Cultural policies and the Islamic Republic: Cinema and book publication

International Journal of Middle East Studies

Volumn 29, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 509-530

  Siavoshi, Sussan ^a  

^a TRINITY UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0008315121     PISSN: 00207438     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0020743800065181     Document Type: Article

References (114)

1. For an elaboration of the differences among Islamist groups and their discourses prior to and during the revolution, see Ahmad Ashraf and Ali Banuazizi, "The State, Classes, and Modes of Mobilization in the Iranian Revolution," in State, Culture, and Society 1 (Spring 1985): 3-40.
2. For various analyses of factionalism in Iran, see Eric Hoogland, "Social Origins of the Revolutionary Clergy," in proceedings of the conference on The Iranian Revolution and the Islamic Republic (Washington, D.C., 1982), 29-37; and Shahrough Akhavi, "Elite Factionalism in the Islamic Republic of Iran," The Middle East Journal 41 (1987): 181-201. For a more recent and detailed analysis of factionalism in Iran, see Sussan Siavoshi, "Factionalism and Iranian Politics: The Post-Khomeini Experience," Journal of the Society for Iranian Studies 25, 3-4 (1992): 27-49; and Ahmad Ashraf, "Charisma, Theocracy, and Men of Power in Post-revolutionary Iran," in The Politics of Social Transformation in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan, ed. Myron Weiner and Ali Banuazizi (Syracuse, 1994), 101-51.
3. For various analyses of factionalism in Iran, see Eric Hoogland, "Social Origins of the Revolutionary Clergy," in proceedings of the conference on The Iranian Revolution and the Islamic Republic (Washington, D.C., 1982), 29-37; and Shahrough Akhavi, "Elite Factionalism in the Islamic Republic of Iran," The Middle East Journal 41 (1987): 181-201. For a more recent and detailed analysis of factionalism in Iran, see Sussan Siavoshi, "Factionalism and Iranian Politics: The Post-Khomeini Experience," Journal of the Society for Iranian Studies 25, 3-4 (1992): 27-49; and Ahmad Ashraf, "Charisma, Theocracy, and Men of Power in Post-revolutionary Iran," in The Politics of Social Transformation in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan, ed. Myron Weiner and Ali Banuazizi (Syracuse, 1994), 101-51.
4. For various analyses of factionalism in Iran, see Eric Hoogland, "Social Origins of the Revolutionary Clergy," in proceedings of the conference on The Iranian Revolution and the Islamic Republic (Washington, D.C., 1982), 29-37; and Shahrough Akhavi, "Elite Factionalism in the Islamic Republic of Iran," The Middle East Journal 41 (1987): 181-201. For a more recent and detailed analysis of factionalism in Iran, see Sussan Siavoshi, "Factionalism and Iranian Politics: The Post-Khomeini Experience," Journal of the Society for Iranian Studies 25, 3-4 (1992): 27-49; and Ahmad Ashraf, "Charisma, Theocracy, and Men of Power in Post-revolutionary Iran," in The Politics of Social Transformation in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan, ed. Myron Weiner and Ali Banuazizi (Syracuse, 1994), 101-51.
5. For various analyses of factionalism in Iran, see Eric Hoogland, "Social Origins of the Revolutionary Clergy," in proceedings of the conference on The Iranian Revolution and the Islamic Republic (Washington, D.C., 1982), 29-37; and Shahrough Akhavi, "Elite Factionalism in the Islamic Republic of Iran," The Middle East Journal 41 (1987): 181-201. For a more recent and detailed analysis of factionalism in Iran, see Sussan Siavoshi, "Factionalism and Iranian Politics: The Post-Khomeini Experience," Journal of the Society for Iranian Studies 25, 3-4 (1992): 27-49; and Ahmad Ashraf, "Charisma, Theocracy, and Men of Power in Post-revolutionary Iran," in The Politics of Social Transformation in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan, ed. Myron Weiner and Ali Banuazizi (Syracuse, 1994), 101-51.
6. ⊃ullah Mahajirani, one of the deputies of President Rafsanjani. Both these publishers belong to the culturally tolerant factions of the elite.
7. For the latest examples of Khatami's views on freedom and tolerance, including cultural freedom, see the complete text of his platform as the basis of his presidential campaign in Salām, 25 March 1997, 1, 3. In this text, Khatami has put a great deal of emphasis on popular sovereignty, human dignity, rule of law, and a government that is a "servant" of the people and not their "master."
8. For the list of founders of this organization, see the weekly Iran Khabar, 5 April 1995, 5.
9. ⊂at, 9 January 1997, 2.
10. ⊂at, 9 January 1997, 2.
11. ⊃yi Payām-hā va Bayānāt-i Hazrat-i Imām Khomeini (The Message of the Revolution: The Collection of Imam Khomeini's Messages and Speech) (Tehran, 1979), 326.
12. Hamid Algar, trans., Islam and Revolution: Writing and Declarations of Imam Khomeini (Berkeley, 1981), 295-99.
13. In this manuscript, the positions labeled liberal and conservative are defined in the text in relation to the specific context of cultural debates and attitudes within Iran. Despite differences between cultural attitudes in Iran, on the one hand, and those in Western societies on the other, there are certain elements in common that make the use of the two labels meaningful. See the text for the specific characterizations of each position.
14. See, for example, Ahmad Jannati's views, expressed mostly during Friday Prayers, regarding cultural and artistic development in various issues of the Iran Times, such as 12 April 1991, 5; 7 June 1991, 5; and 6 September 1991, 5.
15. See, for example, Ahmad Jannati's views, expressed mostly during Friday Prayers, regarding cultural and artistic development in various issues of the Iran Times, such as 12 April 1991, 5; 7 June 1991, 5; and 6 September 1991, 5.
16. See, for example, Ahmad Jannati's views, expressed mostly during Friday Prayers, regarding cultural and artistic development in various issues of the Iran Times, such as 12 April 1991, 5; 7 June 1991, 5; and 6 September 1991, 5.
17. ⊂ali, a member of the Guardian Council, with regard to censorship of video products and his criticism of the government in its failure to control them, in Iran Times, 18 September 1992, 5.
18. See parliamentary speeches published in "Mashrūh-i Muzākirāt-i Majlis-i Islāmī" (Comprehensive Proceedings of the Islamic Consultative Assembly) (hereafter MMMSI). For example, see before agenda speeches given by Nafisah Fayazbakhsh, MMMSI, session no. 18, 11 July 1992, 18; and Hishmat Musavi, no. 16, 8 July 1992, 19. In both, the speakers urged stricter and more comprehensive enforcement of restrictions of lifestyle and cultural expression and alluded to the desirability of vigilantism in enforcing the laws.
19. On the social support base of different factions within the elite, see Ahmad Ashraf, "Charisma, Theocracy, and Men of Power in Post-revolutionary Iran," in Politics of Social Transformation, 101-51.
20. See, for example, the editorial by Murtiza Nabavi, the chief editor of Risālat. In pp. 1 and 16 of the 25 September 1991 edition, Nabavi argued for the need to fight against "Western art" and for an art that is in accordance with "piety, truth, and God." Also, see an editorial with the same line of argument in the daily Jumhuri-yi Islamī, 25 September 1991, 1-2.
21. See, for example, the editorial by Murtiza Nabavi, the chief editor of Risālat. In pp. 1 and 16 of the 25 September 1991 edition, Nabavi argued for the need to fight against "Western art" and for an art that is in accordance with "piety, truth, and God." Also, see an editorial with the same line of argument in the daily Jumhuri-yi Islamī, 25 September 1991, 1-2.
22. For example, see a letter critical of one of the controversial movies made by Muhsin Makhmalbaf by Nasrabadi in Kayhān, 11 March 1990, 2.
23. See Sayyid Muhammad Khatami, Bīm-i Mūj (The Fear of the Wave) (Tehran, 1993), 188-89.
24. See, for example, Abrār's criticism of the minister of interior's declaration of the ministry's intention to confiscate satellite dishes from the rooftops of private homes as a defensive and ineffectual move: Abrār, 5 April 1994, 2.
25. See, for example, Rafsanjani's interview published in the cultural monthly Adabistān, April-May edition, 1991, 6-9. See also his speech to a group of education officials printed in Salām, 25 July 1993, 1.
26. See, for example, Rafsanjani's interview published in the cultural monthly Adabistān, April-May edition, 1991, 6-9. See also his speech to a group of education officials printed in Salām, 25 July 1993, 1.
27. See a critical editorial titled "Why President Is Silent," Surūsh, 3 August 1991, 4.
28. Quoted by Ali Larijani, the successor to Khatami as the minister of MCIG, in his speech to the Fourth Majlis. See MMMSI, in Rūznāmi-yī Rasmi, no. 13826, 11 August 1992, 26.
29. See Risālat, 16 July 1992, 1, 2, 6. See also Kayhān, 18 July 1992, 1, 2, and 19 July 1992, 18.
30. See Risālat, 16 July 1992, 1, 2, 6. See also Kayhān, 18 July 1992, 1, 2, and 19 July 1992, 18.
31. See Risālat, 16 July 1992, 1, 2, 6. See also Kayhān, 18 July 1992, 1, 2, and 19 July 1992, 18.
32. See in particular Kayhān, 19 July 1992, 18; 21 July 1992, 2; and 23 July 1992, 2.
33. See in particular Kayhān, 19 July 1992, 18; 21 July 1992, 2; and 23 July 1992, 2.
34. See in particular Kayhān, 19 July 1992, 18; 21 July 1992, 2; and 23 July 1992, 2.
35. See Abrār, 19 July 1992, 1-2, and Salām, 20 July 1992, 1-2, and 25 July 1992, 1.
36. See Abrār, 19 July 1992, 1-2, and Salām, 20 July 1992, 1-2, and 25 July 1992, 1.
37. See Abrār, 19 July 1992, 1-2, and Salām, 20 July 1992, 1-2, and 25 July 1992, 1.
38. Larijani has both familial and nonfamilial connections with the Qum Seminary. He is the son of Fazlullah Javadi Amuli and the son-in-law of Ayatullah Muttahari.
39. Ali Larijani eventually replaced Muhammad Hashemi, a member of the rast-i mudirn and the brother of President Rafsanjani, as the head of the Voice and Vision of the Islamic Republic. Mir-Salim, a member of the culturally restrictive organization Islamic Coalitionary Society took charge of the MCIG in 1994.
40. Speech delivered by Fakhriddin Anvar, former deputy minister in charge of cinematic affairs in the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance, at the 1992 Annual Meeting of the Administrators and Film Makers, published in Māhnāmi-yī Sinamā-yī Film, no. 140, April 1993, 38.
41. See Riza Allamihzadih, Sarāb-i Sīnamā-yī Islami-yi Iran (The Mirage of the Islamic Cinema of Iran) (Saarbrucken, 1991), 15-44.
42. See Ghulam Haydari, Filmshinākht-I Iran, vol. 1 (Tehran, 1992).
43. Ibid.
44. For the relevant data on the number of films made by either private sector and the public sector, see Haydari, Filmshinākht-I Īrān.
45. Personal interview with Muhammad Mihdi Dadgu, a leading member of the Assembly of Producers and Distributers of Film, Tehran, summer 1992.
46. For relevant data, see Hamid Naficy, "Islamizing Film Culture in Iran," in Iran: Political Culture in the Islamic Republic, ed. Samih Farsoun and Mehrdad Mashayekhi (London, 1992), 178-82.
47. Personal interview with Fakhriddin Anvar, Tehran, July 1992.
48. See statement made by Muhammad Bihishti, the former director of the Farabi Cinematique Foundation, in Māhnāmi-yī Sīnamā-yī, no. 142, June 1993, 142.
49. See Muhammad Mihdi Dadgu, Nukāti Pirāmūn-i Iqtisād-i Sīnamā-yī Īrān (Considerations about Economic Aspects of Iranian Cinema) (Tehran, 1991), 63-66.
50. Ibid., 66-69.
51. On populism and the Islamic Republic, see Val Moghadam, "Islamic Populism, Class, and Gender in Postrevolutionary Iran," in A Century of Revolution: Social Movements in Iran, ed. John Foran (Minneapolis, 1994), 189-222.
52. Democratization in this context does not refer to liberalization or elimination of censorship but rather to an effort to expand film production to include amateurs, particularly youngsters from the provinces - in other words, to "de-eliticize" the activity.
53. Personal interview with Fakhriddin Anvar, July 1992.
54. The number of movies made in 1983 was 17. Within two years, the annual production increased to 27. See the speech given by Sayyid Ghulam Riza Musavi, director of the Central Council of the Association of Producers and Distributors of Iranian Films, in the "Ninth Session of Reporters and Film Artists," published in Salām, 14 February 1993, 2.
55. For the annual film production during the 1980s, see Haydari, Filmshinākht-I Iran.
56. Personal interview with Dadgu, summer 1992.
57. ⊂d az Inqilāb" (Woman and the "Problematic of Women" in the Postrevolutionary Iranian Cinema), in the quarterly Nīmay Dīgar (Spring 1991), 123-69.
58. See Hamid Naficy, "Women and the Semiotics of Veiling and Vision in Cinema," The American Journal of Semiotics 8, no. 1/2 (1992). 50-51.
59. For a more detailed analysis of female directors and women in cinema, see Hamid Naficy, "Veiled Vision/Powerful Presences: Women in Post-Revolutionary Iranian Cinema," in In The Eye of The Storm: Women in Post-Revolutionary Iran, ed. M. Afkhami and E. Friedl (Syracuse, 1994), 131-50.
60. See the monthly Āyinih, 14 January 1993, 7.
61. See the proceedings from a roundtable discussion in which the participants consisted of the general director of Farabi, two producers, and two film directors; Māhnāme-yī Sīnamā-yī Film, no. 142, June 1993, 30-39.
62. For expressions of anxiety on the part of filmmakers, see Salām, 25 February 1993, 5. See also Māhnāmi-yī Sīnamā-yi Film, no. 142, June 1993, 34.
63. For expressions of anxiety on the part of filmmakers, see Salām, 25 February 1993, 5. See also Māhnāmi-yī Sīnamā-yi Film, no. 142, June 1993, 34.
64. See MMMSI, no. 13826, 11 August 1992, 24. For general criticism of both films and MCIG responsibility, see MMMSI, no. 13826, 13827, 11 and 12 August 1992.
65. See a transcript of a roundtable discussion published in Māhnāmi-yi Sīnamā-yī Film, October 1994, 20-36.
66. As a result of more severe restrictions, the last two movies made by Hatami Kia, Burj-i Mīnū (The Tower of Minu) and Būy-i Pīrāhan-i Yūsif (The Smell of Yusif's Shirt), have been targeted for stricter censorship and have led to the further disillusionment of this filmmaker, who was once an ardent supporter of the regime: see Salām, 6 September 1996, 7.
67. Quoted in Muhsin Makhmalbāf, Gung-i Khābdīdih (Tehran, 1995), 304.
68. See, for example, the editorial in the daily Jumhūrī-yi Islamī, 3 March 1991, 1-2.
69. See, for example, Murtizā Razavi's article published in Abrār, 26 March 1991, 2.
70. Published in Makhmalbāf, Gung-i Khābdīdih, 364.
71. Ibid.
72. Ibid., 364-65.
73. See Māhnāme-yi Sīnamā-yī Film, no. 107, June-July 1991, 16.
74. See Jahangir Amuzegar, Iran's Economy under the Islamic Republic (London, 1993), 73-78.
75. For a survey of books and articles on book publishing in different periods of the prerevolutionary era, see Abdulhussayn Āzarang, "Kand-u Kāvi dār 'llathā va Rishihā-yi Buhrān-i Nashr Kitāb dar Iran" (An Investigation into the Causes and Roots of Book Publication Crisis in Iran), in the monthly Nigah-i Nu, no. 26, 1995, 80-95.
76. The number of journals and newspapers published during 1980-81 was 227, whereas the numbers for 1982-83 and 1983-84 were 66 and 70, respectively. See Sālnāme-yi Āmārī: March 1984-March 1985 (Tehran, 1985), 210.
77. ⊂īyat-i Iqtisādī-yi Nashr dar Īrān" (The Economic Circumstances of Publication in Iran), in the monthly San⊂at-i Chap, no. 114, 1992, 9-14.
78. See the quarterly Kitābnāmih, published by MCIG. Data collected from the Winter 1990 and Spring and Summer 1991 issues.
79. Data collected from various years of Kitābnāmih.
80. Personal interview with Karim Imami, a well-respected author and publisher, summer 1992.
81. See Encyclopaedia Iranica (Costa Mesa, 1992), 5:420, s.v. "Children Literature."
82. Data collected from various issues of Kitābnāmih.
83. Personal interview with Hussayn Salihi, publisher, Ihyā-yi Kitāb press, Tehran, summer 1992.
84. Encyclopaedia Iranica, 5:423.
85. Most publishers consider the high cost of production to be the most dangerous problem for the future of book publication in Iran. See Salām, 28 June 1994, 5.
86. The decline has also affected children's books, a category that is presumably politically safe. See the statistics given in the article "Book from Another View," Salām, 4 November 1996, 5.
87. See Salām, 6 January 1993, 1.
88. ⊂ī, the cultural deputy of MCIG, one of the last officials from the more liberal era of the MCIG, resigned.
89. There were four earlier editions of the book. The last of these four was published in Tehran in 1986.
90. Telephone interview with Bijan Asadipur, fall 1995.
91. Ahmad Mahmūd. Zamīn-i Sūkhtih (Tehran, 1983).
92. Ismā⊃il Fasīh, Zimistān-i Shast-u Du (Tehran, 1987).
93. See MMMSI, no. 13826, 23.
94. See Iran Khabar, 22 February 1996, 2.
95. For example, the government-funded institution of the Center for Strategic Studies publishes a quarterly journal, Rahburd, which contains articles aimed at stretching the limits of legitimate political debates.
96. I deliberately chose the word "tendency" rather than "category" because in my view the concept of "category" conveys a sense of clear boundaries, whereas "tendency" signifies some flexibility.
97. Changīz Pahlavan, "In Search for New Regional Structure," Guftigū, no. 3 (Spring 1994), 27-44.
98. Ibid., 28-29.
99. Ibid. 29.
100. ⊂at (Tehran, 1991), preface, 5.
101. Ibid., 6.
102. Ibid., 7-8.
103. Apparently, Surush has been denied access to television for expressing his views. He has also reportedly been attacked and beaten by a mob while delivering a speech at the University of Isfahan in the past year. More recently, Surush was attacked by a mob at Tehran University while giving a lecture on Mulawi.
104. ⊂rifat-i Dīnī (Tehran, 1991), 5.
105. S. Larijani, Qabż va Bast dar Qabż va Basti Dīgar (Tehran, 1993), 80.
106. Ibid., 81.
107. See, for example, Shahrnush Parsipur's Zanān-i Biḋūn-i Mardān (Women Without Men), in which she explicitly deals with issues of sexuality, women's possession of their own bodies, and romantic love. For a less explicit treatment of these issues, see Qudsi Qazi-Nuri's two short stories "Sib" (Apple) and "Zamzamih" (Murmur), in the collection of stories Kusūf (Eclipse) (Tehran, 1990).
108. See, for example, Shahrnush Parsipur's Zanān-i Biḋūn-i Mardān (Women Without Men), in which she explicitly deals with issues of sexuality, women's possession of their own bodies, and romantic love. For a less explicit treatment of these issues, see Qudsi Qazi-Nuri's two short stories "Sib" (Apple) and "Zamzamih" (Murmur), in the collection of stories Kusūf (Eclipse) (Tehran, 1990).
109. See, for example, the collection of poems by the famous poet Ahmad Shamlu, Bāgh Āyīnih (The Garden of Mirror) (Tehran, 1967). See also Gazi-Nuri's "Bātlāq" (Swamp) and "Bakhtak," in Kusūf.
110. See, for example, the collection of poems by the famous poet Ahmad Shamlu, Bāgh Āyīnih (The Garden of Mirror) (Tehran, 1967). See also Gazi-Nuri's "Bātlāq" (Swamp) and "Bakhtak," in Kusūf.
111. See, for example, Muhsin Makhmalbāf, Bāgh-i Bulūr (The Crystal Garden) (Tehran, 1966).
112. In her novel Khāni-yi Idrīsīha (The Idrisis' House) (Tehran, 1991), Ghazalih Alizadih portrays a dim picture of revolution and revolutionaries. Although the story takes place in Ashqabad, and the revolution is supposedly similar to the Bolshevik Revolution, its message for the Iranian case is quite clear.
113. An interesting and telling case is Muhsin Makhmalbaf's experience. His earlier writings, such as Chashm-i Bīsū (1984) and Huz-i Sultān (1985), were published by the Artistic Center of the Organization of Islamic Propaganda. His later works, however, were published by independent publishing houses.
114. The fate of Saidi Sirjani, and vigilante activities against some other authors, prompted a collective response on the part of 134 authors in the form of an open letter declaring their intention to establish an independent association of writers. The stated reason for such action was to guarantee the individual independence of all professional authors.