Sports tourism and niche markets: Identification and analysis of the growing lesbian and gay sports tourism industry

Journal of Vacation Marketing

Volumn 5, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 31-50

  Pitts, Brenda G ^a  

^a FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Brand loyalty; Gay; Gay Games; Lesbian; Participation travel; Spectatorial travel

Indexed keywords

EID: 0008128559     PISSN: 13567667     EISSN: 14791870     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/135676679900500104     Document Type: Article

References (105)

1. Several definitions of 'sports tourism' exist in the literature. The definition used in this study comes from the author's perspective of sports tourism as influenced by readings in sport tourism but informed by the author's sport marketing and sport management expertise.
2. Although the first marketing research on the lesbian and gay market in the USA produced what some believe to be a skewed and inaccurate picture, it and other marketing studies provide an overall perspective of the market. The Simmons Market Research Bureau 1988 report was the first such study
3. see Simmons Market Research Bureau (1989) '1989 Study of Media and Markets: Publications: Total Audiences', M-1, pp. vii-viii
4. The Simmons data showed that gay men and lesbians were unusually affluent and well educated: average per capita income of $36,800 versus $12,287 for the population as a whole; and 59.6 per cent have college degrees as compared to 18 per cent of the population as a whole. Later research shows results more in line with the average population. A 1993 study reveals that lesbian women earn an average of $15,056 per year compared with $18,341 per year earned by a heterosexual woman and that gay men earned $26,321 per year compared to $28,312 earned by heterosexual men. Corporate America, however, seemed more impressed with the Simmons and Overlooked Opinions surveys
5. see Elliot, S. (1994) 'A Sharper View of Gay Consumers', New York Times, 9th June, p. D1.
6. They received a lot of attention in the press and corporate America responded. For further reading, see also the following
7. Badgett, M. V. L. (1997) 'Beyond Biased Samples: Chal lenging the Myths on the Economic Status of Lesbians and Gay Men', in Gluckman, A. and Reed, B., eds, 'Homo Economics: Capitalism, Community, and Lesbian and Gay Life', Routledge, New York, pp. 66-71
8. Baker, D. (1997) 'A History in Ads: The Growth of the Gay and Lesbian Market', in Gluckman, A. and Reed, B., eds, 'Homo Economics: Capitalism, Community, and Lesbian and Gay Life', Routledge, New York, pp. 11-20
9. Cronin, A. (1993) 'Two Viewfinders, Two Pictures of Gay America', New York Times, 27th June, pp. 4-16
10. Davis, R. A. (1994) 'Marketers Game for Gay Events: From AT&T to Hiram Walker, Sponsors Grasp Importance of Involvement', Advertising Age, 30th May, pp. S1, S5
11. 'Gays Celebrate and Business Tunes In', Fortune, 27th June, p. 14
12. Pitts, B. G. (1997) 'From Leagues of Their Own to An Industry of Their Own: The Emerging Lesbian Sports Industry', Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 109-139
13. Webster, N. C. (1994) 'Playing to Gay Segments Opens Doors to Marketers', Advertising Age, 30th May, p. S6. Simmons Market Research Bureau recently released another survey of lesbian and gay people
14. see: 'Being Wealthy May be Unwise' (1997) The Advocate, 18th March, p. 16.
15. This report shows that 28 per cent of the survey participants' income levels are above $50,000, that 21 per cent exceed $100,000, that 58 per cent hold management positions, and that 48 per cent have college degrees. The Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD) states that the report represents a small and wealthy segment of the population and could reinforce the argument that lesbian and gay people do not need civil rights protection. However, these kinds of numbers fuelled the earlier advertising rush to gain the attention, and consumer loyalty, of this affluent market
16. see Baker (1997) above). Leisure activity and discretionary spending reported including the following: 72 per cent attended live theatre during the past year (compared to 37 per cent heterosexual people), 75 per cent purchased a paperback (compared to 44 per cent heterosexual people) and 15 per cent own a sport-utility vehicle (compared to 7.5 per cent heterosexual people).
17. 'Gays Celebrate and Business Tunes In' (1994) Fortune, 27th June, p. 14.
18. Pitts, B. G. and Graf, D. (1995) 'Sponsorship Recognition During Gay Games IV', paper presented at the annual conference of the North American Society for Sport Management, Athens, GA, June.
19. Pitts, B. G. (1988) 'Beyond the Bars: The Development of Leisure Activity Management in the Lesbian and Gay Population in America', Leisure Information Quarterly, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 4-7
20. Pitts, B. G. (1994) 'Leagues of Their Own: Growth and Development of Lesbian and Gay Sport in America', paper presented at the First Gay Games Congress of Athletics, Arts, and Sciences, New York, 17th June, 1994
21. Pitts, B. G. (1995b) 'Leagues of Their Own: Growth and Development of Sport and Sport Management in the Lesbian and Gay Population in the United States: 1970's-1990's', paper presented at the annual conference of the North American Society for Sport Management, Athens, GA, June
22. Pitts, B. G. (1996) 'Lesbian and Gay People in Sport: Resources for Faculty and Students in Sports Management', paper presented at the 1996 Conference of the North American Society for Sport Management, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada, 28th May-1st June
23. Pitts, B. G. (1997a) 'From Leagues of Their Own to an Industry of Their Own: The Emerging Lesbian Sports Industry', Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 109-139
24. Pitts, B. G. (1997e) 'Part of the Sport Fabric: Strategies for the Inclusion of Lesbian and Gay Sport Studies in Sport Management Curriculum and Research', paper presented at the 1996 Conference of the North American Society for Sport Management, San Antonio, TX, 28th May-1st June.
25. LeBlanc, R. (1996a) 'The Growing Lesbian and Gay Sport and Leisure Industry in New Zealand', doctoral dissertation in preparation, University of Otago, New Zealand
26. LeBlanc R. (1996b) 'The "Pink Dollar" in Sport: The Growing Lesbian and Gay Sport and Leisure Industry in New Zealand', paper presented at the annual conference of the European Society for Sport Management, Montpellier, France, October
27. Pitts, B. G. (1997c) 'Leagues of Our Own: Sports in the Lives of Lesbian and Gay People', manuscript in preparation, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FA
28. Pitts, B. G. (1997f) 'Ten Years Later: An Analysis of the Growth of Sport in the Lesbian and Gay Communities in America', manuscript in preparation, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FA.
29. Pitts (1997e), ref. 5 above.Although Pitts used less than half of the total estimated 25 million lesbian and gay people in the USA, a poll conducted by Out magazine's Out.com Internet site found that 63 per cent of the lesbian and gay population are physically active
30. Although Pitts used less than half of the total estimated 25 million lesbian and gay people in the USA, a poll conducted by Out magazine's Out.com Internet site found that 63 per cent of the lesbian and gay population are physically active
31. see 'GAI-Q Out Take' (1997) in Fitch, J. H. and Out magazine, eds, 'Out's Gay & Lesbian Guide to the Web', Lycos Press, CA, p. 93
32. In a reader poll, The Advocate magazine, a gay and lesbian news magazine, reported that an unbelievable 93.6 per cent of the members of the Log Cabin Republicans, a national gay organisation, travel abroad at least once a year
33. 'The Numbers' (1996) The Advocate, 17th September, p. 16.
34. However, 'abroad' was not defined nor was the purpose of the travel. Therefore, while it can be concluded that a certain percentage of the lesbian and gay population are active and travel, there is no conclusive research
35. Booth, D. and Tatz, C. (1997) 'The Big Picture: Pink Dollars', Inside Sport: Australia's Sporting Magazine, June, p. 22.
36. Pitts (1997a), ref. 5 above.
37. Blinde, E. M. and Taub, D. E. (1992) 'Women Athletes as Falsely Accused Deviants: Managing the Lesbian Stigma', The Sociological Quarterly, Vol. 33, pp. 521-533
38. Cahn, S. K. (1993) 'From the "Muscle Moll" to the "Butch" Ball Player: Mannishness, Lesbianism, and Homophobia in U.S. Women's Sport', Feminist Studies, Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 343-368
39. Griffin, P. (1992) 'Changing the Game: Homophobia, Sexism, and Lesbians in Sport', Quest, Vol. 44, pp. 251-265
40. Griffin, P. (1994) 'Homophobia in Sport: Addressing the Needs of Lesbian and Gay High School Athletes', High School Journal, Vol. 77, Nos. 1 and 2, pp. 80-87
41. Grossman, A. (1992) 'Inclusion, Not Exclusion: Recreation Service Delivery to Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Youth', Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, Vol. 63, No. 4, pp. 45-47
42. Grossman, A. (1993) 'Ten Percent of Those We Teach and They Serve: A Case Study of Incorporating Gay and Lesbian Studies Into the Curriculum', Journal of Leisure Studies and Recreation Education, Vol. 8, pp. 51-60
43. Krane V. (1996) 'Lesbians in Sport: Toward Acknowledgement, Understanding, and Theory', Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Vol. 18, pp. 237-246
44. Krane, V. and Romont, L. (1995) 'Female Athletes' Motives and Experiences During the Gay Games', manuscript submitted for publication
45. Lenskyj, H. (1991) 'Combating Homophobia in Sport and Physical Education', Sociology of Sport Journal, Vol. 8, pp. 61-69
46. Pitts, B. G. (1995a) 'The Gay Games Conference: Benchmark for Scholarly Exploration and Artistic Expression', Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 79-89
47. Zipter, Y. (1988) 'Diamonds are a Dyke's Best Friend', Firebrand Books, New York.
48. The first study involving lesbian and gay people in sport with a sports business emphasis was conducted by Pitts (see ref. 5 above). This study looked at lesbian and gay sports organisations and offered a descriptive analysis of them. It was hoped that the study would spark interest and other research on lesbian and gay people in sport from a sports business perspective. That has not yet happened. To date, to the author's knowledge, no one else is doing research in this area.
49. Porter, M. E. (1985) 'Competitive Advantage', The Free Press, New York.
50. Pitts, B. G. and Stotlar, D. K. (1996) 'Fundamentals of Sport Marketing', Fitness Information Technology, Morgantown, West Virginia.
51. O'Connor, J. J. (1991) 'Gay Images: TV's Mixed Signals', The New York Times, 10th May, p. 1H
52. Singer, B. L. and Deschamps, D. (eds) (1994) 'Gay & Lesbian Stats', The New Press, New York
53. Williamson, A. D. (1993) 'Is This the Right Time to Come Out?', Harvard Business Review, July/August
54. Winfeld, L. and Spielman, S. (1995) 'Straight Talk About Gays in the Workplace', American Management Association, New York.
55. Grossman (1993), ref. 11 above.
56. O'Connor, ibid
57. 'How Big's the Biz?' (1997) USA Today, 14th February, p. 2C.
58. The author served as Co-Director of the Louisville Sports Alliance for nine years. They started offering special travel prices/packages first with a local hotel. The Days Inn downtown held a block of rooms for them and offered the participants a special rate.
59. See athlete registration and participation literature from each of the Gay Games. Additionally, there is increased advertising of special travel rates for participants of Gay Games V to be held in Amsterdam in August 1998. This information is readily available at their Web site athttp://www.dds.nl/~gaygames/.
60. Travel bargains and special rates offered by these organisations can be found by looking at each event's promotional material. Several ofthese organisations are available through their Web sites. Some examples are the International Gay and Lesbian Football Association whose Web site address is Gaysoccer@aol.com; the Gay and Lesbian Tennis Alliance Web site is www.kwic.net/lgb-sports/umbrella/glta.html; the Web site of the International Gay and Lesbian Aquatics organisation is www.kwic.net/igla.html; the Web site of the International Gay and Lesbian Hockey Association is www.qrd.org/QRD/electronic/email/iglha; and the Web site for the Rainbow Boating Club is http://tor-pw1.netcom.ca/~greystok/RBC/html.
61. Chesnut, M. (1997) 'The Gay Vacation Guide', Carol Publishing Group, NJ.
62. Ferrari (1997) 'Ferrari Guides: Women's Travel in Your Pocket', Ferrari International Publishing, Phoenix.
63. Fitch, J. H. (ed) (1997) 'Out's Gay & Lesbian Guide to the Web', Lycos Press, CA.
64. Harrold, M. (1994) 'Corporate Sponsors Join the Games', in Labrecque, L. ed., 'Unity: A Celebration of Gay Games IV and Stonewall', Labrecque Publishing, San Francisco, pp. 98-99.
65. 'Total Budget: DFL 14.4 Million' (1995) Friendship: The Quarterly Newsletter of the 1998 Amsterdam Gay Games, Summer, p. 3.
66. 'Aussie Gov't Supports Gay Games Bid' (1997) Curve, Vol. 7, No. 3, p. 15.
67. Damron Publications advertised its forthcoming 'Damron Amsterdam' book recently in the July 1997 issue of Curve magazine, Vol. 7, No. 3. The advertisement copy stated the following: 'Coming out in December 1997, our new city guide is a gay tourists' Bible for Amsterdam and Gay Games '98', p. 27.
68. Wahine Week, an event offered by a company called Remote Possibilities in Maui, Hawaii, also appears to be targeting an affluent lesbian market. Promotional materials about Wahine Week from the company reveal that prices for the week range from $1,379 per person double occupancy (ppdo) (that is $197 per night per person based on the seven-night rate) to $2,959 ppdo (that is $422 per night per person based on the seven-night rate) for suite accommodations with the best ocean front views. The golf package is extra and prices range from $95 which includes participation in one golf tournament to $300 which includes two rounds of golf, five lessons and the tournament. Therefore, a couple could spend from $2,948 to $6,518, not including sales taxes, airfare, transportation or meals-not exactly a moderately affordable vacation for many lesbian women.
69. Angelo, E. and Bain, J. H. (eds) (1997) 'Odysseus: The International Gay Travel Planner', Odysseus Enterprises, New York.
70. The travel books can be found in most nationwide general market bookstores, such as Barnes and Noble, and in almost all lesbian and gay bookstores in most cities.
71. These publications are available from the organisations and businesses at the following addresses: Kick! is available from the International Gay and Lesbian Football Association, 3704 Kennedy Street, Hyattsville, MD 20782;
72. Friendship is available from Friendship, PO Box 2837, 1000 CV Amsterdam, Holland;
73. Woodswomen is available from Woodswomen Adventure Travel, 25 West Diamond Lake Road, Minneapolis, MN 55419;
74. Women in Motion is available from Women in Motion, PO Box 4533, Oceanside, CA 92052-4533.
75. 'Dinah Shore Tournament Week Women's Events' (1997) in 'Ferrari Guides: Women's Travel in Your Pocket', Ferrari International Publishing, Phoenix, p. 94
76. 'Dinah Shore Weekend, Palm Springs' (1997) in Kolber-Stuart, B. and Alport, D., 'Out & About Gay Travel Guides', Hyperion, New York, p. 355
77. Garrity, J. and Nutt, A. (1996) 'No More Disguises, Muffin Spencer-Devlin Stands Tall in Her Chosen Role: The First LPGA Player to Declare She's Gay', Sports Illustrated, 18th March, pp. 71-73, 77
78. Gold, B. (1996) 'The Dinah Shore Weekend: Women Go for The Green', Our World, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 46-47
79. Reed, S. (1997) 'Someone's on the Fairway with Dinah', in Groff, D., ed., 'Out Facts', Universe Publishing, New York, p. 73
80. Reese, G. (1996a) 'Out of the Closet and Into the Fire', The Advocate, 11th June, pp. 24-30
81. Reese, G. (1996b) 'Unsportsman like Conduct', The Advocate, 20th February, pp. 24-26
82. Roxxie (1993) 'All Dinah Shore Golf', Girljock Magazine, No. 10, pp. 28-32.
83. This information is available in a Skylink full-page advertisement found in the June 1997 issue of The Lesbian News, p. 61.
84. Sky-link advertisements are also found in most other lesbian and gay media including, for example, The Advocate, Out, Girlfriend and Curve. Advertisements are also found in the lesbian and gay travel guide books.
85. This information is available in the Robin Tyler Tours advertisements. The first tour offered is found in the March/April 1997 issue of The Lesbian Connection, p. 7.
86. The other advertisement is found in the July 1997 issue of Curve, p. 23,
87. and in the May/June 1997 issue of Girlfriend, p. 43.
88. Both advertisements inform the reader that there are 50 spaces available in each of the tour packages. Each offers eight nights' accommodation, transfers to and from airport, best available seats for Opening and Closing Ceremonies, tickets available for parties, and a daily Dutch breakfast. The second tour package offered in the five-star hotel adds that Robin Tyler and staff will be escorting you on this tour.
89. Nearly all lesbian and gay media offered guide information to spectators. See, for example, the 14th June, 1994, issue of The Advocate, the June 1994 issue of Deneuve magazine (now titled Curve) and the May 1994 issue of Out.
90. 'Girljock' (1991) editor's note, No. 4, p. i, Girljock Magazine, PO Box 882723, San Francisco, CA 94188-2723.
91. Boutilier, N. (1994) 'The Cafe Ole', Girljock, pp. 13, 34
92. Privett, H. and Vetrano, M. (1993) Girljocks Spectator's Guide to Pro Beach Volleyball Talk', Girljock, No. 11, p. 36
93. Rosenbaum, S. (1994) 'Putting on the Gloves', Girljock, No. 13, pp. 27-29
94. Roxxie (1993) 'All Dinah Shore Golf', Girljock, No. 10, pp. 28-32
95. Vetrano, M. (1994) 'In Search of the Rugby Goddess', Girljock, No. 12, pp. 21-25.
96. For more examples of the travel companies offering travel packages and of the variety of packages, see the lesbian and gay travel guides and magazines available on the market.
97. Pitts (1997b) 'The Gay Games', in Pitts, B. G. (1997) 'Course Reading Packet: Lesbian and Gay People in Sport', unpublished manuscript. Available from the author.
98. Miller, N. (1995) 'Out of the Past: Gay and Lesbian History from 1869 to the Present', Vantage Books, New York
99. Pitts, B. G. (1997d) 'Out Elite Athletes: Pressure & Pride, Marketing & Money', in Pitts, B. G. (1997) 'Course Reading Packet: Lesbian and Gay People in Sport', unpublished manuscript. Available from the author
100. Swift, E. M. (1996) 'On a Roll: The Road to the Top Has Been Anything But Smooth for Rudy Galindo, U.S. Figure Skating's First Openly Gay Champion', Sports Illustrated, 11th March, pp. 52-56.
101. Wulf, S. (1996) 'Heart of the Diver', Time Domestic, Vol. 145, No. 6, pp. 86-89.
102. Rogers, S. G. (1995) 'The Missile: Outrageous, Talented, and Fast Downhill World Champion Missy Giove', Deneuve Magazine (current title is Curve magazine), September/October, pp. 40-43.
103. Hamer, D. (1994) 'Netting the Press: Playing With Martina', in Budge, B. and Hamer, D., eds, 'The Good, The Bad and The Gorgeous', Pandora, San Francisco, pp. 57-77.
104. Marcus, E. (1995) 'Greg Louganis', in Witt, L., Thomas, S. and Marcus, E., eds, 'Out in All Directions: The Almanac of Gay and Lesbian America', Warner Books, New York, pp. 54-55
105. D'Adesky, A. (1995) 'Queen Martina', Out Magazine, pp. 78-79