Coercion and mental health treatment

Denver University Law Review

Volumn 74, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 1145-1168

  Winick, Bruce J ^a,b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI   (United States)

^b CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

^c NEW YORK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; FORENSIC PSYCHIATRY; HUMAN; INFORMED CONSENT; KAIMOWITZ V. DEPARTMENT OF MENTAL HEALTH; LEGAL APPROACH; LEGAL ASPECT; MENTAL HEALTH THERAPIES; MENTAL PATIENT; PATIENT PARTICIPATION; PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION; UNITED STATES;

KAIMOWITZ V. DEPARTMENT OF MENTAL HEALTH; LEGAL APPROACH; MENTAL HEALTH THERAPIES;

COERCION; COMMITMENT OF MENTALLY ILL; HUMANS; INFORMED CONSENT; MENTALLY ILL PERSONS; PATIENT PARTICIPATION; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0007861741     PISSN: 08839409     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (197)

1. See John S. Carroll, Consent to Mental Health Treatment: A Theoretical Analysis of Coercion, Freedom, and Control, 9 BEHAV. SCI. & L. 129, 131-36 (1991) (analyzing types of coercion applied in the mental health process).
2. BRUCE J. WINICK, THERAPEUTIC JURISPRUDENCE APPLIED: ESSAYS ON MENTAL HEALTH LAW 401 (1997).
3. See, e.g., SAMUEL J. BRAKEL ET AL., THE MENTALLY DISABLED AND THE LAW 179-80 (3d ed. 1985); RALPH SLOVENKO, PSYCHIATRY AND THE LAW 202-04 (1973); John Monahan et al., Coercion to Inpatient Treatment: Initial Results and Implications for Assertive Treatment in the Community, in COERCION AND AGGRESSIVE COMMUNITY TREATMENT: A NEW FRONTIER IN MENTAL HEALTH LAW 251 (Deborah L. Dennis & John Monahan eds., 1996) [hereinafter A NEW FRONTIER]; WINICK, supra note 3, at 395-96 n.108; Janet A. Gilboy & John R. Schmidt, "Voluntary" Hospitalization of the Mentally Ill, 66 NW. U. L. REV. 429. 433 (1971); David B. Wexler, The Structure of Civil Commitment: Patterns, Pressures, and Interactions in Mental Health Legislation, 7 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 1, 5 (1983); Bruce J. Winick, Competency to Consent to Voluntary Hospitalization: A Therapeutic Jurisprudence Analysis of Zinermon v. Burch, 14 INT'L J.L. & PSYCHIATRY 169, 209-10 (1991).
4. See, e.g., SAMUEL J. BRAKEL ET AL., THE MENTALLY DISABLED AND THE LAW 179-80 (3d ed. 1985); RALPH SLOVENKO, PSYCHIATRY AND THE LAW 202-04 (1973); John Monahan et al., Coercion to Inpatient Treatment: Initial Results and Implications for Assertive Treatment in the Community, in COERCION AND AGGRESSIVE COMMUNITY TREATMENT: A NEW FRONTIER IN MENTAL HEALTH LAW 251 (Deborah L. Dennis & John Monahan eds., 1996) [hereinafter A NEW FRONTIER]; WINICK, supra note 3, at 395-96 n.108; Janet A. Gilboy & John R. Schmidt, "Voluntary" Hospitalization of the Mentally Ill, 66 NW. U. L. REV. 429. 433 (1971); David B. Wexler, The Structure of Civil Commitment: Patterns, Pressures, and Interactions in Mental Health Legislation, 7 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 1, 5 (1983); Bruce J. Winick, Competency to Consent to Voluntary Hospitalization: A Therapeutic Jurisprudence Analysis of Zinermon v. Burch, 14 INT'L J.L. & PSYCHIATRY 169, 209-10 (1991).
5. See, e.g., SAMUEL J. BRAKEL ET AL., THE MENTALLY DISABLED AND THE LAW 179-80 (3d ed. 1985); RALPH SLOVENKO, PSYCHIATRY AND THE LAW 202-04 (1973); John Monahan et al., Coercion to Inpatient Treatment: Initial Results and Implications for Assertive Treatment in the Community, in COERCION AND AGGRESSIVE COMMUNITY TREATMENT: A NEW FRONTIER IN MENTAL HEALTH LAW 251 (Deborah L. Dennis & John Monahan eds., 1996) [hereinafter A NEW FRONTIER]; WINICK, supra note 3, at 395-96 n.108; Janet A. Gilboy & John R. Schmidt, "Voluntary" Hospitalization of the Mentally Ill, 66 NW. U. L. REV. 429. 433 (1971); David B. Wexler, The Structure of Civil Commitment: Patterns, Pressures, and Interactions in Mental Health Legislation, 7 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 1, 5 (1983); Bruce J. Winick, Competency to Consent to Voluntary Hospitalization: A Therapeutic Jurisprudence Analysis of Zinermon v. Burch, 14 INT'L J.L. & PSYCHIATRY 169, 209-10 (1991).
6. See, e.g., SAMUEL J. BRAKEL ET AL., THE MENTALLY DISABLED AND THE LAW 179-80 (3d ed. 1985); RALPH SLOVENKO, PSYCHIATRY AND THE LAW 202-04 (1973); John Monahan et al., Coercion to Inpatient Treatment: Initial Results and Implications for Assertive Treatment in the Community, in COERCION AND AGGRESSIVE COMMUNITY TREATMENT: A NEW FRONTIER IN MENTAL HEALTH LAW 251 (Deborah L. Dennis & John Monahan eds., 1996) [hereinafter A NEW FRONTIER]; WINICK, supra note 3, at 395-96 n.108; Janet A. Gilboy & John R. Schmidt, "Voluntary" Hospitalization of the Mentally Ill, 66 NW. U. L. REV. 429. 433 (1971); David B. Wexler, The Structure of Civil Commitment: Patterns, Pressures, and Interactions in Mental Health Legislation, 7 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 1, 5 (1983); Bruce J. Winick, Competency to Consent to Voluntary Hospitalization: A Therapeutic Jurisprudence Analysis of Zinermon v. Burch, 14 INT'L J.L. & PSYCHIATRY 169, 209-10 (1991).
7. See, e.g., SAMUEL J. BRAKEL ET AL., THE MENTALLY DISABLED AND THE LAW 179-80 (3d ed. 1985); RALPH SLOVENKO, PSYCHIATRY AND THE LAW 202-04 (1973); John Monahan et al., Coercion to Inpatient Treatment: Initial Results and Implications for Assertive Treatment in the Community, in COERCION AND AGGRESSIVE COMMUNITY TREATMENT: A NEW FRONTIER IN MENTAL HEALTH LAW 251 (Deborah L. Dennis & John Monahan eds., 1996) [hereinafter A NEW FRONTIER]; WINICK, supra note 3, at 395-96 n.108; Janet A. Gilboy & John R. Schmidt, "Voluntary" Hospitalization of the Mentally Ill, 66 NW. U. L. REV. 429. 433 (1971); David B. Wexler, The Structure of Civil Commitment: Patterns, Pressures, and Interactions in Mental Health Legislation, 7 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 1, 5 (1983); Bruce J. Winick, Competency to Consent to Voluntary Hospitalization: A Therapeutic Jurisprudence Analysis of Zinermon v. Burch, 14 INT'L J.L. & PSYCHIATRY 169, 209-10 (1991).
8. See, e.g., SAMUEL J. BRAKEL ET AL., THE MENTALLY DISABLED AND THE LAW 179-80 (3d ed. 1985); RALPH SLOVENKO, PSYCHIATRY AND THE LAW 202-04 (1973); John Monahan et al., Coercion to Inpatient Treatment: Initial Results and Implications for Assertive Treatment in the Community, in COERCION AND AGGRESSIVE COMMUNITY TREATMENT: A NEW FRONTIER IN MENTAL HEALTH LAW 251 (Deborah L. Dennis & John Monahan eds., 1996) [hereinafter A NEW FRONTIER]; WINICK, supra note 3, at 395-96 n.108; Janet A. Gilboy & John R. Schmidt, "Voluntary" Hospitalization of the Mentally Ill, 66 NW. U. L. REV. 429. 433 (1971); David B. Wexler, The Structure of Civil Commitment: Patterns, Pressures, and Interactions in Mental Health Legislation, 7 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 1, 5 (1983); Bruce J. Winick, Competency to Consent to Voluntary Hospitalization: A Therapeutic Jurisprudence Analysis of Zinermon v. Burch, 14 INT'L J.L. & PSYCHIATRY 169, 209-10 (1991).
9. See ALAN WERTHEIMER, COERCION 202-41 (1987); Alan Wertheimer, A Philosophic Examination of Coercion for Mental Health Issues, 11 BEHAV. Sa. & L. 239, 244-46 (1993); Bruce J. Winick, Harnessing the Power of the Bet: Wagering with the Government as a Mechanism for Social and Individual Change, 45 U. MIAMI L. REV. 737 (1991) (discussing behavioral contracting).
10. See ALAN WERTHEIMER, COERCION 202-41 (1987); Alan Wertheimer, A Philosophic Examination of Coercion for Mental Health Issues, 11 BEHAV. Sa. & L. 239, 244-46 (1993); Bruce J. Winick, Harnessing the Power of the Bet: Wagering with the Government as a Mechanism for Social and Individual Change, 45 U. MIAMI L. REV. 737 (1991) (discussing behavioral contracting).
11. See ALAN WERTHEIMER, COERCION 202-41 (1987); Alan Wertheimer, A Philosophic Examination of Coercion for Mental Health Issues, 11 BEHAV. Sa. & L. 239, 244-46 (1993); Bruce J. Winick, Harnessing the Power of the Bet: Wagering with the Government as a Mechanism for Social and Individual Change, 45 U. MIAMI L. REV. 737 (1991) (discussing behavioral contracting).
12. WERTHEIMER, supra note 5, at 206; Monahan et al., supra note 4, at 13; Charles W. Lidz et al., Perceived Coercion in Mental Hospital Admission, 52 ARCHIVES GEN. PSYCHIATRY 1034 (1995); Wertheimer, supra note 5; Charles W. Lidz et al., The Validity of Mental Patients' Accounts of Coercion Related Behaviors in the Hospital Admission Process (1996) (unpublished manuscript on file with the author).
13. WERTHEIMER, supra note 5, at 206; Monahan et al., supra note 4, at 13; Charles W. Lidz et al., Perceived Coercion in Mental Hospital Admission, 52 ARCHIVES GEN. PSYCHIATRY 1034 (1995); Wertheimer, supra note 5; Charles W. Lidz et al., The Validity of Mental Patients' Accounts of Coercion Related Behaviors in the Hospital Admission Process (1996) (unpublished manuscript on file with the author).
14. See David B. Wexler, Reflections on the Regulation of Behavior Modification in Institutional Settings, 17 ARIZ. L. REV. 132, 133 (1975); Bruce J. Winick, Legal Limitations on Correctional Therapy and Research, 65 MINN. L. REV. 331, 391-92 (1981). For a discussion of the normative nature of coercion, see JOSEPH RAZ, THE MORALITY OF FREEDOM 148-57 (1986); WERTHEIMER, supra note 5, at 211-17; Kathleen Sullivan, Unconstitutional Conditions, 102 HARV. L. REV. 1413, 1443, 1446 (1989).
15. See David B. Wexler, Reflections on the Regulation of Behavior Modification in Institutional Settings, 17 ARIZ. L. REV. 132, 133 (1975); Bruce J. Winick, Legal Limitations on Correctional Therapy and Research, 65 MINN. L. REV. 331, 391-92 (1981). For a discussion of the normative nature of coercion, see JOSEPH RAZ, THE MORALITY OF FREEDOM 148-57 (1986); WERTHEIMER, supra note 5, at 211-17; Kathleen Sullivan, Unconstitutional Conditions, 102 HARV. L. REV. 1413, 1443, 1446 (1989).
16. See David B. Wexler, Reflections on the Regulation of Behavior Modification in Institutional Settings, 17 ARIZ. L. REV. 132, 133 (1975); Bruce J. Winick, Legal Limitations on Correctional Therapy and Research, 65 MINN. L. REV. 331, 391-92 (1981). For a discussion of the normative nature of coercion, see JOSEPH RAZ, THE MORALITY OF FREEDOM 148-57 (1986); WERTHEIMER, supra note 5, at 211-17; Kathleen Sullivan, Unconstitutional Conditions, 102 HARV. L. REV. 1413, 1443, 1446 (1989).
17. See David B. Wexler, Reflections on the Regulation of Behavior Modification in Institutional Settings, 17 ARIZ. L. REV. 132, 133 (1975); Bruce J. Winick, Legal Limitations on Correctional Therapy and Research, 65 MINN. L. REV. 331, 391-92 (1981). For a discussion of the normative nature of coercion, see JOSEPH RAZ, THE MORALITY OF FREEDOM 148-57 (1986); WERTHEIMER, supra note 5, at 211-17; Kathleen Sullivan, Unconstitutional Conditions, 102 HARV. L. REV. 1413, 1443, 1446 (1989).
18. Nancy S. Bennett et al., Inclusion, Motivation, and Good Faith: The Morality of Coercion in Mental Hospital Admission, 11 BEHAV. SCI. & L. 295 (1993); Deborah L. Dennis & John Monahan, Introduction, in A NEW FRONTIER, supra note 4, at 3; William P. Gardner et al., Two Scales for Measuring Patients' Perceptions for Coercion During Mental Hospital Admission, 11 BEHAV. SCI. & L. 307 (1993); Gilboy & Schmidt, supra note 4, at 433; Virginia A. Hiday et al., Patient Perceptions of Coercion in Mental Hospital Admission, 20 INT'L J.L. & PSYCHIATRY (1997); John Monahan et al., Coercion and Commitment: Understanding Involuntary Mental Hos-pital Admission, 18 INT'L J.L. & PSYCHIATRY 249 (1995); Monahan, supra note 4, at 23-27; Anne Rogers, Coercion and Voluntary Admission: An Examination of Psychiatric Patient Views, 11 BEHAV. SCI. & L. 259 (1993).
19. Nancy S. Bennett et al., Inclusion, Motivation, and Good Faith: The Morality of Coercion in Mental Hospital Admission, 11 BEHAV. SCI. & L. 295 (1993); Deborah L. Dennis & John Monahan, Introduction, in A NEW FRONTIER, supra note 4, at 3; William P. Gardner et al., Two Scales for Measuring Patients' Perceptions for Coercion During Mental Hospital Admission, 11 BEHAV. SCI. & L. 307 (1993); Gilboy & Schmidt, supra note 4, at 433; Virginia A. Hiday et al., Patient Perceptions of Coercion in Mental Hospital Admission, 20 INT'L J.L. & PSYCHIATRY (1997); John Monahan et al., Coercion and Commitment: Understanding Involuntary Mental Hos-pital Admission, 18 INT'L J.L. & PSYCHIATRY 249 (1995); Monahan, supra note 4, at 23-27; Anne Rogers, Coercion and Voluntary Admission: An Examination of Psychiatric Patient Views, 11 BEHAV. SCI. & L. 259 (1993).
20. Nancy S. Bennett et al., Inclusion, Motivation, and Good Faith: The Morality of Coercion in Mental Hospital Admission, 11 BEHAV. SCI. & L. 295 (1993); Deborah L. Dennis & John Monahan, Introduction, in A NEW FRONTIER, supra note 4, at 3; William P. Gardner et al., Two Scales for Measuring Patients' Perceptions for Coercion During Mental Hospital Admission, 11 BEHAV. SCI. & L. 307 (1993); Gilboy & Schmidt, supra note 4, at 433; Virginia A. Hiday et al., Patient Perceptions of Coercion in Mental Hospital Admission, 20 INT'L J.L. & PSYCHIATRY (1997); John Monahan et al., Coercion and Commitment: Understanding Involuntary Mental Hos-pital Admission, 18 INT'L J.L. & PSYCHIATRY 249 (1995); Monahan, supra note 4, at 23-27; Anne Rogers, Coercion and Voluntary Admission: An Examination of Psychiatric Patient Views, 11 BEHAV. SCI. & L. 259 (1993).
21. Nancy S. Bennett et al., Inclusion, Motivation, and Good Faith: The Morality of Coercion in Mental Hospital Admission, 11 BEHAV. SCI. & L. 295 (1993); Deborah L. Dennis & John Monahan, Introduction, in A NEW FRONTIER, supra note 4, at 3; William P. Gardner et al., Two Scales for Measuring Patients' Perceptions for Coercion During Mental Hospital Admission, 11 BEHAV. SCI. & L. 307 (1993); Gilboy & Schmidt, supra note 4, at 433; Virginia A. Hiday et al., Patient Perceptions of Coercion in Mental Hospital Admission, 20 INT'L J.L. & PSYCHIATRY (1997); John Monahan et al., Coercion and Commitment: Understanding Involuntary Mental Hos-pital Admission, 18 INT'L J.L. & PSYCHIATRY 249 (1995); Monahan, supra note 4, at 23-27; Anne Rogers, Coercion and Voluntary Admission: An Examination of Psychiatric Patient Views, 11 BEHAV. SCI. & L. 259 (1993).
22. Nancy S. Bennett et al., Inclusion, Motivation, and Good Faith: The Morality of Coercion in Mental Hospital Admission, 11 BEHAV. SCI. & L. 295 (1993); Deborah L. Dennis & John Monahan, Introduction, in A NEW FRONTIER, supra note 4, at 3; William P. Gardner et al., Two Scales for Measuring Patients' Perceptions for Coercion During Mental Hospital Admission, 11 BEHAV. SCI. & L. 307 (1993); Gilboy & Schmidt, supra note 4, at 433; Virginia A. Hiday et al., Patient Perceptions of Coercion in Mental Hospital Admission, 20 INT'L J.L. & PSYCHIATRY (1997); John Monahan et al., Coercion and Commitment: Understanding Involuntary Mental Hos-pital Admission, 18 INT'L J.L. & PSYCHIATRY 249 (1995); Monahan, supra note 4, at 23-27; Anne Rogers, Coercion and Voluntary Admission: An Examination of Psychiatric Patient Views, 11 BEHAV. SCI. & L. 259 (1993).
23. Nancy S. Bennett et al., Inclusion, Motivation, and Good Faith: The Morality of Coercion in Mental Hospital Admission, 11 BEHAV. SCI. & L. 295 (1993); Deborah L. Dennis & John Monahan, Introduction, in A NEW FRONTIER, supra note 4, at 3; William P. Gardner et al., Two Scales for Measuring Patients' Perceptions for Coercion During Mental Hospital Admission, 11 BEHAV. SCI. & L. 307 (1993); Gilboy & Schmidt, supra note 4, at 433; Virginia A. Hiday et al., Patient Perceptions of Coercion in Mental Hospital Admission, 20 INT'L J.L. & PSYCHIATRY (1997); John Monahan et al., Coercion and Commitment: Understanding Involuntary Mental Hos-pital Admission, 18 INT'L J.L. & PSYCHIATRY 249 (1995); Monahan, supra note 4, at 23-27; Anne Rogers, Coercion and Voluntary Admission: An Examination of Psychiatric Patient Views, 11 BEHAV. SCI. & L. 259 (1993).
24. Bennett et al., supra note 8, at 300-01; Gardner et al., supra note 8, at 308; Hiday et al., supra note 8; Monahan, supra note 8, at 252.
25. See infra Part VI (discussing research on patient perceptions of coercion).
26. Ronald J. Diamond, Coercion and Tenacious Treatment in the Community: Applications to the Real World, in A NEW FRONTIER, supra note 4, at 55. For a discussion of coercion as involving a continuum, see JOEL FEINBERG, HARM TO SELF 255-56 (1989); see also Robert D. Miller, The Continuum of Coercion: Constitutional and Clinical Considerations in the Treatment of Mentally Disordered Persons, 74 DENV. U. L. REV. 1169, 1172 (1997).
27. Ronald J. Diamond, Coercion and Tenacious Treatment in the Community: Applications to the Real World, in A NEW FRONTIER, supra note 4, at 55. For a discussion of coercion as involving a continuum, see JOEL FEINBERG, HARM TO SELF 255-56 (1989); see also Robert D. Miller, The Continuum of Coercion: Constitutional and Clinical Considerations in the Treatment of Mentally Disordered Persons, 74 DENV. U. L. REV. 1169, 1172 (1997).
28. Ronald J. Diamond, Coercion and Tenacious Treatment in the Community: Applications to the Real World, in A NEW FRONTIER, supra note 4, at 55. For a discussion of coercion as involving a continuum, see JOEL FEINBERG, HARM TO SELF 255-56 (1989); see also Robert D. Miller, The Continuum of Coercion: Constitutional and Clinical Considerations in the Treatment of Mentally Disordered Persons, 74 DENV. U. L. REV. 1169, 1172 (1997).
29. Winick, supra note 5, at 770; see also Robert D. Miller, supra note 11, at 1170-71.
30. Id.
31. BRUCE J. WINICK, THE RIGHT TO REFUSE MENTAL HEALTH TREATMENT (1997); WINICK, supra note 3, at 78; see Virginia A. Hiday, Coercion in Civil Commitment: Process, Preferences and Outcome, 15 INT'L J.L. & PSYCHIATRY 359, 359 (1992).
32. BRUCE J. WINICK, THE RIGHT TO REFUSE MENTAL HEALTH TREATMENT (1997); WINICK, supra note 3, at 78; see Virginia A. Hiday, Coercion in Civil Commitment: Process, Preferences and Outcome, 15 INT'L J.L. & PSYCHIATRY 359, 359 (1992).
33. See, e.g., BRAKEL ET AL., supra note 4, at 34, 76-81 (table 2.1); 1 MICHAEL L. PERLIN, MENTAL DISABILITY LAW: CIVIL AND CRIMINAL (1989); Note, Developments in the Law - Civil Commitment of the Mentally Ill, 87 HARV. L. REV. 1190 (1974). For an analysis of the mental illness requirement for civil commitment, see WINICK, supra note 3, at 93-199.
34. See, e.g., BRAKEL ET AL., supra note 4, at 34, 76-81 (table 2.1); 1 MICHAEL L. PERLIN, MENTAL DISABILITY LAW: CIVIL AND CRIMINAL (1989); Note, Developments in the Law - Civil Commitment of the Mentally Ill, 87 HARV. L. REV. 1190 (1974). For an analysis of the mental illness requirement for civil commitment, see WINICK, supra note 3, at 93-199.
35. See BRAKEL ET AL., supra note 4, at 375; 1 PERLIN supra note 15, at 37-45; WINICK, supra note 3, at 162-66; Joseph M. Livermore et al., On the Justifications for Civil Commitment, 117 U. PA. L. REV. 75 (1968) (discussing the public policy justifications for involuntary commitment); Note, supra note 15, at 1222-45.
36. See BRAKEL ET AL., supra note 4, at 428-29; 1 PERLIN, supra note 15, at 37-45; WINICK, supra note 3, at 166-71; Bruce J. Winick, Competency to Consent to Treatment: The Distinction Between Assent and Objection, 28 HOUS. L. REV. 15, 16-18 (1991); Note, supra note 15, at 1207-22.
37. See BRAKEL ET AL., supra note 4, at 24; WINICK, supra note 3, at 201-13.
38. See WINICK, supra note 14.
39. Id. at 269-309.
40. Riggins v. Nevada, 504 U.S. 127, 135-36 (1992) (dictum); Washington v. Harper, 494 U.S. 210, 225 (1990); WINICK, supra note 14, at 285-88, 294-308.
41. See, e.g., Rennie v. Klein, 653 F.2d 836, 845 (3d Cir. 1981) (en banc), vacated and remanded, 458 U.S. 1119 (1982); Rogers v. Okin, 634 F.2d 650 (1st Cir. 1980), vacated and remanded sub nom. Mills v. Rogers, 457 U.S. 291 (1982); WINICK, supra note 14, at 289-94.
42. Riggins, 504 U.S. at 127; WINICK; supra note 14, at 276-83; Bruce J. Winick, Psychotropic Medication in the Criminal Trial Process: The Constitutional and Therapeutic Implications of Riggins v. Nevada, 10 N.Y.L. SCH. J. HUM. RTS. 637, 646-51 (1993).
43. See A NEW FRONTIER, supra note 4.
44. Id.
45. For extensive treatment of this issue, see WINICK, supra note 14 (involuntary treatment); WINICK, supra note 3, at 93-199 (involuntary hospitalizadon and treatment).
46. Id.
47. See WINICK, supra note 14.
48. The Medical Cases, in 1 & 2 TRIALS OF WAR CRIMINALS BEFORE THE NUREMBERG MILITARY TRIBUNALS (1948), reprinted in JAY KATZ, EXPERIMENTATION WITH HUMAN BEINGS 292, 305-06 (1972). The principles set forth in the judgment of the Nuremberg Military Tribunal in the case of United States v. Karl Brandt - the trial of twenty-three German physicians for war crimes involving experiments with prisoners of war and civilians - have come to be known as the Nuremberg Code. See also 45 C.F.R. § 46.116 (1996) (U.S. Dep't of Health and Human Services regulations concerning the protection of human subjects).
49. The Medical Cases, in 1 & 2 TRIALS OF WAR CRIMINALS BEFORE THE NUREMBERG MILITARY TRIBUNALS (1948), reprinted in JAY KATZ, EXPERIMENTATION WITH HUMAN BEINGS 292, 305-06 (1972). The principles set forth in the judgment of the Nuremberg Military Tribunal in the case of United States v. Karl Brandt - the trial of twenty-three German physicians for war crimes involving experiments with prisoners of war and civilians - have come to be known as the Nuremberg Code. See also 45 C.F.R. § 46.116 (1996) (U.S. Dep't of Health and Human Services regulations concerning the protection of human subjects).
50. The analysis that follows is drawn in part from my discussion of the requirement of voluntariness under the informed consent doctrine contained in WINICK, supra note 14, at 363-68.
51. NATIONAL COMM'N FOR THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN SUBJECTS OF BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH, RESEARCH INVOLVING PRISONERS 5 (1976) [hereinafter RESEARCH].
52. Roy Branson, Prison Research: National Commission Says "No, Unless . . .", HASTINGS CENTER REP. Feb. 1977, at 15, 17 (quoting remarks of Commissioner King).
53. RESEARCH, supra note 31, at 42, 44. This was also the view of the American Correctional Association. See American Correctional Ass'n, Position Statement: The Use of Prisoners and Detainees as Subjects of Human Experimentation, Feb. 20, 1976, in RESEARCH, supra note 31, at 22-1 to 22-2 app.
54. RESEARCH, supra note 31, at 42, 44. This was also the view of the American Correctional Association. See American Correctional Ass'n, Position Statement: The Use of Prisoners and Detainees as Subjects of Human Experimentation, Feb. 20, 1976, in RESEARCH, supra note 31, at 22-1 to 22-2 app.
55. Larry I. Palmer, Biomedical and Behavioral Research on Prisoners: Public Policy Issues in Human Experimentation, in RESEARCH, supra note 31, at 14-21 app.; see Branson, supra note 32, at 16.
56. RESEARCH, supra note 31, at 16.
57. 45 C.F.R. § 46.305(a)(6) (1996).
58. Kaimowitz v. Michigan Dep't of Mental Health, No. 73-19434-AW (D. Mich. July 10, 1973), reprinted in ALEXANDER D. BROOKS, LAW, PSYCHIATRY AND THE MENTAL HEALTH SYSTEM 902, 913-14 (1974).
59. Kaimowitz, No. 73-19434-AW, slip op. at 25-29; BROOKS, supra note 37, at 913-15.
60. Kaimowitz, No. 73-19434-AW, slip op. at 40; BROOKS, supra note 37, at 920.
61. See Robert Burt, Why We Should Keep Prisoners From The Doctors, HASTINGS CENTER REP., Feb. 1975, at 25.
62. 410 U.S. 263 (1973).
63. McGinnis, 410 U.S. at 271.
64. Id. at 266-67 n.5 (quoting Royster v. McGinnis, 332 F. Supp. 973, 974-75 (S.D.N.Y. 1971)).
65. 28 C.F.R. § 523.16 (1996); see also 28 C.F.R. § 2.60(a), (b) (1996) (rule of U.S. Parole Commission permitting advancement of presumptive release date for "superior program achievement" in "educational, vocational, industry, or counselling programs").
66. 397 U.S. 742 (1970).
67. Brady, 397 U.S. at 749.
68. Id. at 750-51.
69. Id. at 755 (quoting Shelton v. United States, 246 F.2d 571, 572 n.2 (5th Cir. 1957)). Brady did not actually involve plea bargaining. The statute under which Brady was charged made the death penalty unavailable in the case of a guilty plea. The pressure that Brady asserted had induced his plea was a product of the statutory scheme itself. The Supreme Court, however, subsequently applied the Brady standard in the context of plea bargaining. See Bordenkircher v. Hayes, 434 U.S. 357, 363 (1978). Indeed, Brady's concept of offers or proposals as coercive only when improper has emerged as a general legal approach to considering when offers are coercive. See WERTHEIMER, supra note 5, at 172, 267-68, 287, 301, 308; Winick, supra note 5, at 770 & n.107; see also RESTATEMENT (SECOND) OF CONTRACTS §§ 174-76 (1981) (standard of duress limited to physical compulsion or improper threats).
70. Brady, 397 U.S. at 755.
71. See supra note 48 and accompanying text
72. See, e.g., Wyatt v. Stickney, 344 F. Supp. 373 (M.D. Ala. 1972), aff'd sub nom. Wyatt v. Aderholt, 503 F.2d 1305 (5th Cir. 1974).
73. See WERTHEIMER, supra note 5, at 210.
74. Israel Goldiamond, Protection of Human Subjects and Patients: A Social Contingency Analysis of Distinctions Between Research and Practice, and its Implications, 4 BEHAVIORISM 1, 27 (1976) ("Coercion is not absolute; there are degrees of coercion as well as of freedom."); see Louis L. Jaffee, Law as a System of Control, in EXPERIMENTATION WITH HUMAN SUBJECTS 203, 216 (Paul A. Freund ed., 1969). For philosophical analyses of the concept of coercion, see RAZ, supra note 7; WERTHEIMER, supra note 5; REPRESENTATION: YEARBOOK FOR THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR POLITICAL AND LEGAL PHILOSOPHY 1-328 (J. Roland Pennock & John W. Chapman eds., 1968); Jeffrie G. Murphy, Consent, Coercion and Hard Choices, 67 VA. L. REV. 79 (1981); Robert Nozick, Coercion, in PHILOSOPHY, SCIENCE AND METHOD 440 (Sidney Morgenbesser et al. eds., 1969); Wertheimer, supra note 5; Alan Wertheimer, Remarks on Coercion and Exploitation, 74 DENV. U. L. REV. 889 (1997).
75. Israel Goldiamond, Protection of Human Subjects and Patients: A Social Contingency Analysis of Distinctions Between Research and Practice, and its Implications, 4 BEHAVIORISM 1, 27 (1976) ("Coercion is not absolute; there are degrees of coercion as well as of freedom."); see Louis L. Jaffee, Law as a System of Control, in EXPERIMENTATION WITH HUMAN SUBJECTS 203, 216 (Paul A. Freund ed., 1969). For philosophical analyses of the concept of coercion, see RAZ, supra note 7; WERTHEIMER, supra note 5; REPRESENTATION: YEARBOOK FOR THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR POLITICAL AND LEGAL PHILOSOPHY 1-328 (J. Roland Pennock & John W. Chapman eds., 1968); Jeffrie G. Murphy, Consent, Coercion and Hard Choices, 67 VA. L. REV. 79 (1981); Robert Nozick, Coercion, in PHILOSOPHY, SCIENCE AND METHOD 440 (Sidney Morgenbesser et al. eds., 1969); Wertheimer, supra note 5; Alan Wertheimer, Remarks on Coercion and Exploitation, 74 DENV. U. L. REV. 889 (1997).
76. Israel Goldiamond, Protection of Human Subjects and Patients: A Social Contingency Analysis of Distinctions Between Research and Practice, and its Implications, 4 BEHAVIORISM 1, 27 (1976) ("Coercion is not absolute; there are degrees of coercion as well as of freedom."); see Louis L. Jaffee, Law as a System of Control, in EXPERIMENTATION WITH HUMAN SUBJECTS 203, 216 (Paul A. Freund ed., 1969). For philosophical analyses of the concept of coercion, see RAZ, supra note 7; WERTHEIMER, supra note 5; REPRESENTATION: YEARBOOK FOR THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR POLITICAL AND LEGAL PHILOSOPHY 1-328 (J. Roland Pennock & John W. Chapman eds., 1968); Jeffrie G. Murphy, Consent, Coercion and Hard Choices, 67 VA. L. REV. 79 (1981); Robert Nozick, Coercion, in PHILOSOPHY, SCIENCE AND METHOD 440 (Sidney Morgenbesser et al. eds., 1969); Wertheimer, supra note 5; Alan Wertheimer, Remarks on Coercion and Exploitation, 74 DENV. U. L. REV. 889 (1997).
77. Israel Goldiamond, Protection of Human Subjects and Patients: A Social Contingency Analysis of Distinctions Between Research and Practice, and its Implications, 4 BEHAVIORISM 1, 27 (1976) ("Coercion is not absolute; there are degrees of coercion as well as of freedom."); see Louis L. Jaffee, Law as a System of Control, in EXPERIMENTATION WITH HUMAN SUBJECTS 203, 216 (Paul A. Freund ed., 1969). For philosophical analyses of the concept of coercion, see RAZ, supra note 7; WERTHEIMER, supra note 5; REPRESENTATION: YEARBOOK FOR THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR POLITICAL AND LEGAL PHILOSOPHY 1-328 (J. Roland Pennock & John W. Chapman eds., 1968); Jeffrie G. Murphy, Consent, Coercion and Hard Choices, 67 VA. L. REV. 79 (1981); Robert Nozick, Coercion, in PHILOSOPHY, SCIENCE AND METHOD 440 (Sidney Morgenbesser et al. eds., 1969); Wertheimer, supra note 5; Alan Wertheimer, Remarks on Coercion and Exploitation, 74 DENV. U. L. REV. 889 (1997).
78. Israel Goldiamond, Protection of Human Subjects and Patients: A Social Contingency Analysis of Distinctions Between Research and Practice, and its Implications, 4 BEHAVIORISM 1, 27 (1976) ("Coercion is not absolute; there are degrees of coercion as well as of freedom."); see Louis L. Jaffee, Law as a System of Control, in EXPERIMENTATION WITH HUMAN SUBJECTS 203, 216 (Paul A. Freund ed., 1969). For philosophical analyses of the concept of coercion, see RAZ, supra note 7; WERTHEIMER, supra note 5; REPRESENTATION: YEARBOOK FOR THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR POLITICAL AND LEGAL PHILOSOPHY 1-328 (J. Roland Pennock & John W. Chapman eds., 1968); Jeffrie G. Murphy, Consent, Coercion and Hard Choices, 67 VA. L. REV. 79 (1981); Robert Nozick, Coercion, in PHILOSOPHY, SCIENCE AND METHOD 440 (Sidney Morgenbesser et al. eds., 1969); Wertheimer, supra note 5; Alan Wertheimer, Remarks on Coercion and Exploitation, 74 DENV. U. L. REV. 889 (1997).
79. Israel Goldiamond, Protection of Human Subjects and Patients: A Social Contingency Analysis of Distinctions Between Research and Practice, and its Implications, 4 BEHAVIORISM 1, 27 (1976) ("Coercion is not absolute; there are degrees of coercion as well as of freedom."); see Louis L. Jaffee, Law as a System of Control, in EXPERIMENTATION WITH HUMAN SUBJECTS 203, 216 (Paul A. Freund ed., 1969). For philosophical analyses of the concept of coercion, see RAZ, supra note 7; WERTHEIMER, supra note 5; REPRESENTATION: YEARBOOK FOR THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR POLITICAL AND LEGAL PHILOSOPHY 1-328 (J. Roland Pennock & John W. Chapman eds., 1968); Jeffrie G. Murphy, Consent, Coercion and Hard Choices, 67 VA. L. REV. 79 (1981); Robert Nozick, Coercion, in PHILOSOPHY, SCIENCE AND METHOD 440 (Sidney Morgenbesser et al. eds., 1969); Wertheimer, supra note 5; Alan Wertheimer, Remarks on Coercion and Exploitation, 74 DENV. U. L. REV. 889 (1997).
80. Goldiamond, supra note 53, at 20-34; Israel Goldiamond, Singling Out Behavior Modifications for Legal Regulation: Some Effects on Patient Care, Psychotherapy and Research in General, 17 ARIZ. L. REV. 105, 121-25 (1975).
81. Goldiamond, supra note 53, at 23.
82. See John H. Langbein, Torture and Plea Bargaining, 46 U. CHI. L. REV. 3, 12-13 (1978); Steven S. Nemerson, Coercive Sentencing, 64 MINN. L. REV. 669, 675-78 (1980).
83. See John H. Langbein, Torture and Plea Bargaining, 46 U. CHI. L. REV. 3, 12-13 (1978); Steven S. Nemerson, Coercive Sentencing, 64 MINN. L. REV. 669, 675-78 (1980).
84. See, e.g., Corbitt v. New Jersey, 439 U.S. 212, 222-23 (1978); Bordenkircher v. Hayes, 434 U.S. 357, 364 (1978); Blackledge v. Allison, 431 U.S. 63, 71 (1977). The Supreme Court even has suggested that plea bargaining, properly conducted, is worthy of encouragement. See Santabello v. New York, 404 U.S. 257, 260 (1971).
85. WINICK, supra note 14, at 363-68; Jeffrie G, Murphy, Total Institutions and the Possibility of Consent to Organic Therapies 5 HUM. RTS. Q. 25, 38 (1975); David B. Wexler, Reflections on the Legal Regulation of Behavior Modification in Institutional Settings, 17 ARIZ. L. REV. 132, 133 (1975).
86. WINICK, supra note 14, at 363-68; Jeffrie G, Murphy, Total Institutions and the Possibility of Consent to Organic Therapies 5 HUM. RTS. Q. 25, 38 (1975); David B. Wexler, Reflections on the Legal Regulation of Behavior Modification in Institutional Settings, 17 ARIZ. L. REV. 132, 133 (1975).
87. See Brady, 397 U.S. at 758. Compare Tollett v. Henderson, 411 U.S. 258, 265 (1973), and McMann v. Richardson, 397 U.S. 759, 771 (1970), with Fontaine v. United States, 411 U.S. 213, 215 (1973).
88. See Brady, 397 U.S. at 758; Boykin v. Alabama, 395 U.S. 238, 241-44 (1969); McCarthy v. United States, 394 U.S. 459, 467 (1969); Fed. R. Crim. P. 11.
89. See WINICK, supra note 14, at 371-89.
90. See generally DAVID B. WEXLER & BRUCE J. WINICK, ESSAYS IN THERAPEUTIC JURISPRUDENCE (1991) (analyzing and illustrating law's role as a therapeutic agent); LAW IN A THERAPEUTIC KEY: DEVELOPMENTS IN THERAPEUTIC JURISPRUDENCE (David B. Wexler & Bruce J. Winick eds., 1996) (illustrating application of therapeutic jurisprudence to a wide spectrum of legal issues and containing commentary on this emerging approach to legal policy analysis) [hereinafter LAW IN A THERAPEUTIC KEY]; WINICK, supra note 3 (applying the approach of therapeutic jurisprudence to analyze the field of mental health law); Bruce J. Winick, The Jurisprudence of Therapeutic Jurisprudence, 3 PSYCHOL. PUB. POL'Y & L. (forthcoming 1997).
91. See generally DAVID B. WEXLER & BRUCE J. WINICK, ESSAYS IN THERAPEUTIC JURISPRUDENCE (1991) (analyzing and illustrating law's role as a therapeutic agent); LAW IN A THERAPEUTIC KEY: DEVELOPMENTS IN THERAPEUTIC JURISPRUDENCE (David B. Wexler & Bruce J. Winick eds., 1996) (illustrating application of therapeutic jurisprudence to a wide spectrum of legal issues and containing commentary on this emerging approach to legal policy analysis) [hereinafter LAW IN A THERAPEUTIC KEY]; WINICK, supra note 3 (applying the approach of therapeutic jurisprudence to analyze the field of mental health law); Bruce J. Winick, The Jurisprudence of Therapeutic Jurisprudence, 3 PSYCHOL. PUB. POL'Y & L. (forthcoming 1997).
92. See generally DAVID B. WEXLER & BRUCE J. WINICK, ESSAYS IN THERAPEUTIC JURISPRUDENCE (1991) (analyzing and illustrating law's role as a therapeutic agent); LAW IN A THERAPEUTIC KEY: DEVELOPMENTS IN THERAPEUTIC JURISPRUDENCE (David B. Wexler & Bruce J. Winick eds., 1996) (illustrating application of therapeutic jurisprudence to a wide spectrum of legal issues and containing commentary on this emerging approach to legal policy analysis) [hereinafter LAW IN A THERAPEUTIC KEY]; WINICK, supra note 3 (applying the approach of therapeutic jurisprudence to analyze the field of mental health law); Bruce J. Winick, The Jurisprudence of Therapeutic Jurisprudence, 3 PSYCHOL. PUB. POL'Y & L. (forthcoming 1997).
93. See LAW IN A THERAPEUTIC KEY, supra note 62 (anthology of therapeutic jurisprudence of theoretical and empirical work on a wide variety of legal issues).
94. GROUP FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF PSYCHIATRY, FORCED INTO TREATMENT: THE ROLE OF COERCION IN CLINICAL PRACTICE 22-24, 81, 99-101 (1994) (including anecdotal reports of successful treatment in coercive situations, including treatment of children and adolescents, sex offenders, and employees treated for alcoholism or drug addiction when coercion is perceived by patient as fair and appropriate).
95. Phyllis Solomon, Research on the Coercion of Persons with Severe Mental Illness, in A NEW FRONTIER, supra note 4, at 129, 142-43.
96. Mary L. Durham & John Q. La Fond, A Search for the Missing Premise of Involuntary Therapeutic Commitment: Effective Treatment of the Mentally Ill, 40 RUTGERS L. REV. 303, 351-56, 367-68 (1988).
97. A NEW FRONTIER, supra note 4, at 2-3.
98. See, e.g., Virginia A. Hiday & Theresa L. Scheid-Cook, A Follow-Up of Chronic Patients Committed to Outpatient Treatment, 40 HOSP. & COMMUNITY PSYCHIATRY 52 (1989); Robert A. Van Putten et al., Involuntary Outpatient Commitment in Arizona: A Retrospective Study, 39 HOSP. & COMMUNITY PSYCHIATRY 953 (1988); Guido Zanni & Leslie de Veau, Inpatient Stays Before and After Outpatient Commitment, 37 HOSP. & COMMUNITY PSYCHIATRY 941 (1986).
99. See, e.g., Virginia A. Hiday & Theresa L. Scheid-Cook, A Follow-Up of Chronic Patients Committed to Outpatient Treatment, 40 HOSP. & COMMUNITY PSYCHIATRY 52 (1989); Robert A. Van Putten et al., Involuntary Outpatient Commitment in Arizona: A Retrospective Study, 39 HOSP. & COMMUNITY PSYCHIATRY 953 (1988); Guido Zanni & Leslie de Veau, Inpatient Stays Before and After Outpatient Commitment, 37 HOSP. & COMMUNITY PSYCHIATRY 941 (1986).
100. See, e.g., Virginia A. Hiday & Theresa L. Scheid-Cook, A Follow-Up of Chronic Patients Committed to Outpatient Treatment, 40 HOSP. & COMMUNITY PSYCHIATRY 52 (1989); Robert A. Van Putten et al., Involuntary Outpatient Commitment in Arizona: A Retrospective Study, 39 HOSP. & COMMUNITY PSYCHIATRY 953 (1988); Guido Zanni & Leslie de Veau, Inpatient Stays Before and After Outpatient Commitment, 37 HOSP. & COMMUNITY PSYCHIATRY 941 (1986).
101. Solomon, supra note 65, at 135; M.S. Swartz et al., New Directions in Research on Involuntary Outpatient Commitment, 46 HOSP. & COMMUNITY PSYCHIATRY 381, 382 (1995).
102. Monahan et al., supra note 8.
103. Solomon, supra note 65.
104. A NEW FRONTIER, supra note 4, at 14; Bennett et al., supra note 8; Gardner et al., supra note 8.
105. See supra Part I.
106. A NEW FRONTIER, supra note 4; Bennett et al., supra note 8, at 297-99; Gardner et al., supra note 8.
107. A NEW FRONTIER, supra note 4; Lidz et al., supra note 6.
108. A NEW FRONTIER, supra note 4.
109. See E. ALLAN LIND & TOM R. TYLER, THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF PROCEDURAL JUSTICE 26-34 (1988); JOHN THIBAUT & LAURENS WALKER, PROCEDURAL JUSTICE: A PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS (1975); TOM R. TYLER, WHY PEOPLE OBEY THE LAW (1990); Hiday et al., supra note 8, at 229-30; Stephen LaTour, Determinants of Participation and Observer Satisfaction with Adversary and Inquisitorial Modes of Adjudication, 36 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 1531 (1978); E. Allan Lind et al., Procedure and Outcome Effects on Reactions to Adjudicated Resolutions of Conflicts of Interest, 39 J. PERSONALITY & Soc. PSYCHOL. 643, 652-53 (1980); E. Allan Lind et al., Voice, Control, and Procedural Justice: Instrumental and Noninstrumental Concerns in Fairness Judgments, 59 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 952 (1990); Norman G. Poythress, Procedural Preferences, Perceptions of Fairness, and Compliance with Outcomes, 18 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 361 (1994); John Thibaut et al.. Procedural Justice as Fairness, 26 STAN. L. REV. 1271 (1974); Tom R. Tyler, The Psychological Consequences of Judicial Procedures: Implications for Civil Commitment Hearings, 46 SMU L. REV. 433, (1992); see also Tom E. Hughes & Lon N. Larson, Patient Involvement in Health Care: A Procedural Justice Viewpoint, 29 MED. CARE 297 (1991).
110. See E. ALLAN LIND & TOM R. TYLER, THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF PROCEDURAL JUSTICE 26-34 (1988); JOHN THIBAUT & LAURENS WALKER, PROCEDURAL JUSTICE: A PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS (1975); TOM R. TYLER, WHY PEOPLE OBEY THE LAW (1990); Hiday et al., supra note 8, at 229-30; Stephen LaTour, Determinants of Participation and Observer Satisfaction with Adversary and Inquisitorial Modes of Adjudication, 36 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 1531 (1978); E. Allan Lind et al., Procedure and Outcome Effects on Reactions to Adjudicated Resolutions of Conflicts of Interest, 39 J. PERSONALITY & Soc. PSYCHOL. 643, 652-53 (1980); E. Allan Lind et al., Voice, Control, and Procedural Justice: Instrumental and Noninstrumental Concerns in Fairness Judgments, 59 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 952 (1990); Norman G. Poythress, Procedural Preferences, Perceptions of Fairness, and Compliance with Outcomes, 18 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 361 (1994); John Thibaut et al.. Procedural Justice as Fairness, 26 STAN. L. REV. 1271 (1974); Tom R. Tyler, The Psychological Consequences of Judicial Procedures: Implications for Civil Commitment Hearings, 46 SMU L. REV. 433, (1992); see also Tom E. Hughes & Lon N. Larson, Patient Involvement in Health Care: A Procedural Justice Viewpoint, 29 MED. CARE 297 (1991).
111. See E. ALLAN LIND & TOM R. TYLER, THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF PROCEDURAL JUSTICE 26-34 (1988); JOHN THIBAUT & LAURENS WALKER, PROCEDURAL JUSTICE: A PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS (1975); TOM R. TYLER, WHY PEOPLE OBEY THE LAW (1990); Hiday et al., supra note 8, at 229-30; Stephen LaTour, Determinants of Participation and Observer Satisfaction with Adversary and Inquisitorial Modes of Adjudication, 36 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 1531 (1978); E. Allan Lind et al., Procedure and Outcome Effects on Reactions to Adjudicated Resolutions of Conflicts of Interest, 39 J. PERSONALITY & Soc. PSYCHOL. 643, 652-53 (1980); E. Allan Lind et al., Voice, Control, and Procedural Justice: Instrumental and Noninstrumental Concerns in Fairness Judgments, 59 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 952 (1990); Norman G. Poythress, Procedural Preferences, Perceptions of Fairness, and Compliance with Outcomes, 18 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 361 (1994); John Thibaut et al.. Procedural Justice as Fairness, 26 STAN. L. REV. 1271 (1974); Tom R. Tyler, The Psychological Consequences of Judicial Procedures: Implications for Civil Commitment Hearings, 46 SMU L. REV. 433, (1992); see also Tom E. Hughes & Lon N. Larson, Patient Involvement in Health Care: A Procedural Justice Viewpoint, 29 MED. CARE 297 (1991).
112. See E. ALLAN LIND & TOM R. TYLER, THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF PROCEDURAL JUSTICE 26-34 (1988); JOHN THIBAUT & LAURENS WALKER, PROCEDURAL JUSTICE: A PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS (1975); TOM R. TYLER, WHY PEOPLE OBEY THE LAW (1990); Hiday et al., supra note 8, at 229-30; Stephen LaTour, Determinants of Participation and Observer Satisfaction with Adversary and Inquisitorial Modes of Adjudication, 36 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 1531 (1978); E. Allan Lind et al., Procedure and Outcome Effects on Reactions to Adjudicated Resolutions of Conflicts of Interest, 39 J. PERSONALITY & Soc. PSYCHOL. 643, 652-53 (1980); E. Allan Lind et al., Voice, Control, and Procedural Justice: Instrumental and Noninstrumental Concerns in Fairness Judgments, 59 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 952 (1990); Norman G. Poythress, Procedural Preferences, Perceptions of Fairness, and Compliance with Outcomes, 18 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 361 (1994); John Thibaut et al.. Procedural Justice as Fairness, 26 STAN. L. REV. 1271 (1974); Tom R. Tyler, The Psychological Consequences of Judicial Procedures: Implications for Civil Commitment Hearings, 46 SMU L. REV. 433, (1992); see also Tom E. Hughes & Lon N. Larson, Patient Involvement in Health Care: A Procedural Justice Viewpoint, 29 MED. CARE 297 (1991).
113. See E. ALLAN LIND & TOM R. TYLER, THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF PROCEDURAL JUSTICE 26-34 (1988); JOHN THIBAUT & LAURENS WALKER, PROCEDURAL JUSTICE: A PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS (1975); TOM R. TYLER, WHY PEOPLE OBEY THE LAW (1990); Hiday et al., supra note 8, at 229-30; Stephen LaTour, Determinants of Participation and Observer Satisfaction with Adversary and Inquisitorial Modes of Adjudication, 36 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 1531 (1978); E. Allan Lind et al., Procedure and Outcome Effects on Reactions to Adjudicated Resolutions of Conflicts of Interest, 39 J. PERSONALITY & Soc. PSYCHOL. 643, 652-53 (1980); E. Allan Lind et al., Voice, Control, and Procedural Justice: Instrumental and Noninstrumental Concerns in Fairness Judgments, 59 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 952 (1990); Norman G. Poythress, Procedural Preferences, Perceptions of Fairness, and Compliance with Outcomes, 18 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 361 (1994); John Thibaut et al.. Procedural Justice as Fairness, 26 STAN. L. REV. 1271 (1974); Tom R. Tyler, The Psychological Consequences of Judicial Procedures: Implications for Civil Commitment Hearings, 46 SMU L. REV. 433, (1992); see also Tom E. Hughes & Lon N. Larson, Patient Involvement in Health Care: A Procedural Justice Viewpoint, 29 MED. CARE 297 (1991).
114. See E. ALLAN LIND & TOM R. TYLER, THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF PROCEDURAL JUSTICE 26-34 (1988); JOHN THIBAUT & LAURENS WALKER, PROCEDURAL JUSTICE: A PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS (1975); TOM R. TYLER, WHY PEOPLE OBEY THE LAW (1990); Hiday et al., supra note 8, at 229-30; Stephen LaTour, Determinants of Participation and Observer Satisfaction with Adversary and Inquisitorial Modes of Adjudication, 36 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 1531 (1978); E. Allan Lind et al., Procedure and Outcome Effects on Reactions to Adjudicated Resolutions of Conflicts of Interest, 39 J. PERSONALITY & Soc. PSYCHOL. 643, 652-53 (1980); E. Allan Lind et al., Voice, Control, and Procedural Justice: Instrumental and Noninstrumental Concerns in Fairness Judgments, 59 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 952 (1990); Norman G. Poythress, Procedural Preferences, Perceptions of Fairness, and Compliance with Outcomes, 18 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 361 (1994); John Thibaut et al.. Procedural Justice as Fairness, 26 STAN. L. REV. 1271 (1974); Tom R. Tyler, The Psychological Consequences of Judicial Procedures: Implications for Civil Commitment Hearings, 46 SMU L. REV. 433, (1992); see also Tom E. Hughes & Lon N. Larson, Patient Involvement in Health Care: A Procedural Justice Viewpoint, 29 MED. CARE 297 (1991).
115. See E. ALLAN LIND & TOM R. TYLER, THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF PROCEDURAL JUSTICE 26-34 (1988); JOHN THIBAUT & LAURENS WALKER, PROCEDURAL JUSTICE: A PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS (1975); TOM R. TYLER, WHY PEOPLE OBEY THE LAW (1990); Hiday et al., supra note 8, at 229-30; Stephen LaTour, Determinants of Participation and Observer Satisfaction with Adversary and Inquisitorial Modes of Adjudication, 36 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 1531 (1978); E. Allan Lind et al., Procedure and Outcome Effects on Reactions to Adjudicated Resolutions of Conflicts of Interest, 39 J. PERSONALITY & Soc. PSYCHOL. 643, 652-53 (1980); E. Allan Lind et al., Voice, Control, and Procedural Justice: Instrumental and Noninstrumental Concerns in Fairness Judgments, 59 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 952 (1990); Norman G. Poythress, Procedural Preferences, Perceptions of Fairness, and Compliance with Outcomes, 18 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 361 (1994); John Thibaut et al.. Procedural Justice as Fairness, 26 STAN. L. REV. 1271 (1974); Tom R. Tyler, The Psychological Consequences of Judicial Procedures: Implications for Civil Commitment Hearings, 46 SMU L. REV. 433, (1992); see also Tom E. Hughes & Lon N. Larson, Patient Involvement in Health Care: A Procedural Justice Viewpoint, 29 MED. CARE 297 (1991).
116. See E. ALLAN LIND & TOM R. TYLER, THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF PROCEDURAL JUSTICE 26-34 (1988); JOHN THIBAUT & LAURENS WALKER, PROCEDURAL JUSTICE: A PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS (1975); TOM R. TYLER, WHY PEOPLE OBEY THE LAW (1990); Hiday et al., supra note 8, at 229-30; Stephen LaTour, Determinants of Participation and Observer Satisfaction with Adversary and Inquisitorial Modes of Adjudication, 36 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 1531 (1978); E. Allan Lind et al., Procedure and Outcome Effects on Reactions to Adjudicated Resolutions of Conflicts of Interest, 39 J. PERSONALITY & Soc. PSYCHOL. 643, 652-53 (1980); E. Allan Lind et al., Voice, Control, and Procedural Justice: Instrumental and Noninstrumental Concerns in Fairness Judgments, 59 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 952 (1990); Norman G. Poythress, Procedural Preferences, Perceptions of Fairness, and Compliance with Outcomes, 18 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 361 (1994); John Thibaut et al.. Procedural Justice as Fairness, 26 STAN. L. REV. 1271 (1974); Tom R. Tyler, The Psychological Consequences of Judicial Procedures: Implications for Civil Commitment Hearings, 46 SMU L. REV. 433, (1992); see also Tom E. Hughes & Lon N. Larson, Patient Involvement in Health Care: A Procedural Justice Viewpoint, 29 MED. CARE 297 (1991).
117. See E. ALLAN LIND & TOM R. TYLER, THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF PROCEDURAL JUSTICE 26-34 (1988); JOHN THIBAUT & LAURENS WALKER, PROCEDURAL JUSTICE: A PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS (1975); TOM R. TYLER, WHY PEOPLE OBEY THE LAW (1990); Hiday et al., supra note 8, at 229-30; Stephen LaTour, Determinants of Participation and Observer Satisfaction with Adversary and Inquisitorial Modes of Adjudication, 36 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 1531 (1978); E. Allan Lind et al., Procedure and Outcome Effects on Reactions to Adjudicated Resolutions of Conflicts of Interest, 39 J. PERSONALITY & Soc. PSYCHOL. 643, 652-53 (1980); E. Allan Lind et al., Voice, Control, and Procedural Justice: Instrumental and Noninstrumental Concerns in Fairness Judgments, 59 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 952 (1990); Norman G. Poythress, Procedural Preferences, Perceptions of Fairness, and Compliance with Outcomes, 18 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 361 (1994); John Thibaut et al.. Procedural Justice as Fairness, 26 STAN. L. REV. 1271 (1974); Tom R. Tyler, The Psychological Consequences of Judicial Procedures: Implications for Civil Commitment Hearings, 46 SMU L. REV. 433, (1992); see also Tom E. Hughes & Lon N. Larson, Patient Involvement in Health Care: A Procedural Justice Viewpoint, 29 MED. CARE 297 (1991).
118. See E. ALLAN LIND & TOM R. TYLER, THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF PROCEDURAL JUSTICE 26-34 (1988); JOHN THIBAUT & LAURENS WALKER, PROCEDURAL JUSTICE: A PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS (1975); TOM R. TYLER, WHY PEOPLE OBEY THE LAW (1990); Hiday et al., supra note 8, at 229-30; Stephen LaTour, Determinants of Participation and Observer Satisfaction with Adversary and Inquisitorial Modes of Adjudication, 36 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 1531 (1978); E. Allan Lind et al., Procedure and Outcome Effects on Reactions to Adjudicated Resolutions of Conflicts of Interest, 39 J. PERSONALITY & Soc. PSYCHOL. 643, 652-53 (1980); E. Allan Lind et al., Voice, Control, and Procedural Justice: Instrumental and Noninstrumental Concerns in Fairness Judgments, 59 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 952 (1990); Norman G. Poythress, Procedural Preferences, Perceptions of Fairness, and Compliance with Outcomes, 18 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 361 (1994); John Thibaut et al.. Procedural Justice as Fairness, 26 STAN. L. REV. 1271 (1974); Tom R. Tyler, The Psychological Consequences of Judicial Procedures: Implications for Civil Commitment Hearings, 46 SMU L. REV. 433, (1992); see also Tom E. Hughes & Lon N. Larson, Patient Involvement in Health Care: A Procedural Justice Viewpoint, 29 MED. CARE 297 (1991).
119. A NEW FRONTIER, supra note 4, at 23.
120. Id. at 24.
121. Bennett et al., supra note 8, at 304.
122. Diamond, supra note 11, at 59-60.
123. A NEW FRONTIER, supra note 4, at 14; Bennett et al., supra note 8, at 296; Hiday et al., supra note 8, at 237-38; Rogers, supra note 8.
124. Hiday et al., supra note 8, at 237-38.
125. Andrea K. Blanch & Jacqueline Parrish, Reports of Three Roundtable Discussions on Involuntary Interventions, 1 PSYCHIATRIC REHABILITATION AND COMMUNITY SUPPORT MONOGRAPH 1 (1993); Diamond, supra note 11, at 61; see also DONALD MEICHENBAUM & DENNIS C. TURK, FACILITATING TREATMENT ADHERENCE: A PRACTITIONER'S GUIDE-BOOK 20, 76-79 (1987); Hiday et al., supra note 8, at 236.
126. Andrea K. Blanch & Jacqueline Parrish, Reports of Three Roundtable Discussions on Involuntary Interventions, 1 PSYCHIATRIC REHABILITATION AND COMMUNITY SUPPORT MONOGRAPH 1 (1993); Diamond, supra note 11, at 61; see also DONALD MEICHENBAUM & DENNIS C. TURK, FACILITATING TREATMENT ADHERENCE: A PRACTITIONER'S GUIDE-BOOK 20, 76-79 (1987); Hiday et al., supra note 8, at 236.
127. LAW IN A THERAPEUTIC KEY, supra note 62, at 146-47; A NEW FRONTIER, supra note 4, at 14; Monahan et al., supra note 8.
128. LAW IN A THERAPEUTIC KEY, supra note 62, at 146-47; A NEW FRONTIER, supra note 4, at 14; Monahan et al., supra note 8.
129. Hiday et al., supra note 8, at 236; Lidz et al., supra note 6; Alicia Lucksted & Robert D. Coursey, Consumer Perceptions of Pressure and Force in Psychiatric Treatments, 46 PSYCHIATRIC SERVICES 146 (1995);
130. WINICK, supra note 3, at 87-91; WINICK, supra note 14, at 327-44; Winick, supra note 17 at 46-52; Winick, supra note 4; Bruce J. Winick, The MacArthur Treatment Competency Study: Legal and Therapeutic Implications, 2 PSYCHOL. PUB. POL'Y & L. 137 (1996); Bruce J. Winick, On Autonomy: Legal and Psychological Perspectives, 37 VILL. L. REV. 1705, 1755-68 (1992).
131. WINICK, supra note 3, at 87-91; WINICK, supra note 14, at 327-44; Winick, supra note 17 at 46-52; Winick, supra note 4; Bruce J. Winick, The MacArthur Treatment Competency Study: Legal and Therapeutic Implications, 2 PSYCHOL. PUB. POL'Y & L. 137 (1996); Bruce J. Winick, On Autonomy: Legal and Psychological Perspectives, 37 VILL. L. REV. 1705, 1755-68 (1992).
132. PAUL S. APPELBAUM ET AL., INFORMED CONSENT: LEGAL THEORY AND CLINICAL PRACTICE 28 (1987); MEICHENBAUM & TURK, supra note 84, at 20, 76-79; BILL D. MOVERS, HEALING AND THE MIND 50 (1993); see Paul S. Appelbaum & Thomas Gutheil, Drug Refusal: A Study of Psychiatric Inpatients, 137 AM. J. PSYCHIATRY 340, 341 (1980).
133. PAUL S. APPELBAUM ET AL., INFORMED CONSENT: LEGAL THEORY AND CLINICAL PRACTICE 28 (1987); MEICHENBAUM & TURK, supra note 84, at 20, 76-79; BILL D. MOVERS, HEALING AND THE MIND 50 (1993); see Paul S. Appelbaum & Thomas Gutheil, Drug Refusal: A Study of Psychiatric Inpatients, 137 AM. J. PSYCHIATRY 340, 341 (1980).
134. PAUL S. APPELBAUM ET AL., INFORMED CONSENT: LEGAL THEORY AND CLINICAL PRACTICE 28 (1987); MEICHENBAUM & TURK, supra note 84, at 20, 76-79; BILL D. MOVERS, HEALING AND THE MIND 50 (1993); see Paul S. Appelbaum & Thomas Gutheil, Drug Refusal: A Study of Psychiatric Inpatients, 137 AM. J. PSYCHIATRY 340, 341 (1980).
135. MEICHENBAUM & TURK, supra note 84, at 157, 159, 175; Fredrick H. Kanfer & Lisa Gaelick, Self-Management Methods, in HELPING PEOPLE CHANGE 334-47 (Fredrick H. Kanfer & Arnold P. Goldstein eds., 1986).
136. Diamond, supra note 11, at 63.
137. ALBERT BANDURA, SOCIAL FOUNDATIONS OF THOUGHT AND ACTION: A SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY 338, 363, 368, 468-69, 470-71, 475-76, 478-79 (1986); SHARON S. BREHM & JACK W. BREHM, PSYCHOLOGICAL REACTANCE: A THEORY OF FREEDOM AND CONTROL 301 (1981); MECHENBAUM & TURK, supra note 84, at 156-57; Carroll, supra note 2, at 137-38.
138. ALBERT BANDURA, SOCIAL FOUNDATIONS OF THOUGHT AND ACTION: A SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY 338, 363, 368, 468-69, 470-71, 475-76, 478-79 (1986); SHARON S. BREHM & JACK W. BREHM, PSYCHOLOGICAL REACTANCE: A THEORY OF FREEDOM AND CONTROL 301 (1981); MECHENBAUM & TURK, supra note 84, at 156-57; Carroll, supra note 2, at 137-38.
139. MEICHENBAUM & TURK, supra note 84.
140. Council of the Am. Psychiatric Ass'n, Position Statement on the Question of Adequacy of Treatment, 123 AM. J. PSYCHIATRY 1458, 1459 (1967).
141. Donald J. Campbell, The Effects of Goal-Contingent Payment on the Performance of a Complex Task, 37 PERSONNEL PSYCHOL. 23, 23 (1984); Vandra L. Huber, Comparison of Monetary Reinforcers and Goal Setting as Learning Incentives, 56 PSYCHOL. REP. 223 (1985); Daniel S. Kirschenbaum & Randall C. Flanery, Toward a Psychology of Behavioral Contracting, 4 CLINICAL PSYCHOL. REV. 598, 603-09 (1984); Edwin A. Locke et al., Goal Setting and Task Performance 1969-80, 90 PSYCHOL. BULL. 125, 125-31 (1981); James R. Terborg & Howard E. Miller, Motivation, Behavior, and Performance: A Closer Examination of Goal Setting and Monetary Incentives, 63 J. APPLIED PSYCHOL. 29, 30-31 (1978).
142. Donald J. Campbell, The Effects of Goal-Contingent Payment on the Performance of a Complex Task, 37 PERSONNEL PSYCHOL. 23, 23 (1984); Vandra L. Huber, Comparison of Monetary Reinforcers and Goal Setting as Learning Incentives, 56 PSYCHOL. REP. 223 (1985); Daniel S. Kirschenbaum & Randall C. Flanery, Toward a Psychology of Behavioral Contracting, 4 CLINICAL PSYCHOL. REV. 598, 603-09 (1984); Edwin A. Locke et al., Goal Setting and Task Performance 1969-80, 90 PSYCHOL. BULL. 125, 125-31 (1981); James R. Terborg & Howard E. Miller, Motivation, Behavior, and Performance: A Closer Examination of Goal Setting and Monetary Incentives, 63 J. APPLIED PSYCHOL. 29, 30-31 (1978).
143. Donald J. Campbell, The Effects of Goal-Contingent Payment on the Performance of a Complex Task, 37 PERSONNEL PSYCHOL. 23, 23 (1984); Vandra L. Huber, Comparison of Monetary Reinforcers and Goal Setting as Learning Incentives, 56 PSYCHOL. REP. 223 (1985); Daniel S. Kirschenbaum & Randall C. Flanery, Toward a Psychology of Behavioral Contracting, 4 CLINICAL PSYCHOL. REV. 598, 603-09 (1984); Edwin A. Locke et al., Goal Setting and Task Performance 1969-80, 90 PSYCHOL. BULL. 125, 125-31 (1981); James R. Terborg & Howard E. Miller, Motivation, Behavior, and Performance: A Closer Examination of Goal Setting and Monetary Incentives, 63 J. APPLIED PSYCHOL. 29, 30-31 (1978).
144. Donald J. Campbell, The Effects of Goal-Contingent Payment on the Performance of a Complex Task, 37 PERSONNEL PSYCHOL. 23, 23 (1984); Vandra L. Huber, Comparison of Monetary Reinforcers and Goal Setting as Learning Incentives, 56 PSYCHOL. REP. 223 (1985); Daniel S. Kirschenbaum & Randall C. Flanery, Toward a Psychology of Behavioral Contracting, 4 CLINICAL PSYCHOL. REV. 598, 603-09 (1984); Edwin A. Locke et al., Goal Setting and Task Performance 1969-80, 90 PSYCHOL. BULL. 125, 125-31 (1981); James R. Terborg & Howard E. Miller, Motivation, Behavior, and Performance: A Closer Examination of Goal Setting and Monetary Incentives, 63 J. APPLIED PSYCHOL. 29, 30-31 (1978).
145. Donald J. Campbell, The Effects of Goal-Contingent Payment on the Performance of a Complex Task, 37 PERSONNEL PSYCHOL. 23, 23 (1984); Vandra L. Huber, Comparison of Monetary Reinforcers and Goal Setting as Learning Incentives, 56 PSYCHOL. REP. 223 (1985); Daniel S. Kirschenbaum & Randall C. Flanery, Toward a Psychology of Behavioral Contracting, 4 CLINICAL PSYCHOL. REV. 598, 603-09 (1984); Edwin A. Locke et al., Goal Setting and Task Performance 1969-80, 90 PSYCHOL. BULL. 125, 125-31 (1981); James R. Terborg & Howard E. Miller, Motivation, Behavior, and Performance: A Closer Examination of Goal Setting and Monetary Incentives, 63 J. APPLIED PSYCHOL. 29, 30-31 (1978).
146. BANDURA, supra note 91, at 469.
147. Id. at 412-13, 467; Edward L. Deci & Richard M. Ryan, The Empirical Exploration of Intrinsic Motivational Processes, 13 ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL Soc. PSYCHOL. 39, 59 (1980).
148. BANDURA, supra note 91, at 413; Albert Bandura, Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavior Change, 84 PSYCHOL. REV. 191 (1977).
149. EDWARD L. DECI, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SELF-DETERMINATION 208-10 (1980); see also CHARLES A. KIESLER, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF COMMITMENT: EXPERIMENTS LINKING BEHAVIOR TO BELIEF 164-67 (1971) (finding that the most effective method for behavior therapists to obtain desired results with patients was to give patients the perception that they had freedom and control).
150. EDWARD L. DECI, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SELF-DETERMINATION 208-10 (1980); see also CHARLES A. KIESLER, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF COMMITMENT: EXPERIMENTS LINKING BEHAVIOR TO BELIEF 164-67 (1971) (finding that the most effective method for behavior therapists to obtain desired results with patients was to give patients the perception that they had freedom and control).
151. JACK W. BREHM, A THEORY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL REACTANCE (1966); BREHM & BREHM, supra note 91, at 300-01.
152. See generally ERVING GOFFMAN, ASYLUMS: ESSAYS ON THE SOCIAL SITUATION OF MENTAL PATIENTS AND OTHER INMATES 3-74 (1962); CHARLES A. KIESLER & AMY E. SIBULKIN, MENTAL HOSPITALIZATION: MYTHS AND FACTS ABOUT A NATIONAL CRISIS 148 (1987); WINICK, supra note 2, at 35 n.81; Richard Cole, Patients' Rights vs. Doctors' Rights: Which Should Take Precedence?, in REFUSING TREATMENT IN MENTAL INSTITUTIONS: VALUES IN CONFLICT 59 (A. Edward Doudera & Judith P. Swazey eds., 1982); Edmund G. Doherty, Labeling Effects in Psychiatric Hospitalisation: A Study of Diverging Patterns of Inpatient Self-Labeling Process, 32 ARCHIVES GEN. PSYCHIATRY 562 (1975).
153. See generally ERVING GOFFMAN, ASYLUMS: ESSAYS ON THE SOCIAL SITUATION OF MENTAL PATIENTS AND OTHER INMATES 3-74 (1962); CHARLES A. KIESLER & AMY E. SIBULKIN, MENTAL HOSPITALIZATION: MYTHS AND FACTS ABOUT A NATIONAL CRISIS 148 (1987); WINICK, supra note 2, at 35 n.81; Richard Cole, Patients' Rights vs. Doctors' Rights: Which Should Take Precedence?, in REFUSING TREATMENT IN MENTAL INSTITUTIONS: VALUES IN CONFLICT 59 (A. Edward Doudera & Judith P. Swazey eds., 1982); Edmund G. Doherty, Labeling Effects in Psychiatric Hospitalisation: A Study of Diverging Patterns of Inpatient Self-Labeling Process, 32 ARCHIVES GEN. PSYCHIATRY 562 (1975).
154. See generally ERVING GOFFMAN, ASYLUMS: ESSAYS ON THE SOCIAL SITUATION OF MENTAL PATIENTS AND OTHER INMATES 3-74 (1962); CHARLES A. KIESLER & AMY E. SIBULKIN, MENTAL HOSPITALIZATION: MYTHS AND FACTS ABOUT A NATIONAL CRISIS 148 (1987); WINICK, supra note 2, at 35 n.81; Richard Cole, Patients' Rights vs. Doctors' Rights: Which Should Take Precedence?, in REFUSING TREATMENT IN MENTAL INSTITUTIONS: VALUES IN CONFLICT 59 (A. Edward Doudera & Judith P. Swazey eds., 1982); Edmund G. Doherty, Labeling Effects in Psychiatric Hospitalisation: A Study of Diverging Patterns of Inpatient Self-Labeling Process, 32 ARCHIVES GEN. PSYCHIATRY 562 (1975).
155. See generally ERVING GOFFMAN, ASYLUMS: ESSAYS ON THE SOCIAL SITUATION OF MENTAL PATIENTS AND OTHER INMATES 3-74 (1962); CHARLES A. KIESLER & AMY E. SIBULKIN, MENTAL HOSPITALIZATION: MYTHS AND FACTS ABOUT A NATIONAL CRISIS 148 (1987); WINICK, supra note 2, at 35 n.81; Richard Cole, Patients' Rights vs. Doctors' Rights: Which Should Take Precedence?, in REFUSING TREATMENT IN MENTAL INSTITUTIONS: VALUES IN CONFLICT 59 (A. Edward Doudera & Judith P. Swazey eds., 1982); Edmund G. Doherty, Labeling Effects in Psychiatric Hospitalisation: A Study of Diverging Patterns of Inpatient Self-Labeling Process, 32 ARCHIVES GEN. PSYCHIATRY 562 (1975).
156. ELLEN J. LANGER, MINDFULNESS 53 (1989); MARTIN E.P. SELIGMAN, HELPLESSNESS: ON DEPRESSION, DEVELOPMENT AND DEATH (1975); HUMAN HELPLESSNESS: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS (Judy Garber & Martin E.P. Seligman eds., 1980); WINICK, supra note 3, at 28-36.
157. ELLEN J. LANGER, MINDFULNESS 53 (1989); MARTIN E.P. SELIGMAN, HELPLESSNESS: ON DEPRESSION, DEVELOPMENT AND DEATH (1975); HUMAN HELPLESSNESS: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS (Judy Garber & Martin E.P. Seligman eds., 1980); WINICK, supra note 3, at 28-36.
158. ELLEN J. LANGER, MINDFULNESS 53 (1989); MARTIN E.P. SELIGMAN, HELPLESSNESS: ON DEPRESSION, DEVELOPMENT AND DEATH (1975); HUMAN HELPLESSNESS: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS (Judy Garber & Martin E.P. Seligman eds., 1980); WINICK, supra note 3, at 28-36.
159. Bruce D. Sales & Lynn R. Kahle, Law and Attitudes Toward the Mentally Ill, 3 INT'L J.L. &. PSYCHIATRY 391, 392 (1980).
160. Diamond, supra note 11, at 61-63; Solomon, supra note 65, at 143.
161. DECI, supra note 98, at 208-09.
162. Id. at 209.
163. Id.
164. See Zinermon v. Burch, 494 U.S. 113 (1990) (finding patient with schizophrenia assenting to voluntary admission to hospital incompetent to consent to hospitalization). For a detailed analysis of Zinermon and of the concept of competence to consent to voluntary hospitalization, see Winick, supra note 17.
165. See WINICK, supra note 3, at 83-90 (discussing effect of a right to refuse treatment on the therapeutic relationship); WINICK, supra note 14, at 338-42.
166. BREHM & BREHM, supra note 91, at 151-55, 300-01; WEXLER & WINICK, supra note 62, at 173; WINICK, supra note 3, at 83; Deci & Ryan, supra note 96, at 70; Michael L. Lambert et al., The Effectiveness of Psychotherapy, in HANDBOOK OF PSYCHOTHERAPY AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE (Sol E. Garfield & Allen E. Bergin eds., 1986) [hereinafter HANDBOOK OF PSYCHOTHERAPY].
167. WINICK, supra note 3, at 83.
168. See supra note 107.
169. BREHM & BREHM, supra note 91, at 151-52, 300-02; WEXLER & WINICK, supra note 62, at 173; Lany E. Beutler et al., Therapist Variables in Psychotherapy Process and Outcome, in HANDBOOK OF PSYCHOTHERAPY, supra note 109, at 280-81; David E. Orlinsky & Kenneth I. Howard, Process and Outcome in Psychotherapy, in HANDBOOK OF PSYCHOTHERAPY, supra note 109, at 311.
170. BREHM & BREHM, supra note 91, at 151-52, 300-02; WEXLER & WINICK, supra note 62, at 173; Lany E. Beutler et al., Therapist Variables in Psychotherapy Process and Outcome, in HANDBOOK OF PSYCHOTHERAPY, supra note 109, at 280-81; David E. Orlinsky & Kenneth I. Howard, Process and Outcome in Psychotherapy, in HANDBOOK OF PSYCHOTHERAPY, supra note 109, at 311.
171. NORMAN COUSINS, HEALTH FIRST: THE BIOLOGY OF HOPE AND THE HEALING POWER OF THE HUMAN SPIRIT (1990); Appelbaum & Gutheil, supra note 88, at 341;
172. see also Stephen. A. Eraker & Pam Polistser, How Decisions are Reached: Physician & Patient, 97 ANNALS INTERNAL MED. 262 (1982); Hughes & Larson, supra note 77, at 302;
173. Edward J. Speedling & David N. Rose, Building an Effective Doctor-Patient Relationship: From Patient Satisfaction to Patient Participation, 21 SOC. SCI. MED. 115 (1985). A 1983 longitudinal study demonstrated a relationship between patients' sense of personal control over their health, fostered by the doctor-patient relationship that encouraged patient participation, that correlated with positive treatment outcomes.
174. Melvin Seeman & Teresa E. Seeman, Health Behavior and Personal Autonomy: A Longitudinal Study of the Sense of Control in Illness, 24 J. HEALTH & SOC. BEHAV. 144, 144 (1983). Patients with "a low sense of control [are] significantly associated with (1) less self-initiated preventive care; (2) less optimism concerning the efficacy of early treatment; (3) poorer self-rated health; and (4) more illness episodes, more bed confinement and greater dependence upon the physician." Id. at 152.
175. PAUL RAMSEY, THE PATIENT AS PERSON: EXPLORATIONS IN MEDICAL ETHICS (1970).
176. WINICK, supra note 3, at 85-88.
177. See WINICK, supra note 14, at 29-40 (discussing psychotherapy).
178. See id. at 41-59 (discussing behavior therapy).
179. See id. at 61-85 (discussing psychotropic medication).
180. Appelbaum & Gutheil, supra note 88, at 341.
181. See COUSINS, supra note 113, at 55 ("[F]ull communication between the patient and physician is indispensable not just in arriving at an accurate diagnosis but in devising an effective strategy for treatment"); JAY KATZ, THE SILENT WORLD OF DOCTOR AND PATIENT 102-03 (1984) (analyzing the informed consent doctrine as furthering the doctor-patient relationship).
182. See supra Part VI.
183. A NEW FRONTIER, supra note 4, at 26.
184. Id.
185. Id. at 27.
186. Id.
187. See Tyler, supra note 77.
188. Hiday et al., supra note 8, at 235.
189. See Marshall v. Jerrico, Inc., 446 U.S. 238, 242 (1980) (stating that one of "the central concerns of procedural due process" is "the promotion of participation and dialogue by two affected individuals in the decision making process"); Codd v. Velger, 429 U.S. 624, 636 (1977) (Stevens, J., dissenting); Goldberg v. Kelly, 397 U.S. 254, 264-65 (1970); JERRY L. MASHAW, DUE PROCESS IN THE ADMINISTRATIVE STATE 177-80 (1985) (discussing "the claim that the dignity and self-respect of the individual can be protected only through processes of government in which there is meaningful participation by affected interests"); John J. Ensminger & Thomas D. Liguori, The Therapeutic Significance of the Civil Commitment Hearing: An Unexplored Potential, 6 J. PSYCHIATRY & L. 5 (1978).
190. See Marshall v. Jerrico, Inc., 446 U.S. 238, 242 (1980) (stating that one of "the central concerns of procedural due process" is "the promotion of participation and dialogue by two affected individuals in the decision making process"); Codd v. Velger, 429 U.S. 624, 636 (1977) (Stevens, J., dissenting); Goldberg v. Kelly, 397 U.S. 254, 264-65 (1970); JERRY L. MASHAW, DUE PROCESS IN THE ADMINISTRATIVE STATE 177-80 (1985) (discussing "the claim that the dignity and self-respect of the individual can be protected only through processes of government in which there is meaningful participation by affected interests"); John J. Ensminger & Thomas D. Liguori, The Therapeutic Significance of the Civil Commitment Hearing: An Unexplored Potential, 6 J. PSYCHIATRY & L. 5 (1978).
191. Hiday et al., supra note 8, at 225.
192. See Tyler, supra note 77 (discussing the therapeutic value of civil commitment hearings); Jack Susman, Resolving Hospital Conflicts: A Study on Therapeutic Jurisprudence, 22 J. PSYCHIATRY & L. 107 (1994). Even when the result of the hearing does not appear to reflect what the individual had to say, the opportunity for voice alone may have therapeutic value. See Tyler, supra note 77, at 440 & nn.64-65.
193. TOM L. BEAUCHAMP & JAMES F. CHILDRESS, PRINCIPLES OF BIOMEDICAL ETHICS 106 (3d ed. 1989); TOM L. BEAUCHAMP & LEROY WALTERS, CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN BIOETHICS 28 (2d ed. 1982); RUTH FADEN & TOM L. BEAUCHAMP, A HISTORY AND THEORY OF INFORMED CONSENT 10 (1986); WINICK, supra note 14, at 400.
194. TOM L. BEAUCHAMP & JAMES F. CHILDRESS, PRINCIPLES OF BIOMEDICAL ETHICS 106 (3d ed. 1989); TOM L. BEAUCHAMP & LEROY WALTERS, CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN BIOETHICS 28 (2d ed. 1982); RUTH FADEN & TOM L. BEAUCHAMP, A HISTORY AND THEORY OF INFORMED CONSENT 10 (1986); WINICK, supra note 14, at 400.
195. TOM L. BEAUCHAMP & JAMES F. CHILDRESS, PRINCIPLES OF BIOMEDICAL ETHICS 106 (3d ed. 1989); TOM L. BEAUCHAMP & LEROY WALTERS, CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN BIOETHICS 28 (2d ed. 1982); RUTH FADEN & TOM L. BEAUCHAMP, A HISTORY AND THEORY OF INFORMED CONSENT 10 (1986); WINICK, supra note 14, at 400.
196. Bruce J. Winick, On Autonomy: Legal and Psychological Perspectives, 37 VILL. L. REV. 1705, 1707-55 (1992).
197. See id. at 1755-68.