Measures of attitude strength as predictors of willingness to speak to the media

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 73, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 147-158

  Baldassare, Mark ^a   Katz, Cheryl ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0009289041     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769909607300113     Document Type: Article

References (59)

1. Carroll J. Glynn and Jack M. McLeod, "Public Opinion du Jour: An Examination of the Spiral of Silence," Public Opinion Quarterly 48 (winter 1984): 731-40; Dominic L. Lasorsa, "Political Outspokenness: Factors Working Against the Spiral of Silence," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring/summer 1991): 131-40; Diana C. Mutz, "The Influence of Perceptions of Media Influence: Third-person Effects and the Public Expression of Opinions," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 1 (spring 1989): 3-23; Vincent Price and Scott Allen, "Opinion Spirals, Silent and Otherwise," Communication Research 17 (June 1990): 369-92; Charles T. Salmon and Kurt Neuwirth, "Perceptions of Opinion 'Climates' and Willingness to Discuss the Issue of Abortion," Journalism Quarterly 67 (autumn 1990): 567-77.
2. Carroll J. Glynn and Jack M. McLeod, "Public Opinion du Jour: An Examination of the Spiral of Silence," Public Opinion Quarterly 48 (winter 1984): 731-40; Dominic L. Lasorsa, "Political Outspokenness: Factors Working Against the Spiral of Silence," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring/summer 1991): 131-40; Diana C. Mutz, "The Influence of Perceptions of Media Influence: Third-person Effects and the Public Expression of Opinions," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 1 (spring 1989): 3-23; Vincent Price and Scott Allen, "Opinion Spirals, Silent and Otherwise," Communication Research 17 (June 1990): 369-92; Charles T. Salmon and Kurt Neuwirth, "Perceptions of Opinion 'Climates' and Willingness to Discuss the Issue of Abortion," Journalism Quarterly 67 (autumn 1990): 567-77.
3. Carroll J. Glynn and Jack M. McLeod, "Public Opinion du Jour: An Examination of the Spiral of Silence," Public Opinion Quarterly 48 (winter 1984): 731-40; Dominic L. Lasorsa, "Political Outspokenness: Factors Working Against the Spiral of Silence," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring/summer 1991): 131-40; Diana C. Mutz, "The Influence of Perceptions of Media Influence: Third-person Effects and the Public Expression of Opinions," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 1 (spring 1989): 3-23; Vincent Price and Scott Allen, "Opinion Spirals, Silent and Otherwise," Communication Research 17 (June 1990): 369-92; Charles T. Salmon and Kurt Neuwirth, "Perceptions of Opinion 'Climates' and Willingness to Discuss the Issue of Abortion," Journalism Quarterly 67 (autumn 1990): 567-77.
4. Carroll J. Glynn and Jack M. McLeod, "Public Opinion du Jour: An Examination of the Spiral of Silence," Public Opinion Quarterly 48 (winter 1984): 731-40; Dominic L. Lasorsa, "Political Outspokenness: Factors Working Against the Spiral of Silence," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring/summer 1991): 131-40; Diana C. Mutz, "The Influence of Perceptions of Media Influence: Third-person Effects and the Public Expression of Opinions," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 1 (spring 1989): 3-23; Vincent Price and Scott Allen, "Opinion Spirals, Silent and Otherwise," Communication Research 17 (June 1990): 369-92; Charles T. Salmon and Kurt Neuwirth, "Perceptions of Opinion 'Climates' and Willingness to Discuss the Issue of Abortion," Journalism Quarterly 67 (autumn 1990): 567-77.
5. Carroll J. Glynn and Jack M. McLeod, "Public Opinion du Jour: An Examination of the Spiral of Silence," Public Opinion Quarterly 48 (winter 1984): 731-40; Dominic L. Lasorsa, "Political Outspokenness: Factors Working Against the Spiral of Silence," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring/summer 1991): 131-40; Diana C. Mutz, "The Influence of Perceptions of Media Influence: Third-person Effects and the Public Expression of Opinions," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 1 (spring 1989): 3-23; Vincent Price and Scott Allen, "Opinion Spirals, Silent and Otherwise," Communication Research 17 (June 1990): 369-92; Charles T. Salmon and Kurt Neuwirth, "Perceptions of Opinion 'Climates' and Willingness to Discuss the Issue of Abortion," Journalism Quarterly 67 (autumn 1990): 567-77.
6. Elizabeth Noelle-Neumann, The Spiral of Silence: Public Opinion - Our Social Skin (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984); Elizabeth Noelle-Neumann, "The Spiral of Silence: A Theory of Public Opinion," Journal of Communication 24 (spring 1974): 43-51;
7. Elizabeth Noelle-Neumann, The Spiral of Silence: Public Opinion - Our Social Skin (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984); Elizabeth Noelle-Neumann, "The Spiral of Silence: A Theory of Public Opinion," Journal of Communication 24 (spring 1974): 43-51;
8. Noelle-Neumann, "Turbulences in the Climate of Opinion: Methodological Applications of the Spiral of Silence Theory," Public Opinion Quarterly 41 (summer 1977): 143-58.
9. See, for example, Stanley Milgram, "Nationality and Conformity," Scientific American 205 (December 1961): 45-51; Solomon E. Asch, "Opinions and Social Pressure," Scientific American 193 (November 1955): 31-35; Muzafer Sherif, The Psychology of Social Norms (NY: Harper and Row, 1936). See also, Serge Moscovici, "Social Influence and Conformity," in The Handbook of Social Psychology, ed. G. Lindzey and E. Aronson, 3d ed., vol. 2 (NY: Random House, 1985), 347-412.
10. See, for example, Stanley Milgram, "Nationality and Conformity," Scientific American 205 (December 1961): 45-51; Solomon E. Asch, "Opinions and Social Pressure," Scientific American 193 (November 1955): 31-35; Muzafer Sherif, The Psychology of Social Norms (NY: Harper and Row, 1936). See also, Serge Moscovici, "Social Influence and Conformity," in The Handbook of Social Psychology, ed. G. Lindzey and E. Aronson, 3d ed., vol. 2 (NY: Random House, 1985), 347-412.
11. See, for example, Stanley Milgram, "Nationality and Conformity," Scientific American 205 (December 1961): 45-51; Solomon E. Asch, "Opinions and Social Pressure," Scientific American 193 (November 1955): 31-35; Muzafer Sherif, The Psychology of Social Norms (NY: Harper and Row, 1936). See also, Serge Moscovici, "Social Influence and Conformity," in The Handbook of Social Psychology, ed. G. Lindzey and E. Aronson, 3d ed., vol. 2 (NY: Random House, 1985), 347-412.
12. See, for example, Stanley Milgram, "Nationality and Conformity," Scientific American 205 (December 1961): 45-51; Solomon E. Asch, "Opinions and Social Pressure," Scientific American 193 (November 1955): 31-35; Muzafer Sherif, The Psychology of Social Norms (NY: Harper and Row, 1936). See also, Serge Moscovici, "Social Influence and Conformity," in The Handbook of Social Psychology, ed. G. Lindzey and E. Aronson, 3d ed., vol. 2 (NY: Random House, 1985), 347-412.
13. See note 2. See, also, Cheryl Katz and Mark Baldassare, "Popularity in a Freefall: Measuring a Spiral of Silence at the End of the Bush Presidency," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 6 (spring 1994):1-12; Cheryl Katz and Mark Baldassare, "Using the 'L-Word' in Public: A Test of the Spiral of Silence in Conservative Orange County, California," Public Opinion Quarterly 56 (summer 1992): 232-35; Edouard Cloutier, Richard Nadeau, and Jean Guay, "Bandwagoning and Underdoging on North American Free Trade: A Quasi-Experimental Panel Study of Opinion Movement," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 1 (autumn 1989): 206-20; Charles T. Salmon and F. Gerald Kline, "The Spiral of Silence Ten Years Later: An Examination and Evaluation," in Political Communication Yearbook 1984, ed. Keith R. Sanders, Lynda Lee Kaid, and Dan Nimmo (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1985), 3-30; Carroll J. Glynn and Jack M. McLeod, "Implications of the Spiral of Silence Theory for Communication and Public Opinion Research," in Political Communication Yearbook 1984, 43-65.
14. See note 2. See, also, Cheryl Katz and Mark Baldassare, "Popularity in a Freefall: Measuring a Spiral of Silence at the End of the Bush Presidency," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 6 (spring 1994):1-12; Cheryl Katz and Mark Baldassare, "Using the 'L-Word' in Public: A Test of the Spiral of Silence in Conservative Orange County, California," Public Opinion Quarterly 56 (summer 1992): 232-35; Edouard Cloutier, Richard Nadeau, and Jean Guay, "Bandwagoning and Underdoging on North American Free Trade: A Quasi-Experimental Panel Study of Opinion Movement," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 1 (autumn 1989): 206-20; Charles T. Salmon and F. Gerald Kline, "The Spiral of Silence Ten Years Later: An Examination and Evaluation," in Political Communication Yearbook 1984, ed. Keith R. Sanders, Lynda Lee Kaid, and Dan Nimmo (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1985), 3-30; Carroll J. Glynn and Jack M. McLeod, "Implications of the Spiral of Silence Theory for Communication and Public Opinion Research," in Political Communication Yearbook 1984, 43-65.
15. See note 2. See, also, Cheryl Katz and Mark Baldassare, "Popularity in a Freefall: Measuring a Spiral of Silence at the End of the Bush Presidency," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 6 (spring 1994):1-12; Cheryl Katz and Mark Baldassare, "Using the 'L-Word' in Public: A Test of the Spiral of Silence in Conservative Orange County, California," Public Opinion Quarterly 56 (summer 1992): 232-35; Edouard Cloutier, Richard Nadeau, and Jean Guay, "Bandwagoning and Underdoging on North American Free Trade: A Quasi-Experimental Panel Study of Opinion Movement," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 1 (autumn 1989): 206-20; Charles T. Salmon and F. Gerald Kline, "The Spiral of Silence Ten Years Later: An Examination and Evaluation," in Political Communication Yearbook 1984, ed. Keith R. Sanders, Lynda Lee Kaid, and Dan Nimmo (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1985), 3-30; Carroll J. Glynn and Jack M. McLeod, "Implications of the Spiral of Silence Theory for Communication and Public Opinion Research," in Political Communication Yearbook 1984, 43-65.
16. See note 2. See, also, Cheryl Katz and Mark Baldassare, "Popularity in a Freefall: Measuring a Spiral of Silence at the End of the Bush Presidency," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 6 (spring 1994):1-12; Cheryl Katz and Mark Baldassare, "Using the 'L-Word' in Public: A Test of the Spiral of Silence in Conservative Orange County, California," Public Opinion Quarterly 56 (summer 1992): 232-35; Edouard Cloutier, Richard Nadeau, and Jean Guay, "Bandwagoning and Underdoging on North American Free Trade: A Quasi-Experimental Panel Study of Opinion Movement," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 1 (autumn 1989): 206-20; Charles T. Salmon and F. Gerald Kline, "The Spiral of Silence Ten Years Later: An Examination and Evaluation," in Political Communication Yearbook 1984, ed. Keith R. Sanders, Lynda Lee Kaid, and Dan Nimmo (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1985), 3-30; Carroll J. Glynn and Jack M. McLeod, "Implications of the Spiral of Silence Theory for Communication and Public Opinion Research," in Political Communication Yearbook 1984, 43-65.
17. See note 2. See, also, Cheryl Katz and Mark Baldassare, "Popularity in a Freefall: Measuring a Spiral of Silence at the End of the Bush Presidency," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 6 (spring 1994):1-12; Cheryl Katz and Mark Baldassare, "Using the 'L-Word' in Public: A Test of the Spiral of Silence in Conservative Orange County, California," Public Opinion Quarterly 56 (summer 1992): 232-35; Edouard Cloutier, Richard Nadeau, and Jean Guay, "Bandwagoning and Underdoging on North American Free Trade: A Quasi-Experimental Panel Study of Opinion Movement," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 1 (autumn 1989): 206-20; Charles T. Salmon and F. Gerald Kline, "The Spiral of Silence Ten Years Later: An Examination and Evaluation," in Political Communication Yearbook 1984, ed. Keith R. Sanders, Lynda Lee Kaid, and Dan Nimmo (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1985), 3-30; Carroll J. Glynn and Jack M. McLeod, "Implications of the Spiral of Silence Theory for Communication and Public Opinion Research," in Political Communication Yearbook 1984, 43-65.
18. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, "Reflections on the Spiral of Silence," Communication Yearbook 14, ed. James Anderson (Sage: Newbury Park 1991), 288-97.
19. Noelle-Neumann has reported that overall 36 percent were willing to enter a controversial conversation on a train. See Noelle-Neumann, "The Spiral of Silence: A Theory of Public Opinion." In our own work, we generally find that between 30 and 40 percent, and never more than 50 percent of survey respondents are willing to be reinterviewed by a reporter. See Mark Baldassare and Cheryl Katz, "Who Will Talk to Reporters? Biases in Survey Reinterviews," Journalism Quarterly 66 (winter 1989): 907-12, 1049.
20. Noelle-Neumann has reported that overall 36 percent were willing to enter a controversial conversation on a train. See Noelle-Neumann, "The Spiral of Silence: A Theory of Public Opinion." In our own work, we generally find that between 30 and 40 percent, and never more than 50 percent of survey respondents are willing to be reinterviewed by a reporter. See Mark Baldassare and Cheryl Katz, "Who Will Talk to Reporters? Biases in Survey Reinterviews," Journalism Quarterly 66 (winter 1989): 907-12, 1049.
21. Martha C. Powell and Russell H. Fazio, "Attitude Accessibility as a Function of Repeated Attitudinal Expression," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 10 (March 1984): 139-48; Jon A. Krosnick, "Attitude Importance and Attitude Accessibility," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 15 (September 1989): 297-308; James W. Downing, Charles M. Judd, and Markus Brauer, "Effects of Repeated Expressions on Attitude Extremity," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63 (July 1992): 17-29; Neal J. Roese and James M. Olson, "Attitude Importance as a Function of Repeated Attitude Expression," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 30 (January 1994): 39-51. See also, James M. Olson and Mark P. Zanna, "Attitudes and Attitude Change," Annual Review of Psychology 44 (1993): 117-54. For a review of the literature, see Jon A. Krosnick, David S. Boninger, Yao C. Chuang, Matthew K. Berent, and Catherine G. Carnot, "Attitude Strength: One Construct or Many Related Constructs?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65 (December 1993): 1132-1151. See, also, Jon A. Krosnick and Howard Schuman, "Attitude Intensity, Importance and Certainty and Susceptibility to Response Effects," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54 (June 1988): 940-52.
22. Martha C. Powell and Russell H. Fazio, "Attitude Accessibility as a Function of Repeated Attitudinal Expression," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 10 (March 1984): 139-48; Jon A. Krosnick, "Attitude Importance and Attitude Accessibility," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 15 (September 1989): 297-308; James W. Downing, Charles M. Judd, and Markus Brauer, "Effects of Repeated Expressions on Attitude Extremity," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63 (July 1992): 17-29; Neal J. Roese and James M. Olson, "Attitude Importance as a Function of Repeated Attitude Expression," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 30 (January 1994): 39-51. See also, James M. Olson and Mark P. Zanna, "Attitudes and Attitude Change," Annual Review of Psychology 44 (1993): 117-54. For a review of the literature, see Jon A. Krosnick, David S. Boninger, Yao C. Chuang, Matthew K. Berent, and Catherine G. Carnot, "Attitude Strength: One Construct or Many Related Constructs?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65 (December 1993): 1132-1151. See, also, Jon A. Krosnick and Howard Schuman, "Attitude Intensity, Importance and Certainty and Susceptibility to Response Effects," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54 (June 1988): 940-52.
23. Martha C. Powell and Russell H. Fazio, "Attitude Accessibility as a Function of Repeated Attitudinal Expression," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 10 (March 1984): 139-48; Jon A. Krosnick, "Attitude Importance and Attitude Accessibility," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 15 (September 1989): 297-308; James W. Downing, Charles M. Judd, and Markus Brauer, "Effects of Repeated Expressions on Attitude Extremity," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63 (July 1992): 17-29; Neal J. Roese and James M. Olson, "Attitude Importance as a Function of Repeated Attitude Expression," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 30 (January 1994): 39-51. See also, James M. Olson and Mark P. Zanna, "Attitudes and Attitude Change," Annual Review of Psychology 44 (1993): 117-54. For a review of the literature, see Jon A. Krosnick, David S. Boninger, Yao C. Chuang, Matthew K. Berent, and Catherine G. Carnot, "Attitude Strength: One Construct or Many Related Constructs?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65 (December 1993): 1132-1151. See, also, Jon A. Krosnick and Howard Schuman, "Attitude Intensity, Importance and Certainty and Susceptibility to Response Effects," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54 (June 1988): 940-52.
24. Martha C. Powell and Russell H. Fazio, "Attitude Accessibility as a Function of Repeated Attitudinal Expression," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 10 (March 1984): 139-48; Jon A. Krosnick, "Attitude Importance and Attitude Accessibility," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 15 (September 1989): 297-308; James W. Downing, Charles M. Judd, and Markus Brauer, "Effects of Repeated Expressions on Attitude Extremity," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63 (July 1992): 17-29; Neal J. Roese and James M. Olson, "Attitude Importance as a Function of Repeated Attitude Expression," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 30 (January 1994): 39-51. See also, James M. Olson and Mark P. Zanna, "Attitudes and Attitude Change," Annual Review of Psychology 44 (1993): 117-54. For a review of the literature, see Jon A. Krosnick, David S. Boninger, Yao C. Chuang, Matthew K. Berent, and Catherine G. Carnot, "Attitude Strength: One Construct or Many Related Constructs?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65 (December 1993): 1132-1151. See, also, Jon A. Krosnick and Howard Schuman, "Attitude Intensity, Importance and Certainty and Susceptibility to Response Effects," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54 (June 1988): 940-52.
25. Martha C. Powell and Russell H. Fazio, "Attitude Accessibility as a Function of Repeated Attitudinal Expression," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 10 (March 1984): 139-48; Jon A. Krosnick, "Attitude Importance and Attitude Accessibility," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 15 (September 1989): 297-308; James W. Downing, Charles M. Judd, and Markus Brauer, "Effects of Repeated Expressions on Attitude Extremity," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63 (July 1992): 17-29; Neal J. Roese and James M. Olson, "Attitude Importance as a Function of Repeated Attitude Expression," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 30 (January 1994): 39-51. See also, James M. Olson and Mark P. Zanna, "Attitudes and Attitude Change," Annual Review of Psychology 44 (1993): 117-54. For a review of the literature, see Jon A. Krosnick, David S. Boninger, Yao C. Chuang, Matthew K. Berent, and Catherine G. Carnot, "Attitude Strength: One Construct or Many Related Constructs?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65 (December 1993): 1132-1151. See, also, Jon A. Krosnick and Howard Schuman, "Attitude Intensity, Importance and Certainty and Susceptibility to Response Effects," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54 (June 1988): 940-52.
26. Martha C. Powell and Russell H. Fazio, "Attitude Accessibility as a Function of Repeated Attitudinal Expression," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 10 (March 1984): 139-48; Jon A. Krosnick, "Attitude Importance and Attitude Accessibility," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 15 (September 1989): 297-308; James W. Downing, Charles M. Judd, and Markus Brauer, "Effects of Repeated Expressions on Attitude Extremity," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63 (July 1992): 17-29; Neal J. Roese and James M. Olson, "Attitude Importance as a Function of Repeated Attitude Expression," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 30 (January 1994): 39-51. See also, James M. Olson and Mark P. Zanna, "Attitudes and Attitude Change," Annual Review of Psychology 44 (1993): 117-54. For a review of the literature, see Jon A. Krosnick, David S. Boninger, Yao C. Chuang, Matthew K. Berent, and Catherine G. Carnot, "Attitude Strength: One Construct or Many Related Constructs?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65 (December 1993): 1132-1151. See, also, Jon A. Krosnick and Howard Schuman, "Attitude Intensity, Importance and Certainty and Susceptibility to Response Effects," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54 (June 1988): 940-52.
27. Martha C. Powell and Russell H. Fazio, "Attitude Accessibility as a Function of Repeated Attitudinal Expression," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 10 (March 1984): 139-48; Jon A. Krosnick, "Attitude Importance and Attitude Accessibility," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 15 (September 1989): 297-308; James W. Downing, Charles M. Judd, and Markus Brauer, "Effects of Repeated Expressions on Attitude Extremity," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63 (July 1992): 17-29; Neal J. Roese and James M. Olson, "Attitude Importance as a Function of Repeated Attitude Expression," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 30 (January 1994): 39-51. See also, James M. Olson and Mark P. Zanna, "Attitudes and Attitude Change," Annual Review of Psychology 44 (1993): 117-54. For a review of the literature, see Jon A. Krosnick, David S. Boninger, Yao C. Chuang, Matthew K. Berent, and Catherine G. Carnot, "Attitude Strength: One Construct or Many Related Constructs?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65 (December 1993): 1132-1151. See, also, Jon A. Krosnick and Howard Schuman, "Attitude Intensity, Importance and Certainty and Susceptibility to Response Effects," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54 (June 1988): 940-52.
28. Martha C. Powell and Russell H. Fazio, "Attitude Accessibility as a Function of Repeated Attitudinal Expression," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 10 (March 1984): 139-48; Jon A. Krosnick, "Attitude Importance and Attitude Accessibility," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 15 (September 1989): 297-308; James W. Downing, Charles M. Judd, and Markus Brauer, "Effects of Repeated Expressions on Attitude Extremity," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63 (July 1992): 17-29; Neal J. Roese and James M. Olson, "Attitude Importance as a Function of Repeated Attitude Expression," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 30 (January 1994): 39-51. See also, James M. Olson and Mark P. Zanna, "Attitudes and Attitude Change," Annual Review of Psychology 44 (1993): 117-54. For a review of the literature, see Jon A. Krosnick, David S. Boninger, Yao C. Chuang, Matthew K. Berent, and Catherine G. Carnot, "Attitude Strength: One Construct or Many Related Constructs?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65 (December 1993): 1132-1151. See, also, Jon A. Krosnick and Howard Schuman, "Attitude Intensity, Importance and Certainty and Susceptibility to Response Effects," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54 (June 1988): 940-52.
29. Krosnick et al., "Attitude Strength." See also, Alice H. Eagly and Shelly Chaiken, eds. The Psychology of Attitudes (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich: Fort Worth, 1993); David S. Boninger, Jon A. Krosnick, and Matthew K. Berent, "Origins of Attitude Importance: Self-Interest, Social Identification, and Value Relevance," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68 (January 1995): 61-80; David Raden, "Strength-Related Attitude Dimensions," Social Psychology Quarterly 48 (December 1985): 312-30.
30. Krosnick et al., "Attitude Strength." See also, Alice H. Eagly and Shelly Chaiken, eds. The Psychology of Attitudes (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich: Fort Worth, 1993); David S. Boninger, Jon A. Krosnick, and Matthew K. Berent, "Origins of Attitude Importance: Self-Interest, Social Identification, and Value Relevance," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68 (January 1995): 61-80; David Raden, "Strength-Related Attitude Dimensions," Social Psychology Quarterly 48 (December 1985): 312-30.
31. Krosnick et al., "Attitude Strength." See also, Alice H. Eagly and Shelly Chaiken, eds. The Psychology of Attitudes (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich: Fort Worth, 1993); David S. Boninger, Jon A. Krosnick, and Matthew K. Berent, "Origins of Attitude Importance: Self-Interest, Social Identification, and Value Relevance," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68 (January 1995): 61-80; David Raden, "Strength-Related Attitude Dimensions," Social Psychology Quarterly 48 (December 1985): 312-30.
32. Krosnick et al., "Attitude Strength." See also, Alice H. Eagly and Shelly Chaiken, eds. The Psychology of Attitudes (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich: Fort Worth, 1993); David S. Boninger, Jon A. Krosnick, and Matthew K. Berent, "Origins of Attitude Importance: Self-Interest, Social Identification, and Value Relevance," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68 (January 1995): 61-80; David Raden, "Strength-Related Attitude Dimensions," Social Psychology Quarterly 48 (December 1985): 312-30.
33. Lasorsa, "Political Outspokenness."
34. Salmon and Neuwirth, "Perceptions of Opinion 'Climates.'"
35. Baldassare and Katz, "Using the 'L-Word' in Public."
36. Noelle-Neumann, "Spiral of Silence: A Response," in Political Communication Yearbook 1984, 66-94; Price and Allen, "Opinion Spirals, Silent and Otherwise"; Salmon and Kline, "The Spiral of Silence Ten Years Later: An Examination and Evaluation."
37. Noelle-Neumann, "Spiral of Silence: A Response," in Political Communication Yearbook 1984, 66-94; Price and Allen, "Opinion Spirals, Silent and Otherwise"; Salmon and Kline, "The Spiral of Silence Ten Years Later: An Examination and Evaluation."
38. Noelle-Neumann, "Spiral of Silence: A Response," in Political Communication Yearbook 1984, 66-94; Price and Allen, "Opinion Spirals, Silent and Otherwise"; Salmon and Kline, "The Spiral of Silence Ten Years Later: An Examination and Evaluation."
39. Krosnick, "Attitude Importance and Attitude Accessibility";
40. Jon A. Krosnick, "The Role of Attitude Importance in Social Evaluations: A Study of Policy Preferences, Presidential Candidate Evaluations, and Voting Behavior," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55 (August 1988): 196-210;
41. Jon A. Krosnick, "Attitude Importance and Attitude Change," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 24 (May 1988):240-55;
42. Howard Schuman and Stanley Presser, Questions and Answers in Attitude Surveys: Experiments on Question Form, Wording and Context (NY: Academic Press, 1981).
43. Eagly and Chaiken, Attitude Psychology, 606-07; E. Brent and D. Granberg, "Subjective Agreement with the Presidential Candidates of 1976 and 1980," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 42 (March 1982):393-403; Moscovici, "Social Influence and Conformity"; Serge Moscovici and Marisa Zavalloni, "The Group as a Polarizer of Attitudes," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 12 (June 1969): 125-35.
44. Eagly and Chaiken, Attitude Psychology, 606-07; E. Brent and D. Granberg, "Subjective Agreement with the Presidential Candidates of 1976 and 1980," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 42 (March 1982):393-403; Moscovici, "Social Influence and Conformity"; Serge Moscovici and Marisa Zavalloni, "The Group as a Polarizer of Attitudes," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 12 (June 1969): 125-35.
45. Eagly and Chaiken, Attitude Psychology, 606-07; E. Brent and D. Granberg, "Subjective Agreement with the Presidential Candidates of 1976 and 1980," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 42 (March 1982):393-403; Moscovici, "Social Influence and Conformity"; Serge Moscovici and Marisa Zavalloni, "The Group as a Polarizer of Attitudes," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 12 (June 1969): 125-35.
46. Eagly and Chaiken, Attitude Psychology, 606-07; E. Brent and D. Granberg, "Subjective Agreement with the Presidential Candidates of 1976 and 1980," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 42 (March 1982):393-403; Moscovici, "Social Influence and Conformity"; Serge Moscovici and Marisa Zavalloni, "The Group as a Polarizer of Attitudes," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 12 (June 1969): 125-35.
47. Fazio and Zanna, "Attitudinal Qualities Relating to the Strength of the Attitude-Behavior Relationship," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 14 (July 1978): 398-408.
48. Krosnick et al., "Attitude Strength."
49. Jon A. Krosnick and Laura A. Brannon, "The Impact of the Gulf War on the Ingredients of Presidential Evaluations: Multidimensional Effects of Political Involvement," American Political Science Review 87 (December 1993): 963-75; Lasorsa, "Political Outspokenness"; Hyeon Cheol Choi and Samuel L. Becker, "Media Use, Issue/Image Discriminations, and Voting," Communication Research 14 (June 1987): 267-91.
50. Jon A. Krosnick and Laura A. Brannon, "The Impact of the Gulf War on the Ingredients of Presidential Evaluations: Multidimensional Effects of Political Involvement," American Political Science Review 87 (December 1993): 963-75; Lasorsa, "Political Outspokenness"; Hyeon Cheol Choi and Samuel L. Becker, "Media Use, Issue/Image Discriminations, and Voting," Communication Research 14 (June 1987): 267-91.
51. Jon A. Krosnick and Laura A. Brannon, "The Impact of the Gulf War on the Ingredients of Presidential Evaluations: Multidimensional Effects of Political Involvement," American Political Science Review 87 (December 1993): 963-75; Lasorsa, "Political Outspokenness"; Hyeon Cheol Choi and Samuel L. Becker, "Media Use, Issue/Image Discriminations, and Voting," Communication Research 14 (June 1987): 267-91.
52. See note 15. See also, Hugh M. Culbertson and Guido H. Stempel, "How Media Use and Reliance Affect Knowledge Level," Communication Research 13 (October 1986): 579-602; Jack M. McLeod and Daniel G. McDonald, "Beyond Simple Exposure: Media Orientations and Their Impact on Political Processes," Communication Research 12 (January 1985): 3-33.
53. See note 15. See also, Hugh M. Culbertson and Guido H. Stempel, "How Media Use and Reliance Affect Knowledge Level," Communication Research 13 (October 1986): 579-602; Jack M. McLeod and Daniel G. McDonald, "Beyond Simple Exposure: Media Orientations and Their Impact on Political Processes," Communication Research 12 (January 1985): 3-33.
54. Baldassare and Katz, "Who Will Talk to Reporters? Biases in Survey Reinterviews"; Noelle-Neumann, The Spiral of Silence, Public Opinion - Our Social Skin.
55. Baldassare and Katz, "Who Will Talk to Reporters? Biases in Survey Reinterviews"; Noelle-Neumann, The Spiral of Silence, Public Opinion - Our Social Skin.
56. Noelle-Neumann, "The Theory of Public Opinion: The Concept of the Spiral of Silence," in Communication Yearbook, 274.
57. Baldassare and Katz, "Who Will Talk to Reporters?"
58. Phillip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice N. Olien, "Mass Media Flow and Differential Growth in Knowledge," Public Opinion Quarterly 34 (summer 1970):159-70; B. K. L. Genova and Bradley S. Greenberg, "Interest in News and the Knowledge Gap," Public Opinion Quarterly 43 (spring 1979): 79-91; Salmon and Neuwirth, "Perceptions of Opinion 'Climates.'"
59. Phillip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice N. Olien, "Mass Media Flow and Differential Growth in Knowledge," Public Opinion Quarterly 34 (summer 1970):159-70; B. K. L. Genova and Bradley S. Greenberg, "Interest in News and the Knowledge Gap," Public Opinion Quarterly 43 (spring 1979): 79-91; Salmon and Neuwirth, "Perceptions of Opinion 'Climates.'"