Asia and the International Press: The Political Significance of Expanding Markets

Democratization

Volumn 5, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 125-154

  Rodan, Garry ^a  

^a MURDOCH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0008684957     PISSN: 13510347     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13510349808403562     Document Type: Article

References (85)

1. Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner, 'Introduction', in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner (eds.), The Global Resurgance of Democracy (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), pp.ix-xxvi; Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman, OK and London: University of Oklahoma, 1991).
2. Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner, 'Introduction', in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner (eds.), The Global Resurgance of Democracy (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), pp.ix-xxvi; Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman, OK and London: University of Oklahoma, 1991).
3. Kinichi Ohmae, The Borderless World (London: Collins, 1990); Christopher Lingle, Singapore's Authoritarian Capitalism (Barcelona: Edicions Sirocco, S.L. and Fairfax, VA: The Locke Institute).
4. Kinichi Ohmae, The Borderless World (London: Collins, 1990); Christopher Lingle, Singapore's Authoritarian Capitalism (Barcelona: Edicions Sirocco, S.L. and Fairfax, VA: The Locke Institute).
5. International Federation of Newspaper Publishers, World Press Trends (Paris: FIEJ, 1996), pp. 103-4, 129-30.
6. The regional figure for the Far Eastern Economic Review (FEER), for example, has risen from 65,612 in 1987 to 81,443 in 1995, despite being effectively shut out of the Singapore market for much of this time. Circulation for Asiaweek has jumped from around 80,000 in 1990 to 100,000 by 1995. The AWSJ figure has risen from 35,865 in 1987 to 50,356 in 1995. The AWSJ also reported dramatic circulation growth for the second half of 1995 of 83 per cent for Thailand, 44 per cent for China, 18 per cent for Korea and 12 per cent for Indonesia compared with the same period for 1994. This compares with a global average rate of increase of nine per cent for the AWSJ. See Janine Stein, 'Asian Media Discover Big Distribution Gains; TV, Print Media Stay Healthy; Local partners Key to Future Roll-Outs', Crane Communications Inc. Advertising Age, 12 Feb. 1996, p. 112.
7. This has involved the introduction of dedicated Asian or international editions in some cases, and a general bolstering of the number of correspondents based in the region.
8. International Federation of Newspaper Publishers, pp.103-4, 129-30. This figure includes revenue from dailies, weeklies and Sunday papers.
9. In the case of Dow Jones News Service, as recently as 1993, for example, there were only 40 reporters and editors, and 11 bureaux in the Asia-Pacific region. However, by early 1997 this had expanded to 158 staff and 21 bureaux. Bloomberg's total Asian reporting staff comprised of just five editors in the one bureau in Tokyo in 1991, and a few stringers. By early 1997, staff levels escalated to 104 reporters and editors in 16 bureaus in Asia. Reuters has opened 14 new bureaus in Asia and the editorial staff in the region has risen from 282 in 1990 to 401 in 1997.
10. Reuters, for example, has operated in Singapore for decades with just a couple of minor skirmishes with the sensitive Singapore authorities.
11. Francis T. Seow, The Media Enthralled: Singapore Revisited (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1998).
12. One of the first publications to be subjected to pressure was Newsweek. In 1971, various executives and staff of Newsweek were imprisoned following a front page photograph of Mao Zedong which Lee seemed to consider unhelpful for his designs to firm up political support amongst Singapore's ethnic Chinese community. See John A. Lent, 'Lee Kuan Yew and the Singapore Media: Protecting the People', Index on Censorship, Vol.4, No.3 (1975), pp.7-16. Three years later, another freelance journalist, Pang Cheng Lian, writing this time for Newsweek, was convicted of contempt of court for an article alleging that Singapore courts were not independent but biased in the government's favour.
13. In 1971, the government charged that FEER freelance journalist Anthony Polski, in assisting Amnesty International compile a report on the treatment of political prisoners in Singapore, was 'acting outside his duties as a journalist' (see 'Singapore Expels American Newsman', New York Times, 4 June 1971, p.3). Thereafter there were periodic clashes between FEER editor Derek Davies and Lee Kuan Yew and incidents involving journalists Ho Kwon Ping and Arun Senkuttuvan revolving around similar government concerns.
14. One significant incident in this period was the government's refusal to renew the work permit of Patrick Smith of the FEER as a result of an article in 1982 about the use of the ISA against political opponents.
15. The action was taken by Lee Kuan Yew who contended that the article implied executive control over the judiciary. The AWSJ, charged with criminal contempt, pleaded guilty.
16. Nancy Batterman, 'Singapore's Newspaper and Printing Presses (Amendment) Act 1986: A Bad News Bear?' Lawasia (1987), pp.35-6. Criticism about this from Singapore Law Society President Francis Seow was not tolerated by the government. It earned the Law Society and Seow a stern rebuke and a reminder that organizations in Singapore not registered specifically for political activities are required to abstain from political comment.
17. 'Gazetting' refers to the publication in the government Gazette, by order of the Minister, of a declaration that a newspaper has engaged in the domestic politics of Singapore. Any, or all, sales or distribution in Singapore of a 'gazetted' newspaper can be curtailed.
18. The amendment did not stipulate that reproduction required the publisher's permission.
19. Arising out of this article, Lee Kuan Yew commenced legal action in January 1988 against the journalist, editor, publisher and printer responsible, seeking damages for libel. In Nov. 1989, the Singapore High Court awarded Lee Kuan Yew S$230,000 in damages.
20. The immediate past revealed an exceptional capacity to achieve this too. In 1986 alone, the AWSJ 'published 13 letters from Singapore government officials, comprising just under half of all the space devoted to letters from officials of all other governments combined'. Dow Jones and Co., Inc., Lee Kuan Yew vs The News, A History (New York: Dow Jones & Co., Inc., 1990), p.14.
21. Quoted in Dow Jones & Co., p.16.
22. Those affected by these actions included John Berthelsen and Raphael Pura of AWSJ, Rodney Tasker, Nigel Holloway, N. Balakrishnan, Carl Goldstein and Jonathan Freidland of PEER, and AP-Dow Jones correspondents Matthew Geiger and Simon Elegant.
23. Lee sued for libel as a result of the 7 Oct. article in the FEER, and was awarded a judgement in 1989. Dow Jones then appealed and Lee, in turn, cross appealed. The President of Dow Jones, Peter Kann, subsequently issued a statement which contended the judgement was unwarranted. Lee interpreted this as an accusation that the Prime Minister had exerted improper influence over the trial judge. He thus filed three more libel suits against Dow Jones in Malaysian and Singaporean courts.
24. This action only resulted in confirmation that the Minister for Communication and Information has the full power to restrict the circulation of any foreign publication the Minister considers to have interfered with Singapore's domestic politics.
25. This provision arose, according to the government, as a consequence of difficulties experienced in serving writs on the AWSJ over a contempt of court action and a defamation suit.
26. 'To Our Readers: Keeping Up With the Customers', Asiaweek (21 Oct. 1988), p. 14.
27. Another such case involved The Economist, which in 1988 had closed its Singapore office, even though it continued to occasionally report on the city-state. An article in June 1993 about the prosecution of five people under the Official Secrets Act aroused a protest from the Singapore government, unhappy with what it regarded as a 'mocking tone' to the account. Although a letter by the Singapore High Commissioner to London was published shortly afterwards, the editing out of one sentence precipitated further protests from Singapore authorities. The Economist subsequently published the original sentence in full, but it failed to publish another letter by the High Commissioner in response to one published by J.B. Jeyaretnam. This resulted in gazetting and circulation restrictions of 3,500 copies per week in August and the requirement of a US$125,000 bond as well as the appointment of a local representative to accept documents in the event of any future legal actions. The Economist published the letter in the next edition and in January of the subsequent year it was degazetted and circulation limits were lifted.
28. 'Full Court Press', New York Times (31 March 1991), p.9.
29. See 'Sense of Responsibility Must Follow Power of Press: BG Yeo', Straits Times Weekly Edition (14 Aug. 1993), p.13.
30. From Sept. 1989, there had been no correspondent based in Singapore following the denial of a visa for the FEER's N. Balakrishnan.
31. Chris Merritt, 'Singapore Law in Time Capsule, says Kirby', Australian Financial Review (9 Feb. 1995), p.2.
32. Lingle was fined S$10,000, Richardson S$5,000, publisher and IHT chief executive Richard McLean S$2,500, and the local distributor and the printer S$1,500 each. Legal costs totalled S$83,876.
33. 'Lee Kuan Yew Wins $70,972 in Libel Case', Asian Wall Street Journal (12-13 April 1996), p.5.
34. Quoted in Colin Climo, 'IHT, Government Forget Their Differences for Trade Conference', Australian Financial Review (27 Sept. 1995), p. 16.
35. Quoted in Richard Harwood, 'Publish and Be Damned - Who Really Decides?', The Washington Post (17 Feb. 1995), p.A25.
36. These observations are based on interviews with reporters conducted in late 1996. At the request of correspondents, the anonymity of interviewees has been maintained throughout this study. In many cases this includes anonymity of organizations. Concern that comments and information supplied in interview could lead to difficulties with authorities was the primary reason for these requests.
37. This interview took place in Kuala Lumpur on 20 Feb. 1997.
38. Based on interview in Dec. 1996.
39. Bloomberg, for example, has increased its Singapore-based reporters from one to six between 1991 and 1996.
40. Dateline: Hong Kong (http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/2365/pind.html)
41. The government's opposition to the Megawati visit was first conveyed in a private meeting between the FCA President and a senior official of the Ministry of Information and the Arts. The position was subsequently confirmed in an official meeting with the FCA committee. The committee was given an indication at that meeting that, should the FCA persist with the invitation, the event might not take place.
42. 'Forum with Indonesian Opposition Leader Cancelled at Singapore Request', Agence France Presse (3 Sept. 1997).
43. 'Dow Jones Taking Up Stake in Asia's First Business News Satellite', Business Times(Singapore) (30 July 1993), p.2.
44. Salil Tripathi, 'If You Can't Beat Them ...', Asia Inc.(March 1994), p.26.
45. Prominent international television networks including the US entertainment and video loan giant Home Box Office, the music channel MTV, sports network ESPN and multimedia Walt Disney are now operating from Singapore.
46. Stephanie Langenfeld, 'How Commerce Conquers Censorship in Southeast Asia', Christian Science Monitor (24 March 1997), p. 19.
47. Jon Vanden Heuvel and Everette E. Dennis, The Unfolding Lotus: East Asia's Changing Media (Columbia University, New York: The Freedom Forum Media Studies Center, 1993), pp. 152-3; Eric Loo, 'Malaysia: Media Tightly Prescribed', Nieman Reports, (1996), p.79.
48. Jon Vanden Heuvel and Everette E. Dennis, The Unfolding Lotus: East Asia's Changing Media (Columbia University, New York: The Freedom Forum Media Studies Center, 1993), pp. 152-3; Eric Loo, 'Malaysia: Media Tightly Prescribed', Nieman Reports, (1996), p.79.
49. '"All knowing" Asiaweek Raises Mahathir's Ire', The Star (Malaysia) (6 March 1997) (http://www.jaring.my/~star).
50. Interview 20 Feb. 1997.
51. 'Ultra-Rich Out to Impoverish Developing Nations, Says Mahathir', The Straits Times (25 Sept. 1997), p.45.
52. 'Anwar Reminds Media of its Role to Public', The Straits Times Interactive (http://www.asial.com.sg/straitstimes/pages/stsin1.html), 6 Nov. 1997.
53. Stephen Vines, '"Unscrupulous" Soros Fires a Broadside at Mahathir the "Menace"', The Independent (22 Sept. 1997), p.18.
54. Through the Soros Foundation and Open Society Institute, both established by Soros, hundreds of millions of dollars are spent annually in over two dozen counmtries - mainly in Eastern Europe, on philanthropic projects, of which most relate to information and media freedom. For an introduction to Soros's philosophy on business and how this relates to information flows, see George Soros (with Byron Wein and Krisztina Koenen), Soros on Soros (New York: John Wiley, 1995).
55. Sheila McNulty, 'Free Speech Suffers as Bourse Plunges', The Asian Wall Street Journal (17 Sept. 1997), p.18.
56. 'Panel to Screen Foreign Reports', The Star (Malaysia) (19 Nov. 1997) (http://www.thestar.mom.my/current/191sc.html)
57. Ian Stewart, 'Malaysia Threatens to Unplug CNN', The Australian (24 Nov.1997), p.5.
58. Ian Stewart, 'Malaysia Muzzles Academics', The Australian (7 Nov. 1997), p.10;
59. 'Malaysia Bans Academics from Commenting on Haze', The Straits Times Interactive (7 Nov. 1997) (http://www.asia1.com.sg/straitstimes/pages/stsin1.html).
60. Zailani Ahmad, 'Hamid: Govt aims to keep Muslims united', The Star (Malaysia) (9 Nov. 1997) (http://www.jaring.my/~star).
61. Hiebert's bail was 250,000 ringgit.
62. Shaila Kosby, 'Court Jails Journalist for Three Months. Judge: Attacks Have Gone Too Far', The Star (Malaysia) (5 Sept. 1997) (http://www.jaring.my/~star).
63. Andrew Neil, Full Disclosure (London: Macmillan, 1996), p.432.
64. The Malaysians launched its MeaSat satellite in 1996, which will carry government-approved television, which Murdoch hopes will include Star TV. Only satellite dishes attuned to MeaSat will be permitted in Malaysia. See William Atkins, 'Satellite TV Transforming Broadcasting', Nieman Reports, Vol.L, No.3 (1996), p.57.
65. 'Press freedom and Hong Kong's future', Asia Times, 7 May 1997, p.8; Alan Knight, 'Hong Kong: The Future Begins', IPI Report, Third Quarter, (1997), p.8.
66. 'Press freedom and Hong Kong's future', Asia Times, 7 May 1997, p.8; Alan Knight, 'Hong Kong: The Future Begins', IPI Report, Third Quarter, (1997), p.8.
67. Elliot Cohen, 'Hong Kong: The Future of Press Freedom', Columbia Journalism Review, May/June (1997), p.48.
68. Quoted in 'World Press Freedom Review', IPI Report (Dec.1996/Jan. 1997), p.42.
69. Quoted in John Shidlovsky, 'Grim Prospects for Hong Kong', Media Studies (Fall, 1996) (http://www.mediastudies.org/peril/schidlovsky.html).
70. Xi Yang was released early in Feb. 1997.
71. Although many local companies have shied away from this mass publication for advertising purposes, Hong Kong Telecom, international investment banks and travel agents have contributed to Apple Daily's, HK$670 million advertising revenue in 1996.
72. Andrew Sherry, 'Core of the Problem: Newspaper's Fate Will Gauge More Than Press Freedom', Far Eastern Economic Review (3 July 1997), p.62.
73. Dateline: Hong Kong (http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/2365/pind.html)
74. Hong Kong Journalists' Association, Freedom of Expression in Hong Kong, 1997 Annual Report (hhht://www.freeway.org.hk/hkja/rept97/).
75. As quoted in John Schidlovsky, 'Hong Kong: As Deadline Nears, Self-Censorship Begins', IPI Report, First Quarter 1997, p.8. Conspicuously absent from discussion was the fact that Tung's shipping company had been bailed out of financial trouble in the 1980s through a US$120 million loan from China.
76. Joseph Kahn, 'China Has No Need to Suppress the Press in Hong Kong Now', Asian Wall Street Journal (21 April 1997), p.1.
77. Philip Bowring, 'Hong Kong's Diverse Media Watchful, Fearful', Nieman Reports (Winter 1995), p.42.
78. Kahn, p.6.
79. As quoted in Orville Schell, 'Self-Censorship in Hong Kong', Media Studies (Fall 1996) (http://www.mediastudies.org/peril/schell.html).
80. 'Hong Kong: The Future of Press Freedom', Columbia Journalism Review (May/June 1997), p.48.
81. Jonathan Fenby, 'For Britons and Americans, the Hong Kong Storyline is Simple: The Place is Going to Go Down the Tube After 1 July', The Observer (20 April 1997), p.30.
82. Jonathan Mirsky, 'The Way We Live Now', Index on Censorship, 1 (1997), p.142.
83. Elliot Cohen, 'Hong Kong: The Future of Press Freedom', Columbia Journal Review, Vol.36, (May/June 1997), p.48.
84. Reporters Sans Frontiers, 1997 Report, (http://www.calvacom.fr/rsf/RSF_VA/Rapp_VA/ Carte_VA/Rapp_VA.html).
85. Jonathan Karp, 'Sleeping with the Enemy', Far Eastern Economic Review (22 June 1995), p.93.