Central Asia: In search of a new political identity

Middle East Journal

Volumn 50, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 210-222

  Lipovsky, Igor P ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0008633208     PISSN: 00263141     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (61)

1. Atatürk, Din ve Laiklik (Religion and Secularism) (Istanbul, 1968); Cetin Altan, Atatürkün sosyal görüsleri (Atatürk's social ideas) (Istanbul, 1965); Mustafa A. Aysan, Ataturkun ekonomi politikasi (Istanbul, 1980). On Kemalist principles, see Lord Kinross, Atatürk: The Rebirth of a Nation (London, 1964); Richard D. Robinson, The First Turkish Republic (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1963).
2. Atatürk, Din ve Laiklik (Religion and Secularism) (Istanbul, 1968); Cetin Altan, Atatürkün sosyal görüsleri (Atatürk's social ideas) (Istanbul, 1965); Mustafa A. Aysan, Ataturkun ekonomi politikasi (Istanbul, 1980). On Kemalist principles, see Lord Kinross, Atatürk: The Rebirth of a Nation (London, 1964); Richard D. Robinson, The First Turkish Republic (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1963).
3. Atatürk, Din ve Laiklik (Religion and Secularism) (Istanbul, 1968); Cetin Altan, Atatürkün sosyal görüsleri (Atatürk's social ideas) (Istanbul, 1965); Mustafa A. Aysan, Ataturkun ekonomi politikasi (Istanbul, 1980). On Kemalist principles, see Lord Kinross, Atatürk: The Rebirth of a Nation (London, 1964); Richard D. Robinson, The First Turkish Republic (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1963).
4. Atatürk, Din ve Laiklik (Religion and Secularism) (Istanbul, 1968); Cetin Altan, Atatürkün sosyal görüsleri (Atatürk's social ideas) (Istanbul, 1965); Mustafa A. Aysan, Ataturkun ekonomi politikasi (Istanbul, 1980). On Kemalist principles, see Lord Kinross, Atatürk: The Rebirth of a Nation (London, 1964); Richard D. Robinson, The First Turkish Republic (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1963).
5. Atatürk, Din ve Laiklik (Religion and Secularism) (Istanbul, 1968); Cetin Altan, Atatürkün sosyal görüsleri (Atatürk's social ideas) (Istanbul, 1965); Mustafa A. Aysan, Ataturkun ekonomi politikasi (Istanbul, 1980). On Kemalist principles, see Lord Kinross, Atatürk: The Rebirth of a Nation (London, 1964); Richard D. Robinson, The First Turkish Republic (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1963).
6. On the position of Mustafa Kemal toward Western powers, see H. O. Bekata, Dis Politika ve Turkiye (Turkey's Foreign Policy) (Ankara, 1975); Jacob Landau, ed., Atatürk and the Modernisation of Turkey (Leiden; E. J. Brill, 1984); Harry N. Howard, The Partition of Turkey: A Diplomatic History, 1913-1923 (New York: H. Fertig, 1966).
7. On the position of Mustafa Kemal toward Western powers, see H. O. Bekata, Dis Politika ve Turkiye (Turkey's Foreign Policy) (Ankara, 1975); Jacob Landau, ed., Atatürk and the Modernisation of Turkey (Leiden; E. J. Brill, 1984); Harry N. Howard, The Partition of Turkey: A Diplomatic History, 1913-1923 (New York: H. Fertig, 1966).
8. On the position of Mustafa Kemal toward Western powers, see H. O. Bekata, Dis Politika ve Turkiye (Turkey's Foreign Policy) (Ankara, 1975); Jacob Landau, ed., Atatürk and the Modernisation of Turkey (Leiden; E. J. Brill, 1984); Harry N. Howard, The Partition of Turkey: A Diplomatic History, 1913-1923 (New York: H. Fertig, 1966).
9. On the economic policies of Özal. see: The Turkish Economy, 1980 (Istanbul: Istanbul Chamber of Commerce, 1980); Emin Colasan, 12 Eylül: Özal economisinin perde arkasi (12 September: Inside Özal's Economy) (Istanbul, 1984); Zvi Y. Hershlag, The Contemporary Turkish Economy (London: Routledge, 1988).
10. On the economic policies of Özal. see: The Turkish Economy, 1980 (Istanbul: Istanbul Chamber of Commerce, 1980); Emin Colasan, 12 Eylül: Özal economisinin perde arkasi (12 September: Inside Özal's Economy) (Istanbul, 1984); Zvi Y. Hershlag, The Contemporary Turkish Economy (London: Routledge, 1988).
11. On the economic policies of Özal. see: The Turkish Economy, 1980 (Istanbul: Istanbul Chamber of Commerce, 1980); Emin Colasan, 12 Eylül: Özal economisinin perde arkasi (12 September: Inside Özal's Economy) (Istanbul, 1984); Zvi Y. Hershlag, The Contemporary Turkish Economy (London: Routledge, 1988).
12. See Alexandre Bennigsen and Chantal Lemercier-Quelquejay, Sultan Galiev, Le père de la révolution tiers-mondiste (the Father of the Third World's Revolution) (Paris, 1986); Alexandre A. Bennigsen and S. Endes Wimbush, Muslim National Communism in the Soviet Union (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979); and Y.S. Sharapov, Natsionalniye sektsii RKP(Bolshevik) (National Sections of the Russian Communist Party) (Kazan, 1967).
13. See Alexandre Bennigsen and Chantal Lemercier-Quelquejay, Sultan Galiev, Le père de la révolution tiers-mondiste (the Father of the Third World's Revolution) (Paris, 1986); Alexandre A. Bennigsen and S. Endes Wimbush, Muslim National Communism in the Soviet Union (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979); and Y.S. Sharapov, Natsionalniye sektsii RKP(Bolshevik) (National Sections of the Russian Communist Party) (Kazan, 1967).
14. See Alexandre Bennigsen and Chantal Lemercier-Quelquejay, Sultan Galiev, Le père de la révolution tiers-mondiste (the Father of the Third World's Revolution) (Paris, 1986); Alexandre A. Bennigsen and S. Endes Wimbush, Muslim National Communism in the Soviet Union (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979); and Y.S. Sharapov, Natsionalniye sektsii RKP(Bolshevik) (National Sections of the Russian Communist Party) (Kazan, 1967).
15. In the 1890s and during the first two decades of the 20th century, Central Asia instituted the educational reform movement known as the Usul-i Jadid (New Method). The leaders of the Jadids, as they called themselves, included Munawwar Quri in Tashkent, Mahmud Khoja Behbudi in Samarkand, Sadriddin 'Ayni in Bukhara, and 'Ashur 'Ali Zahiri in Kokand. The Jadids advocated the introduction of a modern educational system as a prerequisite for the social change and cultural revitalization of Central Asian indigenous peoples. After 1908, the Jadids, influenced by the Young Turks of the Ottoman Empire, became known as the Young Bukharans and Young Khivans. They worked for a program of radical institutional change in the ramshackle governments of the Bukhara and Khiva khanates. After the establishment of Soviet power in Central Asia, the majority of the Young Bukharans and Young Khivans were oppressed. See Serge A. Zenkovsky, Pan-Turkism and Islam in Russia (1960); and Helene Carrere D'Encausse. Islam and the Russian Empire: Reform and Revolution in Central Asia (London: I.B. Tauris, 1988).
16. In the 1890s and during the first two decades of the 20th century, Central Asia instituted the educational reform movement known as the Usul-i Jadid (New Method). The leaders of the Jadids, as they called themselves, included Munawwar Quri in Tashkent, Mahmud Khoja Behbudi in Samarkand, Sadriddin 'Ayni in Bukhara, and 'Ashur 'Ali Zahiri in Kokand. The Jadids advocated the introduction of a modern educational system as a prerequisite for the social change and cultural revitalization of Central Asian indigenous peoples. After 1908, the Jadids, influenced by the Young Turks of the Ottoman Empire, became known as the Young Bukharans and Young Khivans. They worked for a program of radical institutional change in the ramshackle governments of the Bukhara and Khiva khanates. After the establishment of Soviet power in Central Asia, the majority of the Young Bukharans and Young Khivans were oppressed. See Serge A. Zenkovsky, Pan-Turkism and Islam in Russia (1960); and Helene Carrere D'Encausse. Islam and the Russian Empire: Reform and Revolution in Central Asia (London: I.B. Tauris, 1988).
17. On the policies of Inönü from 1961 to 1965, see Clement H. Dodd, Politics and Government in Turkey (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), and Feroz Ahmad, The Turkish Experiment in Democracy, 1950-1975 (London: C. Hurst, 1977).
18. On the policies of Inönü from 1961 to 1965, see Clement H. Dodd, Politics and Government in Turkey (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), and Feroz Ahmad, The Turkish Experiment in Democracy, 1950-1975 (London: C. Hurst, 1977).
19. On the controlled democracy policy of Inönü and the RPP in Turkey in 1945-50, see Kemal H. Karpat, Turkey's Politics: The Transition to a Multi-Party System (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1959); Gotthard Jaschke, Die Turkei in den Jahren, 1942-1951 (Turkey in the Years 1942-1951) (Wiesbaden: Harrassawitz, 1955).
20. On the controlled democracy policy of Inönü and the RPP in Turkey in 1945-50, see Kemal H. Karpat, Turkey's Politics: The Transition to a Multi-Party System (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1959); Gotthard Jaschke, Die Turkei in den Jahren, 1942-1951 (Turkey in the Years 1942-1951) (Wiesbaden: Harrassawitz, 1955).
21. During the 74 years of Soviet rule, Turkic peoples, who were once so close to each other, diverged linguistically, culturally and economically. These changes make impossible the realization of Turkic unity. See, Turkmenskaya Iskra (Ashkhabad), 14 May 1993; Vestnik Kazakhstana, 19 June 1994; ITAR-TASS, 5 April 1995.
22. During the 74 years of Soviet rule, Turkic peoples, who were once so close to each other, diverged linguistically, culturally and economically. These changes make impossible the realization of Turkic unity. See, Turkmenskaya Iskra (Ashkhabad), 14 May 1993; Vestnik Kazakhstana, 19 June 1994; ITAR-TASS, 5 April 1995.
23. During the 74 years of Soviet rule, Turkic peoples, who were once so close to each other, diverged linguistically, culturally and economically. These changes make impossible the realization of Turkic unity. See, Turkmenskaya Iskra (Ashkhabad), 14 May 1993; Vestnik Kazakhstana, 19 June 1994; ITAR-TASS, 5 April 1995.
24. Izvestiya, 12 February 1992.
25. Ibid., 5 February 1992; also, ITAR-TASS, 14 January 1995.
26. Ibid., 5 February 1992; also, ITAR-TASS, 14 January 1995.
27. Pravda Vostoka (Tashkent), 16 August 1993; ITAR-TASS, 29 January 1994. Uzbeks are the most numerous-approximately 22 million - and developed Turkic people in Central Asia culturally and economically. A significant number of Uzbeks live outside of Uzbekistan's boundaries in neighboring Central Asian states, primarily Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. That is why the political orientation of Uzbekistan is important to all Central Asian states.
28. Pravda Vostoka (Tashkent), 16 August 1993; ITAR-TASS, 29 January 1994. Uzbeks are the most numerous-approximately 22 million - and developed Turkic people in Central Asia culturally and economically. A significant number of Uzbeks live outside of Uzbekistan's boundaries in neighboring Central Asian states, primarily Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. That is why the political orientation of Uzbekistan is important to all Central Asian states.
29. Pan-Turkism always troubled Iran, because a significant part of its population is Turkic. Moreover, Iran now competes with Turkey for influence in the Central Asian states. The Turkish model of development, with its secularization and alliance with the West, is unacceptable to Iran. Turkmenistan, the weakest and closest Central Asian state to Iran, tries not to irritate Tehran despite an affinity to Turkey and its model of development.
30. This conclusion is based on personal impressions of the author, who repeatedly visited Central Asia in 1993-95.
31. Kazakhstanskaya Pravda (Alma-Ata), 30 April 1992; also, Vestnik Kazakhstana (Alma-Ata), 11 June 1994.
32. Kazakhstanskaya Pravda (Alma-Ata), 30 April 1992; also, Vestnik Kazakhstana (Alma-Ata), 11 June 1994.
33. Kazakhstanskava Pravda (Alma-Ata), 14 March 1992; also, Sovety Kazakhstana (Alma-Ata), 20 June 1994.
34. Kazakhstanskava Pravda (Alma-Ata), 14 March 1992; also, Sovety Kazakhstana (Alma-Ata), 20 June 1994.
35. Izvestiya, 14 February 1992. After the resignation of Nabiyev as a result of the 1992-93 civil war, the new leader of Tajikistan, Rakhmonov, pursued an even more cautious policy regarding Iran and Afghanistan. It is no secret that the military activities of the Tajik opposition are impossible without the support of Afghanistan.
36. Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 15 May 1992.
37. Ibid., 8 January 1992. The official Sunni clergy of Central Asia who are traditionally connected to the authorities consider the Shi'ite fundamentalism of Iran as more of a threat than the secular character of Turkey.
38. Y. Sharapov, Nationalniye Sektsii RKP(B) (Kazan, 1967).
39. A. Akramov, Bratskaya pomosch russkogo naroda v stroitelstve soizializma v Uzbekislane (The fraternal assistance of the Russian people in the building of socialism in Uzbekistan) (Tashkent, 1982), p. 71.
40. Leninskiy Sbornik 34 (1985), p. 326.
41. "Na istoricheskom rubezhe" (At the historical crossroads) in Shornik o natsional no-gosudarstvennom razmezhevanii Sredney Azii (Collection of articles about the division of Central Asia into national states) (Tashkent: Central Publishers, 1924), p. 22; also, E. Zelkina, Ocherki po agrarvomu voprosu v Sredney Azii (Articles about agrarian problems in Central Asia) (Moscow, 1930), p. 8.
42. "Na istoricheskom rubezhe" (At the historical crossroads) in Shornik o natsional no-gosudarstvennom razmezhevanii Sredney Azii (Collection of articles about the division of Central Asia into national states) (Tashkent: Central Publishers, 1924), p. 22; also, E. Zelkina, Ocherki po agrarvomu voprosu v Sredney Azii (Articles about agrarian problems in Central Asia) (Moscow, 1930), p. 8.
43. Akramov, Bratskaya pomosch russkogo, pp. 71-72; also, M. Nemchenko, Natsionalnoye razmethevaniye Sredney Azii (Division of Central Asia into national states) (Moscow, 1925), p. 63.
44. Akramov, Bratskaya pomosch russkogo, pp. 71-72; also, M. Nemchenko, Natsionalnoye razmethevaniye Sredney Azii (Division of Central Asia into national states) (Moscow, 1925), p. 63.
45. Kh. Salimov, Naselenie Sredney Azii (The population of Central Asia) (Tashkent, 1975), p. 97.
46. Kommunist Tajikistana (Dushanbe), 21 July 1989, p. 1.
47. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, (USSR), Naselenie Sredney Azii (The Population of Central Asia) (Moscow: Nauka, 1985), p. 16; also, Pravda Vostoka (Tashkent), 8 February 1989, p. 2.
48. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, (USSR), Naselenie Sredney Azii (The Population of Central Asia) (Moscow: Nauka, 1985), p. 16; also, Pravda Vostoka (Tashkent), 8 February 1989, p. 2.
49. ITAR-TASS, 10 January 1993; also, St. Peterburgskiye Vedomosti, 16 February 1994. The most extreme Muslim fundamentalists were oppressed by Uzbek president Karimov and Tajik president Rakhmonov. It is in these two Central Asian states that Islamists have the strongest influence and present the greatest threat to the former communist elite.
50. ITAR-TASS, 10 January 1993; also, St. Peterburgskiye Vedomosti, 16 February 1994. The most extreme Muslim fundamentalists were oppressed by Uzbek president Karimov and Tajik president Rakhmonov. It is in these two Central Asian states that Islamists have the strongest influence and present the greatest threat to the former communist elite.
51. Bakinskiy Rabochiy (Baku), 5 May 1992.
52. Turkmenskaya Iskra (Ashkhabad), 9 December, 1991.
53. Etnicheskie protsessy u natsionalnyh grup Sredney Azii i Kazakhstana (Ethnic processes of national groups of Central Asia and Kazakhstan) (Moscow: Nauka, 1980), pp. 29-30; also, Salimov, Naselenie Sredney Azii, pp. 94-95.
54. Etnicheskie protsessy u natsionalnyh grup Sredney Azii i Kazakhstana (Ethnic processes of national groups of Central Asia and Kazakhstan) (Moscow: Nauka, 1980), pp. 29-30; also, Salimov, Naselenie Sredney Azii, pp. 94-95.
55. All Union Universities Scholars, Vsesoyuznaya mejvuzovskaya nauchnaya konferentsiya po problemam narodonaseleniya Sredney Azii (All Union Universities Scholars Conference on the Problem of Population in Central Asia: Proceedings of Conference) (Tashkent: 1971), pp. 29-30.
56. Materialy po vostokovedeniyu (Collection of materials on Oriental Studies), vol. 1 (Frunze, 1984).
57. Nezmisimaya Gazeta, 15 May 1992; also, ITAR-TASS, 9 October 1993 and 17 August 1994.
58. Nezmisimaya Gazeta, 15 May 1992; also, ITAR-TASS, 9 October 1993 and 17 August 1994.
59. B. A. Litvinsky, "Istoricheskiye sudby Vostochnogo Turkestana i Sredney Azii: problemy etnokulturnoy obschnosti" (Historical fate of East Turkestan and Central Asia: Problems of ethnic and cultural unity) in: Vostochniy Turkestan i Srednaya Aziya (East Turkestan and Central Asia) (Moscow: Nauka, 1984), pp. 4-5.
60. Ibid.
61. Ibid., p. 14.