Gregory Treverton, eds, Rethinking America's Security: Beyond Cold War to New World Order (New York: Norton 1992).
61. See Jessica Tuchman Mathews, 'Redefining security,' Foreign Affairs 68(spring 1989), 162-77; Theodore C. Sorensen, 'Rethinking national security,' Foreign Affairs 69(summer 1990), 1-18; Thomas Homer-Dixon, 'On the threshold: environmental changes as causes of acute conflict,' International Security 16(fall 1991), 76-116; and Graham Allison and Gregory Treverton, eds, Rethinking America's Security: Beyond Cold War to New World Order (New York: Norton 1992).
62. See Jessica Tuchman Mathews, 'Redefining security,' Foreign Affairs 68(spring 1989), 162-77; Theodore C. Sorensen, 'Rethinking national security,' Foreign Affairs 69(summer 1990), 1-18; Thomas Homer-Dixon, 'On the threshold: environmental changes as causes of acute conflict,' International Security 16(fall 1991), 76-116; and Graham Allison and Gregory Treverton, eds, Rethinking America's Security: Beyond Cold War to New World Order (New York: Norton 1992).
63. The United Nations, World Population Monitoring, 1991 (New York: United Nations Press 1992), esp. 186-90.
64. Lake, 'U.S. support for democracy in Africa,' 14.
65. Leys, 'Confronting the African tragedy,' 46.
66. See Jinmi Adisa, 'Nigeria in ECOWAS: political undercurrents and the burden of community spirit,' Small Wars and Insurgencies 5(winter 1994), 83-110; and W. Ofuatey-Kodjoe, 'Regional organizations and the resolution of internal conflict: the ECOWAS intervention in Liberia,' International Peacekeeping 1(autumn 1994), 261-302.
67. See Jinmi Adisa, 'Nigeria in ECOWAS: political undercurrents and the burden of community spirit,' Small Wars and Insurgencies 5(winter 1994), 83-110; and W. Ofuatey-Kodjoe, 'Regional organizations and the resolution of internal conflict: the ECOWAS intervention in Liberia,' International Peacekeeping 1(autumn 1994), 261-302.
68. Homer-Dixon, 'On the threshold,' 76-116. See also Harold and Margaret Sprout, The Ecological Perspective on Human Affairs.
69. Homer-Dixon, 'On the threshold,' 76-116. See also Harold and Margaret Sprout, The Ecological Perspective on Human Affairs.
70. World Bank, World Development Report 1992: Development and the Environment (New York: Oxford University Press 1992).
71. Husain and Faruqee, eds, Adjustment in Africa, 427 (emphasis added).
72. See ibid, esp. chap 7.
73. Leys, 'Confronting the African tragedy,' 46.
74. Ibid.
75. See Timothy M. Shaw, 'The south in the "new" world (dis)order: towards a political economy of Third World foreign policy in the 1990s,' Third World Quarterly 15(March 1994), 17-31.
76. Editor's foreword, Journal of International Affairs 46(summer 1992), 1. See also Adebayo Adedeji, ed, Africa Within the World: Beyond Dispossession and Dependence (London: Zed for Africa Center for Development and Strategic Studies 1993).
77. Editor's foreword, Journal of International Affairs 46(summer 1992), 1. See also Adebayo Adedeji, ed, Africa Within the World: Beyond Dispossession and Dependence (London: Zed for Africa Center for Development and Strategic Studies 1993).
78. In contrast to the position of the IFIS, Colin Leys has argued that 'the African state, for all its record of abuse, remains a potential line of defence for Africans against the depredations of the world economic and political system: part of the solution, if there is one, and not necessarily part of the problem, as the drive by the IMF and the World Bank to weaken the African state in the name of market efficiency implicitly acknowledges' ('Confronting the African tragedy,' 46, emphasis in the original). Our position is that although the African state is a necessary part of any solution to the manifold problems of the continent, it is also a significant part of the problem. Such recognition will benefit ongoing efforts within and outside Africa to fashion an open, responsive, and accountable system of governance for the people of the continent.
79. Husain and Faruqee, eds, Adjustment in Africa, 428-9.
80. See All African Conference of Churches, Emerging Power of Civil Society in Africa: Report of Workshop on Approaches and Skills in Advocacy for Development (Nairobi, September 1992); and Adedeji, Africa Within the World.
81. See All African Conference of Churches, Emerging Power of Civil Society in Africa: Report of Workshop on Approaches and Skills in Advocacy for Development (Nairobi, September 1992); and Adedeji, Africa Within the World.
82. Colin Leys, 'Confronting the African tragedy,' 46.