Reforming Land Planning Legislation at the Dawn of the 21st Century: The Emerging Influence of Smart Growth and Livable Communities

Urban Lawyer

Volumn 32, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 181-206

  Ohm, Brian W ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON   (United States)

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EID: 0007543673     PISSN: 00420905     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (184)

1. Attempting to define what is meant by "sprawl" is beyond the scope of this article.
2. See, e.g., RICHARD MOE & CARTER WILKIE, CHANGING PLACES: REBUILDING COMMUNITY IN THE AGE OF SPRAWL (1997); CONSTANCE E. BEAUMONT, SMART STATES, BETTER COMMUNITIES (1996).
3. See, e.g., RICHARD MOE & CARTER WILKIE, CHANGING PLACES: REBUILDING COMMUNITY IN THE AGE OF SPRAWL (1997); CONSTANCE E. BEAUMONT, SMART STATES, BETTER COMMUNITIES (1996).
4. AMERICAN FARMLAND TRUST, FARMING ON THE EDGE: A NEW LOOK AT THE IMPORTANCE AND VULNERABILITY OF AGRICULTURE NEAR AMERICAN CITIES (1994).
5. Mary H. Cooper, Setting Environmental Priorities, 9 CONG. Q. RESEARCHER 427, 442 (1999). Environmental concerns include loss of open space, water and air quality concerns, and cleaning up polluted sites. Id. See also LAND USE IN AMERICA (Henry L. Diamond & Patrick F. Noonan eds., 1996); SIERRA CLUB, THE DARK SIDE OF THE AMERICAN DREAM: THE COSTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF SUBURBAN SPRAWL (1998).
6. Mary H. Cooper, Setting Environmental Priorities, 9 CONG. Q. RESEARCHER 427, 442 (1999). Environmental concerns include loss of open space, water and air quality concerns, and cleaning up polluted sites. Id. See also LAND USE IN AMERICA (Henry L. Diamond & Patrick F. Noonan eds., 1996); SIERRA CLUB, THE DARK SIDE OF THE AMERICAN DREAM: THE COSTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF SUBURBAN SPRAWL (1998).
7. Mary H. Cooper, Setting Environmental Priorities, 9 CONG. Q. RESEARCHER 427, 442 (1999). Environmental concerns include loss of open space, water and air quality concerns, and cleaning up polluted sites. Id. See also LAND USE IN AMERICA (Henry L. Diamond & Patrick F. Noonan eds., 1996); SIERRA CLUB, THE DARK SIDE OF THE AMERICAN DREAM: THE COSTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF SUBURBAN SPRAWL (1998).
8. Mary H. Cooper, Setting Environmental Priorities, 9 CONG. Q. RESEARCHER 427, 442 (1999). Environmental concerns include loss of open space, water and air quality concerns, and cleaning up polluted sites. Id. See also LAND USE IN AMERICA (Henry L. Diamond & Patrick F. Noonan eds., 1996); SIERRA CLUB, THE DARK SIDE OF THE AMERICAN DREAM: THE COSTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF SUBURBAN SPRAWL (1998).
9. Hugh L. McColl, Jr., Developing Common Ground. Remarks to the International Council of Shopping Centers 1999, Idea Exchange Chair and Chief Executive Officer of BankAmerica Corporation (available at http://www.bankamerica.com/speeches/ hm033099.html). One example cited by McColl is Hewlett-Packard's decision not to build a second office tower in Atlanta because of traffic congestion in the metropolitan area. Id. See also NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS (NALGEP), PROFILES OF BUSINESS LEADERSHIP ON SMART GROWTH: NEW PARTNERSHIPS DEMONSTRATE THE ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF REDUCING SPRAWL (1999).
10. Hugh L. McColl, Jr., Developing Common Ground. Remarks to the International Council of Shopping Centers 1999, Idea Exchange Chair and Chief Executive Officer of BankAmerica Corporation (available at http://www.bankamerica.com/speeches/ hm033099.html). One example cited by McColl is Hewlett-Packard's decision not to build a second office tower in Atlanta because of traffic congestion in the metropolitan area. Id. See also NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS (NALGEP), PROFILES OF BUSINESS LEADERSHIP ON SMART GROWTH: NEW PARTNERSHIPS DEMONSTRATE THE ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF REDUCING SPRAWL (1999).
11. Hugh L. McColl, Jr., Developing Common Ground. Remarks to the International Council of Shopping Centers 1999, Idea Exchange Chair and Chief Executive Officer of BankAmerica Corporation (available at http://www.bankamerica.com/speeches/ hm033099.html). One example cited by McColl is Hewlett-Packard's decision not to build a second office tower in Atlanta because of traffic congestion in the metropolitan area. Id. See also NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS (NALGEP), PROFILES OF BUSINESS LEADERSHIP ON SMART GROWTH: NEW PARTNERSHIPS DEMONSTRATE THE ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF REDUCING SPRAWL (1999).
12. Debra Baker, How Safe Is Your 'Burb?, 85 A.B.A. J. 50 (Sept. 1999); Margaret Kriz, The Politics of Sprawl, NAT'L J. 332 (Feb. 6, 1999).
13. Debra Baker, How Safe Is Your 'Burb?, 85 A.B.A. J. 50 (Sept. 1999); Margaret Kriz, The Politics of Sprawl, NAT'L J. 332 (Feb. 6, 1999).
14. Peter W. Salsich Jr., Thinking Regionally About Affordable Housing and Neighborhood Development, 28 STETSON L. REV., 577, 586 (1999); DAVID BOLLIER, HOW SMART GROWTH CAN STOP SPRAWL (1998); MYRON ORFIELD, METROPOLITICS: A REGIONAL AGENDA FOR COMMUNITY AND STABILITY 140-42 (1997, rev. ed.). The efforts of the religious groups are based on moral beliefs that existing development patterns are socially and economically unjust. Id. See also Robert H. Freilich & Bruce G. Peshoff, The Social Costs of Sprawl, 29 URB. LAW. 183 (1997).
15. Peter W. Salsich Jr., Thinking Regionally About Affordable Housing and Neighborhood Development, 28 STETSON L. REV., 577, 586 (1999); DAVID BOLLIER, HOW SMART GROWTH CAN STOP SPRAWL (1998); MYRON ORFIELD, METROPOLITICS: A REGIONAL AGENDA FOR COMMUNITY AND STABILITY 140-42 (1997, rev. ed.). The efforts of the religious groups are based on moral beliefs that existing development patterns are socially and economically unjust. Id. See also Robert H. Freilich & Bruce G. Peshoff, The Social Costs of Sprawl, 29 URB. LAW. 183 (1997).
16. Peter W. Salsich Jr., Thinking Regionally About Affordable Housing and Neighborhood Development, 28 STETSON L. REV., 577, 586 (1999); DAVID BOLLIER, HOW SMART GROWTH CAN STOP SPRAWL (1998); MYRON ORFIELD, METROPOLITICS: A REGIONAL AGENDA FOR COMMUNITY AND STABILITY 140-42 (1997, rev. ed.). The efforts of the religious groups are based on moral beliefs that existing development patterns are socially and economically unjust. Id. See also Robert H. Freilich & Bruce G. Peshoff, The Social Costs of Sprawl, 29 URB. LAW. 183 (1997).
17. Peter W. Salsich Jr., Thinking Regionally About Affordable Housing and Neighborhood Development, 28 STETSON L. REV., 577, 586 (1999); DAVID BOLLIER, HOW SMART GROWTH CAN STOP SPRAWL (1998); MYRON ORFIELD, METROPOLITICS: A REGIONAL AGENDA FOR COMMUNITY AND STABILITY 140-42 (1997, rev. ed.). The efforts of the religious groups are based on moral beliefs that existing development patterns are socially and economically unjust. Id. See also Robert H. Freilich & Bruce G. Peshoff, The Social Costs of Sprawl, 29 URB. LAW. 183 (1997).
18. Peter W. Salsich Jr., Thinking Regionally About Affordable Housing and Neighborhood Development, 28 STETSON L. REV., 577, 586 (1999); DAVID BOLLIER, HOW SMART GROWTH CAN STOP SPRAWL (1998); MYRON ORFIELD, METROPOLITICS: A REGIONAL AGENDA FOR COMMUNITY AND STABILITY 140-42 (1997, rev. ed.). The efforts of the religious groups are based on moral beliefs that existing development patterns are socially and economically unjust. Id. See also Robert H. Freilich & Bruce G. Peshoff, The Social Costs of Sprawl, 29 URB. LAW. 183 (1997).
19. John A. Powell, Race and Space: What Really Drives Metropolitan Growth, 16 BROOKINGS REV. 20 (Fall 1998); Bob Wing, What We Need to Do About the 'Burbs: An Interview with John Powell, 2 COLORLINES (Fall 1999) (available at http:// www.arc.org/CLArchive/story1_3_01.html). Powell advocates a comprehensive regional strategy that links people of color with opportunities. These include new transportation lines, bringing jobs and business to communities of color, and ensuring the option of having people move to where those opportunities currently exist outside inner cities. Id. See also Florence Wagman Roisman, Sustainable Development in the Suburbs and Their Cities: The Environmental and Financial Imperatives of Racial, Ethnic, and Economic Inclusion, 3 WIDENER L. SYMP. J. 87 (Fall 1998).
20. John A. Powell, Race and Space: What Really Drives Metropolitan Growth, 16 BROOKINGS REV. 20 (Fall 1998); Bob Wing, What We Need to Do About the 'Burbs: An Interview with John Powell, 2 COLORLINES (Fall 1999) (available at http:// www.arc.org/CLArchive/story1_3_01.html). Powell advocates a comprehensive regional strategy that links people of color with opportunities. These include new transportation lines, bringing jobs and business to communities of color, and ensuring the option of having people move to where those opportunities currently exist outside inner cities. Id. See also Florence Wagman Roisman, Sustainable Development in the Suburbs and Their Cities: The Environmental and Financial Imperatives of Racial, Ethnic, and Economic Inclusion, 3 WIDENER L. SYMP. J. 87 (Fall 1998).
21. John A. Powell, Race and Space: What Really Drives Metropolitan Growth, 16 BROOKINGS REV. 20 (Fall 1998); Bob Wing, What We Need to Do About the 'Burbs: An Interview with John Powell, 2 COLORLINES (Fall 1999) (available at http:// www.arc.org/CLArchive/story1_3_01.html). Powell advocates a comprehensive regional strategy that links people of color with opportunities. These include new transportation lines, bringing jobs and business to communities of color, and ensuring the option of having people move to where those opportunities currently exist outside inner cities. Id. See also Florence Wagman Roisman, Sustainable Development in the Suburbs and Their Cities: The Environmental and Financial Imperatives of Racial, Ethnic, and Economic Inclusion, 3 WIDENER L. SYMP. J. 87 (Fall 1998).
22. John A. Powell, Race and Space: What Really Drives Metropolitan Growth, 16 BROOKINGS REV. 20 (Fall 1998); Bob Wing, What We Need to Do About the 'Burbs: An Interview with John Powell, 2 COLORLINES (Fall 1999) (available at http:// www.arc.org/CLArchive/story1_3_01.html). Powell advocates a comprehensive regional strategy that links people of color with opportunities. These include new transportation lines, bringing jobs and business to communities of color, and ensuring the option of having people move to where those opportunities currently exist outside inner cities. Id. See also Florence Wagman Roisman, Sustainable Development in the Suburbs and Their Cities: The Environmental and Financial Imperatives of Racial, Ethnic, and Economic Inclusion, 3 WIDENER L. SYMP. J. 87 (Fall 1998).
23. See infra notes 72-91 and accompanying text.
24. The Georgia Legislature passed a law creating a regional transportation authority to address traffic congestion in the Atlanta metropolitan area. Georgia Legislature Enacts Regional Transportation Law, 27 LAND USE L. REP. 50 (1999).
25. David L. Callies, The Quiet Revolution Revisited, 46 J. AM. PLAN. ASS'N 135, 136 (1980).
26. See, e.g., Charles M. Harr, In Accordance with a Comprehensive Plan, 68 HARV. L. REV. 1154 (1955); T. J. KENT, JR., THE URBAN GENERAL PLAN (1964); MEL SCOTT, AMERICAN CITY PLANNING SINCE 1890 (1969); DANIEL R. MANDELKER & ROGER A. CUNNINGHAM, PLANNING AND CONTROL OF LAND DEVELOPMENT: CASES AND MATERIALS 73 (1979); CLYDE W. FORREST, INTERFACES FOR MODEL PLANNING AND ZONING LEGISLATION, MODERNIZING STATE PLANNING STATUTES: THE GROWING SMART WORKING PAPERS, VOL 1, 47 (1996).
27. See, e.g., Charles M. Harr, In Accordance with a Comprehensive Plan, 68 HARV. L. REV. 1154 (1955); T. J. KENT, JR., THE URBAN GENERAL PLAN (1964); MEL SCOTT, AMERICAN CITY PLANNING SINCE 1890 (1969); DANIEL R. MANDELKER & ROGER A. CUNNINGHAM, PLANNING AND CONTROL OF LAND DEVELOPMENT: CASES AND MATERIALS 73 (1979); CLYDE W. FORREST, INTERFACES FOR MODEL PLANNING AND ZONING LEGISLATION, MODERNIZING STATE PLANNING STATUTES: THE GROWING SMART WORKING PAPERS, VOL 1, 47 (1996).
28. See, e.g., Charles M. Harr, In Accordance with a Comprehensive Plan, 68 HARV. L. REV. 1154 (1955); T. J. KENT, JR., THE URBAN GENERAL PLAN (1964); MEL SCOTT, AMERICAN CITY PLANNING SINCE 1890 (1969); DANIEL R. MANDELKER & ROGER A. CUNNINGHAM, PLANNING AND CONTROL OF LAND DEVELOPMENT: CASES AND MATERIALS 73 (1979); CLYDE W. FORREST, INTERFACES FOR MODEL PLANNING AND ZONING LEGISLATION, MODERNIZING STATE PLANNING STATUTES: THE GROWING SMART WORKING PAPERS, VOL 1, 47 (1996).
29. See, e.g., Charles M. Harr, In Accordance with a Comprehensive Plan, 68 HARV. L. REV. 1154 (1955); T. J. KENT, JR., THE URBAN GENERAL PLAN (1964); MEL SCOTT, AMERICAN CITY PLANNING SINCE 1890 (1969); DANIEL R. MANDELKER & ROGER A. CUNNINGHAM, PLANNING AND CONTROL OF LAND DEVELOPMENT: CASES AND MATERIALS 73 (1979); CLYDE W. FORREST, INTERFACES FOR MODEL PLANNING AND ZONING LEGISLATION, MODERNIZING STATE PLANNING STATUTES: THE GROWING SMART WORKING PAPERS, VOL 1, 47 (1996).
30. See, e.g., Charles M. Harr, In Accordance with a Comprehensive Plan, 68 HARV. L. REV. 1154 (1955); T. J. KENT, JR., THE URBAN GENERAL PLAN (1964); MEL SCOTT, AMERICAN CITY PLANNING SINCE 1890 (1969); DANIEL R. MANDELKER & ROGER A. CUNNINGHAM, PLANNING AND CONTROL OF LAND DEVELOPMENT: CASES AND MATERIALS 73 (1979); CLYDE W. FORREST, INTERFACES FOR MODEL PLANNING AND ZONING LEGISLATION, MODERNIZING STATE PLANNING STATUTES: THE GROWING SMART WORKING PAPERS, VOL 1, 47 (1996).
31. Scott A. Bollens, Restructuring Land Use Governance, 7 J. PLAN. LITERATURE 211 (1993). There is even no consensus in the field of urban planning on whether sprawl itself is a problem. D.W. Miller, Searching for Common Ground in the Debate over Urban Sprawl: As Policy Makers Charge Ahead, Research Findings Offer No Road Map, CHRON. OF HIGHER EDUC. A15 (May 21, 1999).
32. Scott A. Bollens, Restructuring Land Use Governance, 7 J. PLAN. LITERATURE 211 (1993). There is even no consensus in the field of urban planning on whether sprawl itself is a problem. D.W. Miller, Searching for Common Ground in the Debate over Urban Sprawl: As Policy Makers Charge Ahead, Research Findings Offer No Road Map, CHRON. OF HIGHER EDUC. A15 (May 21, 1999).
33. RAYMOND J. BURBY & PETER J. MAY, MAKING GOVERNMENTS PLAN: STATE EXPERIMENTS IN MANAGING LAND USE (1997).
34. See, e.g., Daniel R. Mandelker, Should State Government Mandate Local Planning?. . . Yes, 44 PLAN. 14 (1978); Lawrence Susskind, Should State Government Mandate Local Planning? . . . No, 44 PLAN. 14 (1978).
35. See, e.g., Daniel R. Mandelker, Should State Government Mandate Local Planning?. . . Yes, 44 PLAN. 14 (1978); Lawrence Susskind, Should State Government Mandate Local Planning? . . . No, 44 PLAN. 14 (1978).
36. William C. Baer, General Plan Evaluation Criteria: An Approach to Making Better Plans, 63 J. AM. PLAN. ASS'N 329 (1997).
37. Edward J. Kaiser & David R. Godschalk, Twentieth Century Land Use Planning: A Stalwart Family Tree, 61 J. AM. PLAN. ASS'N 365 (1995).
38. Brian Ohm & Erich Schmidke, An Inventory of Land Use Plans in Wisconsin, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Extension Rep. Series, No. 98-3 (1998).
39. JACOB H. BEUSCHER & ORLANDO DELOGU, LAND USE CONTROLS: WISCONSIN DEVELOPMENT SERIES (1966).
40. DANIEL R. MANDELKER, THE ZONING DILEMMA: A LEGAL STRATEGY FOR URBAN CHANGE (1971).
41. Wis. Laws of 1889, c. 326, §§ 52, sub. 65, 73. In many states, the fire districting laws were not created by reason of a state enabling act relating to fire districts but were part of the implied legislative powers of a municipality. EDWARD M. BASSETT, ZONING: THE LAWS, ADMINISTRATION, AND COURT DECISIONS DURING THE FIRST TWENTY Years 22 (1936).
42. Id. at 25.
43. Id. at 26.
44. State ex rel., Carter v. Harper, 182 Wis. 148, 196 N.W. 451, 454 (Wis. 1923). Wisconsin, like many states, followed the home rule movement in the late 1800s, which sought to reform government by providing some insulation to the governance of cities from the rural dominated state legislatures. JOSEPH F. ZIMMERMAN, STATE-LOCAL RELATIONS: A PARTNERSHIP APPROACH (2d ed. 1995). A home rule statute was passed in 1911 but voided by the Wisconsin Supreme Court in 1912. An amendment to the Wisconsin Constitution finally provided the cities home rule authority in 1924. Claire Silverman, Municipal Home Rule in Wisconsin, 93 MUNICIPALITY 381, 381 (1998). Since that time, cities have used their home rule authority infrequently. Id. at 385. As a result, cities rely heavily on the planning enabling laws.
45. State ex rel., Carter v. Harper, 182 Wis. 148, 196 N.W. 451, 454 (Wis. 1923). Wisconsin, like many states, followed the home rule movement in the late 1800s, which sought to reform government by providing some insulation to the governance of cities from the rural dominated state legislatures. JOSEPH F. ZIMMERMAN, STATE-LOCAL RELATIONS: A PARTNERSHIP APPROACH (2d ed. 1995). A home rule statute was passed in 1911 but voided by the Wisconsin Supreme Court in 1912. An amendment to the Wisconsin Constitution finally provided the cities home rule authority in 1924. Claire Silverman, Municipal Home Rule in Wisconsin, 93 MUNICIPALITY 381, 381 (1998). Since that time, cities have used their home rule authority infrequently. Id. at 385. As a result, cities rely heavily on the planning enabling laws.
46. State ex rel., Carter v. Harper, 182 Wis. 148, 196 N.W. 451, 454 (Wis. 1923). Wisconsin, like many states, followed the home rule movement in the late 1800s, which sought to reform government by providing some insulation to the governance of cities from the rural dominated state legislatures. JOSEPH F. ZIMMERMAN, STATE-LOCAL RELATIONS: A PARTNERSHIP APPROACH (2d ed. 1995). A home rule statute was passed in 1911 but voided by the Wisconsin Supreme Court in 1912. An amendment to the Wisconsin Constitution finally provided the cities home rule authority in 1924. Claire Silverman, Municipal Home Rule in Wisconsin, 93 MUNICIPALITY 381, 381 (1998). Since that time, cities have used their home rule authority infrequently. Id. at 385. As a result, cities rely heavily on the planning enabling laws.
47. BASSETT, supra note 21, at 29.
48. ROBERT M. ANDERSON, AMERICAN LAW OF ZONING § 2.21 (3d ed. 1986).
49. See FORREST, supra note 12. According to Forrest, 37 of 50 states based their state laws on both model acts. Id. at 47.
50. SCOTT, supra note 12 at 350.
51. Alan Black, The Comprehensive Plan, in PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF URBAN PLANNING, at 353-54 (William I. Goodman & Eric C. Freund eds., 1968).
52. BURBY & MAY, supra note 14.
53. KENT, supra note 12.
54. See, e.g., L. Sager, Tight Little Islands: Exclusionary Zoning, Equal Protection, and the Indigent, 21 STAN. L. REV. 767 (1969); IAN L. MCHARG, DESIGN WITH NATURE (1969).
55. See, e.g., L. Sager, Tight Little Islands: Exclusionary Zoning, Equal Protection, and the Indigent, 21 STAN. L. REV. 767 (1969); IAN L. MCHARG, DESIGN WITH NATURE (1969).
56. STAFF OF SENATE COMM. ON INTERIOR AND INSULAR AFFAIRS, 92D CONG., 2D SESS., NATIONAL LAND USE POLICY: BACKGROUND PAPERS ON PAST AND PENDING LEGISLATION AND THE ROLES OF THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH, CONGRESS, AND THE STATES IN LAND USE POLICY AND PLANNING 9 (Comm. Print 1972).
57. FREDERICK P. BOSSELMAN & DAVID CALLIES, THE QUIET REVOLUTION IN LAND USE CONTROL (1971).
58. See, e.g., DANIEL R. MANDELKER, ENVIRONMENTAL AND LAND CONTROLS LEGISLATION (1976). For a history of the federal government's influence in local planning efforts under section 701 of the Housing Act of 1954, see Carl Feiss, The Foundations of Federal Planning Assistance, 51 J. AM. PLAN. ASS'N 175 (1985). These and other federal initiatives also influenced the creation of regional governing bodies such as the Metropolitan Council created by the Minnesota Legislature for the Minneapolis and St. Paul metropolitan area.
59. See, e.g., DANIEL R. MANDELKER, ENVIRONMENTAL AND LAND CONTROLS LEGISLATION (1976). For a history of the federal government's influence in local planning efforts under section 701 of the Housing Act of 1954, see Carl Feiss, The Foundations of Federal Planning Assistance, 51 J. AM. PLAN. ASS'N 175 (1985). These and other federal initiatives also influenced the creation of regional governing bodies such as the Metropolitan Council created by the Minnesota Legislature for the Minneapolis and St. Paul metropolitan area.
60. STAFF OF SENATE COMM. ON INTERIOR AND INSULAR AFFAIRS, supra note 33.
61. Id. at 4.
62. States that adopted these laws include Hawaii (Land Use Commission Act, 1961 Haw. Sess. Laws ch. 187, current version at HAW. REV. STAT. §§ 205.1-.37); Vermont (Environmental Board and District Environmental Commissions Act, 1970 Vt. Laws 250, current version at VT. STAT. ANN. tit. 10, §§ 6001-6108); Florida (The State Comprehensive Planning Act of 1972, 1972 Fla. Laws ch. 72-295, current version at FLA. STAT. § 186.001-186.031, 186.801-186.911; Florida Environmental Land and Water Management Act of 1972, 1972 Fla. Laws ch. 72-317, current version at FLA. STAT. §§ 380.012-.27; Land Conservation Act of 1972, 1972 Fla. Laws ch. 72-300, current version at FLA. STAT. ch. 259.01-.101, Water Resources Act of 1972, 1972 Fla. Laws c. 72-299, current version at FLA STAT. ch. 373.013-.619, Local Government Comprehensive Planning Act, 1975 Fla. Laws ch. 75-257, current version at FLA. STAT. ANN. §§ 163.3161-.3215); Oregon (Land Use Planning Coordination Act, 1973 Or. Laws ch. 80 (current version at OR. REV. STAT. ch. 197.005-.860); Colorado (The Colorado Land Use Act of 1974, COLO. REV. STAT. §§ 24-65-101-24-65.1-502); California (The California Coastal Act of 1972, CAL. PUB. RES. CODE 27000-650, Tahoe Regional Planning Compact of 1969, CAL. GOV'T CODE §§ 66800-6801); North Carolina (The Coastal Area Management Act of 1974, N.C. Gen. Stat. §§ 113A-100-113A-134.3; Minnesota (Metropolitan Land Planning Act, 1976 Minn. Laws, ch. 127, and 1977 Minn. Laws, ch. 347, § 68); New York (Adirondack Park Agency Act of 1971, N. Y. EXEC. LAW §§ 800-820); and Massachussets (The Martha's Vineyard Commission Act, 1974 Mass. Acts ch. 637).
63. Bollens, supra note 13, at 215.
64. Daniel R. Mandelker, The Quiet Revolution - Success and Failure, 55 J. AM. PLAN. ASS'N 204, 204-05; James A. Kushner, Growth Management and the City, 12 YALE L. & POL'Y REV. 68, 74-75 (1994).
65. Daniel R. Mandelker, The Quiet Revolution - Success and Failure, 55 J. AM. PLAN. ASS'N 204, 204-05; James A. Kushner, Growth Management and the City, 12 YALE L. & POL'Y REV. 68, 74-75 (1994).
66. Kushner, supra note 40.
67. JOHN M. DEGROVE, PLANNING AND GROWTH MANAGEMENT IN THE STATES (1992); Bollens, supra note 13; William Fulton, In Land-Use Planning, A Second Revolution Shifts Control to the States, GOVERNING, at 40 (Mar. 1989). States adopting these laws include New Jersey (New Jersey State Planning Act, N.J. REV. STAT. §§ 52:18A-196-52:18A-207, Fair Housing Act, N.J. REV. STAT. §§ 52:27D-301-52:27D-329); Maine (Comprehensive Planning and Land Use Act, ME. REV. STAT. Ann. tit. 30A, §§ 4301-4469); Rhode Island (Comprehensive Planning and Land Use Regulation Act, R.I. GEN. LAWS §§ 45-22.2-1-45-22.2-14); Georgia (Coordinated Planning Act, Ga. Code. Ann. §§ 50-8-1-50-8-46); Washington (The Growth Management Act, WASH. REV. CODE §§ 36-70A); and Maryland (Economic Growth, Resource Protection, and Planning Act, 1992 Md. Laws ch. 437).
68. JOHN M. DEGROVE, PLANNING AND GROWTH MANAGEMENT IN THE STATES (1992); Bollens, supra note 13; William Fulton, In Land-Use Planning, A Second Revolution Shifts Control to the States, GOVERNING, at 40 (Mar. 1989). States adopting these laws include New Jersey (New Jersey State Planning Act, N.J. REV. STAT. §§ 52:18A-196-52:18A-207, Fair Housing Act, N.J. REV. STAT. §§ 52:27D-301-52:27D-329); Maine (Comprehensive Planning and Land Use Act, ME. REV. STAT. Ann. tit. 30A, §§ 4301-4469); Rhode Island (Comprehensive Planning and Land Use Regulation Act, R.I. GEN. LAWS §§ 45-22.2-1-45-22.2-14); Georgia (Coordinated Planning Act, Ga. Code. Ann. §§ 50-8-1-50-8-46); Washington (The Growth Management Act, WASH. REV. CODE §§ 36-70A); and Maryland (Economic Growth, Resource Protection, and Planning Act, 1992 Md. Laws ch. 437).
69. Scott A. Bollens, State Growth Management: Intergovernmental Frameworks and Policy Objectives, 58 J. AM. PLAN. ASS'N 454 (1992); Dennis E. Gale, Eight State-Sponsored Growth Management Programs: A Comparative Analysis, 58 J. AM. PLAN. ASS'N 425 (1992).
70. Scott A. Bollens, State Growth Management: Intergovernmental Frameworks and Policy Objectives, 58 J. AM. PLAN. ASS'N 454 (1992); Dennis E. Gale, Eight State-Sponsored Growth Management Programs: A Comparative Analysis, 58 J. AM. PLAN. ASS'N 425 (1992).
71. HARVEY M. JACOBS, STATE PROPERTY RIGHTS LAWS: THE IMPACT OF THOSE LAWS ON MY LAND (1999).
72. Kirk Emerson & Charles R. Wise, Statutory Approaches to Regulatory Takings, 57 PUBLIC ADMIN. REV. 411 (1997).
73. Jacobs, supra note 44.
74. Michael Allan Wolf, Euclid at Threescore Years and Ten: Is This the Twilight of Environmental and Land-Use Regulation?, 30 U. RICH. L. REV. 961 (1996); Charles M. Haar, The Twighlight of Land-Use Controls: A Paradigm Shift?, 30 U. RICH. L. REV. 1011 (1996).
75. Michael Allan Wolf, Euclid at Threescore Years and Ten: Is This the Twilight of Environmental and Land-Use Regulation?, 30 U. RICH. L. REV. 961 (1996); Charles M. Haar, The Twighlight of Land-Use Controls: A Paradigm Shift?, 30 U. RICH. L. REV. 1011 (1996).
76. J. B. Ruhl, Taming the Suburban Amoeba in the Ecosystem Age: Some Do's and Don'ts, 3 WIS. L. SYMP. J. 61, 72, n.29 (1998).
77. P. MEYERS, LIVABILITY AT THE BALLOT BOX: STATE AND LOCAL REFERENDA ON PARKS, CONSERVATION, AND SMARTER GROWTH, ELECTION DAY 1998, at 5 (1999). The success of these measures does not mean that the private property rights movement is not still present. Many of these referenda were to authorize spending programs to acquire open space and important natural resource areas. The acceptance of these programs would assuage some of the concerns that resulted in the popular appeal of the private property rights movement. Namely, if the public wants permanent land protection, it will need to compensate the landowner.
78. AMERICAN PLANNING ASSOCIATION, GROWING SMART NEWSLETTER (Summer 1999).
79. From the website for the exhibit at 〈http://www.nbm.org/Exhibits/Where_Do_ We_Go_From_Here.html.〉
80. William Hudnut, Question: What is Smart Growth Not? (July 1999) (available at http://www.uli.Org/Pub/Pages/a_ssues?A_UrL4_SeHu.htm.).
81. Id.
82. The term "growth management" has evolved to mean: a commitment to plan carefully for the growth that comes to an area so as to achieve a responsible balance between the protection of natural systems - land, air, and water - and the development required to support growth in the residential, commercial, and retail areas. Growth management is not pro-growth, nor is it anti-growth. It is deeply committed to a responsible "fit" between development and the infrastructure needed to support the impacts of development, including such things as roads, schools, water, sewer, drainage, solid waste, and parks and recreation. Thus growth management is closely linked to, and necessary for, the achievement of "quality of life. JOHN M. DEGROVE, PLANNING AND GROWTH MANAGEMENT IN THE STATES 1 (1992). See also Eric D. Kelly, MANAGING COMMUNITY GROWTH: POLICIES, TECHNIQUES, AND IMPACTS (1993).
83. The term "growth management" has evolved to mean: a commitment to plan carefully for the growth that comes to an area so as to achieve a responsible balance between the protection of natural systems - land, air, and water - and the development required to support growth in the residential, commercial, and retail areas. Growth management is not pro-growth, nor is it anti-growth. It is deeply committed to a responsible "fit" between development and the infrastructure needed to support the impacts of development, including such things as roads, schools, water, sewer, drainage, solid waste, and parks and recreation. Thus growth management is closely linked to, and necessary for, the achievement of "quality of life. JOHN M. DEGROVE, PLANNING AND GROWTH MANAGEMENT IN THE STATES 1 (1992). See also Eric D. Kelly, MANAGING COMMUNITY GROWTH: POLICIES, TECHNIQUES, AND IMPACTS (1993).
84. ARTHUR C. NELSON & JAMES B. DUNCAN, GROWTH MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES (1995). "Prevention of urban sprawl" listed as a purpose of growth management. Id. at 1-8.
85. ARTHUR C. NELSON & JAMES B. DUNCAN, GROWTH MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES (1995). "Prevention of urban sprawl" listed as a purpose of growth management. Id. at 1-8.
86. OLIVER E. BYRUM, OLD PROBLEMS IN NEW TIMES: URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE 1990s (1991).
87. Charles L. Siemon, Successful Growth Management Techniques: Observations from the Monkey Cage, 29 URB. LAW. 233, 233 (1997).
88. See, e.g., Kushner, supra note 40, at 72 (noting that "[d]espite the evolution and sophistication of contemporary planning and growth management, our cities are stagnating and dying").
89. See, e.g., Gov. Paris N. Glendening, Building a Consensus for Smart Growth (last updated July 7, 1998) 〈http://www.nga.org/naturalRes/SmartGrowthGlendening 1998.htm〉.
90. NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF HOME BUILDERS, SMART GROWTH: BUILDING BETTER PLACES TO LIVE, WORK AND PLAY (1999).
91. The "Growing Smart" research project of the American Planing Association focuses on creating new model planning enabling laws. Rather than a "one size fits all" model similar to the Model Land Development Code developed in the 1970s, the "Growing Smart" project includes multiple alternatives which states can tailor to meet their specific needs. In addition to the ICMA, members of the Smart Growth Network include: American Farmland Trust, American Planning Association, Center for Neighborhood Technology, Congress for New Urbanism, Joint Center for Sustainable Communities, State of Maryland, National Association of Counties, National Association of Environmental Professionals, Natural Resources Defense Council, Northeast-Midwest Institute, Surface Transportation Policy Project, Sustainable Communities Network, and Urban Land Institute. Information on these members is found at 〈http://www.smartgrowth.org.〉
92. Metropolitan Council, Smart Growth Gaining Ground, COUNCIL DIRECTIONS 4-5 (Sept.-Oct. 1999).
93. Peter W. Salsich, Jr., Thinking Regionally About Affordable Housing and Neighborhood Development, 28 STETSON L. REV. 577, 586 (1999).
94. Steven Hayward, Suburban Legends: The Fight Against Sprawl Is Based More on Anti-Suburban Animus Than on Facts. 51 NAT'L REV. 35 (1999); John Derbyshire, The Vital Middle: Three Cheers for the Middle Class, 51 NAT'L REV. 38 (1999); David Shiflett, Strip Show: In Praise of Suburban Schlock, 51 NAT'L REV. 40 (1999).
95. Steven Hayward, Suburban Legends: The Fight Against Sprawl Is Based More on Anti-Suburban Animus Than on Facts. 51 NAT'L REV. 35 (1999); John Derbyshire, The Vital Middle: Three Cheers for the Middle Class, 51 NAT'L REV. 38 (1999); David Shiflett, Strip Show: In Praise of Suburban Schlock, 51 NAT'L REV. 40 (1999).
96. Steven Hayward, Suburban Legends: The Fight Against Sprawl Is Based More on Anti-Suburban Animus Than on Facts. 51 NAT'L REV. 35 (1999); John Derbyshire, The Vital Middle: Three Cheers for the Middle Class, 51 NAT'L REV. 38 (1999); David Shiflett, Strip Show: In Praise of Suburban Schlock, 51 NAT'L REV. 40 (1999).
97. SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES NETWORK, 〈http://www.smartgrowth.org/index_ frameset.htm〉
98. G. SCOTT THOMAS, THE UNITED STATES OF SUBURBIA: HOW THE SUBURBS TOOK CONTROL OF AMERICA AND WHAT THEY PLAN TO DO WITH IT 137 (1998).
99. Glenn V. Fuguitt & James J. Zuiches, Residential Preferences and Population Distribution, 12 DEMOGRAPHY 491 (1975).
100. HARRY BOYTE & NAN KARI, BUILDING AMERICA (1997).
101. Patrick Scully, Democracy in Action - Engaging the Whole Community in Smart Growth, 2 GETTING SMART 1 (1999).
102. MEYERS, supra note 49.
103. Mark E. Hanson, Automobile Subsidies and Land Use: Estimates and Policy Responses, 58 J. AM. PLAN. ASS'N 60 (1992); ORFIELD, supra note 7; KENNETH T. JACKSON, CRABGRASS FRONTIER: THE SUBURBANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES (1985); Robert W. Burchell, Economic and Fiscal Costs (and Benefits) of Sprawl, 29 URB. LAW. 159 (1997); Robert H. Freilich, The Land-Use Implications of Transit-Oriented Development: Controlling the Demand Side of Transportation Congestion and Urban Sprawl, 30 URB. LAW. 547 (1998). But see U.S. GENERAL ACCOUNTING OFFICE, COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT: EXTENT OF FEDERAL INFLUENCE ON "URBAN SPRAWL" IS UNCLEAR (1999).
104. Mark E. Hanson, Automobile Subsidies and Land Use: Estimates and Policy Responses, 58 J. AM. PLAN. ASS'N 60 (1992); ORFIELD, supra note 7; KENNETH T. JACKSON, CRABGRASS FRONTIER: THE SUBURBANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES (1985); Robert W. Burchell, Economic and Fiscal Costs (and Benefits) of Sprawl, 29 URB. LAW. 159 (1997); Robert H. Freilich, The Land-Use Implications of Transit-Oriented Development: Controlling the Demand Side of Transportation Congestion and Urban Sprawl, 30 URB. LAW. 547 (1998). But see U.S. GENERAL ACCOUNTING OFFICE, COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT: EXTENT OF FEDERAL INFLUENCE ON "URBAN SPRAWL" IS UNCLEAR (1999).
105. Mark E. Hanson, Automobile Subsidies and Land Use: Estimates and Policy Responses, 58 J. AM. PLAN. ASS'N 60 (1992); ORFIELD, supra note 7; KENNETH T. JACKSON, CRABGRASS FRONTIER: THE SUBURBANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES (1985); Robert W. Burchell, Economic and Fiscal Costs (and Benefits) of Sprawl, 29 URB. LAW. 159 (1997); Robert H. Freilich, The Land-Use Implications of Transit-Oriented Development: Controlling the Demand Side of Transportation Congestion and Urban Sprawl, 30 URB. LAW. 547 (1998). But see U.S. GENERAL ACCOUNTING OFFICE, COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT: EXTENT OF FEDERAL INFLUENCE ON "URBAN SPRAWL" IS UNCLEAR (1999).
106. Mark E. Hanson, Automobile Subsidies and Land Use: Estimates and Policy Responses, 58 J. AM. PLAN. ASS'N 60 (1992); ORFIELD, supra note 7; KENNETH T. JACKSON, CRABGRASS FRONTIER: THE SUBURBANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES (1985); Robert W. Burchell, Economic and Fiscal Costs (and Benefits) of Sprawl, 29 URB. LAW. 159 (1997); Robert H. Freilich, The Land-Use Implications of Transit-Oriented Development: Controlling the Demand Side of Transportation Congestion and Urban Sprawl, 30 URB. LAW. 547 (1998). But see U.S. GENERAL ACCOUNTING OFFICE, COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT: EXTENT OF FEDERAL INFLUENCE ON "URBAN SPRAWL" IS UNCLEAR (1999).
107. Mark E. Hanson, Automobile Subsidies and Land Use: Estimates and Policy Responses, 58 J. AM. PLAN. ASS'N 60 (1992); ORFIELD, supra note 7; KENNETH T. JACKSON, CRABGRASS FRONTIER: THE SUBURBANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES (1985); Robert W. Burchell, Economic and Fiscal Costs (and Benefits) of Sprawl, 29 URB. LAW. 159 (1997); Robert H. Freilich, The Land-Use Implications of Transit-Oriented Development: Controlling the Demand Side of Transportation Congestion and Urban Sprawl, 30 URB. LAW. 547 (1998). But see U.S. GENERAL ACCOUNTING OFFICE, COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT: EXTENT OF FEDERAL INFLUENCE ON "URBAN SPRAWL" IS UNCLEAR (1999).
108. See Bollens, supra note 13, at 223. These are the "second wave" programs discussed supra note 42 and accompanying text.
109. David L. Callies, The Quiet Revolution Revisited: A Quarter Century of Progress, 26 URB. LAW. 197, 211 (1994).
110. "Smart Growth" and Neighborhood Conservation Act, ch. 759, 1997 Md. Laws 4335.
111. See, e.g., David L. Winstead, Smart Growth, Smart Transportation: A New Program to Manage Growth in Maryland, 30 URB. LAW. 537 (1998).
112. Douglas R. Porter, Maryland's "Smart Growth" Program: An Evaluation and Recommendations, PAS MEMO (Aug. 1999).
113. TENN. CODE ANN. § 6-58-101.
114. Amercian Planning Association, Columnist Neal Peirce Praises Growing Smart, Tennessee Law, GROWING SMART NEWSLETTER (Fall 1998).
115. Id.
116. Id.
117. Brian W. Ohm, Growth Management in Minnesota: The Metropolitan Land Planning Act, 16 HAMLINE L. REV. 359 (1993).
118. Brian W. Ohm, Reviving Comprehensive Planning in the Twin Cities Metropolitan Area: The 1995 Amendments to the Metropolitan Land Planning Act, 8 MINN. REAL EST. L. J. 81 (1995).
119. 1995 MINN. LAWS ch. 255.
120. ORFIELD, supra note 7.
121. MINN. STAT. § 473.251 (1998).
122. MINN. STAT. §§ 473.252, Subd. 2; 473.253, Subd. 1; 473.254, Subd. 5(1998).
123. MINN. STAT. § 473F.08, Subd. 3b(1998).
124. METROPOLITAN COUNCIL, METROPOLITAN LIVABLE COMMUNITIES FUND: REPORT TO THE MINNESOTA STATE LEGISLATURE (1999).
125. Edward G. Goetz & Lori Mardock, Losing Ground: The Twin Cities Livable Communities Act and Affordable Housing, 29 U. MINN. CENTER FOR URB. & REGIONAL AFF. REP. 2:13-17 (1999).
126. MINN. STAT. § 473.255 (1998).
127. Id.
128. See supra notes 28-29, 32-33 and accompanying text.
129. BOSSELAMN & CALLIES, supra note 34.
130. WARREN P. KNOWLES, FINAL REPORT, WISCONSIN LAND RESOURCES COMMITTEE (1973).
131. STATE OF WISCONSIN, OFFICE OF THE GOVERNOR, EXECUTIVE ORDER NO. 236, RELATING TO THE CREATION OF THE STATE INTERAGENCY LAND USE COUNCIL AND THE WISCONSIN STRATEGIC GROWTH TASK FORCE (Sept. 15, 1994). The Executive Order is used as a model for initiating planning legislation reform in AMERICAN PLANNING ASSOCIATION, GROWING SMART LEGISLATIVE GUIDEBOOK: MODEL STATUTES FOR PLANNING AND THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE 1-21 (Phase I and II Interim Edition 1998).
132. Id.
133. STATE INTERAGENCY LAND USE COUNCIL, STATE OF WISCONSIN, PLANNING WISCONSIN: REPORT OF THE STATE INTERAGENCY LAND USE COUNCIL TO GOVERNOR TOMMY G. THOMPSON (1996).
134. Id.
135. Douglas R. Porter, Issues in State and Regional Growth Management, in STATE AND REGIONAL INITIATIVES FOR MANAGING DEVELOPMENT 176 (1992).
136. STATE OF WISCONSIN, JOINT LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL, REPORT OF THE JOINT LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL'S SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON LAND USE POLICIES (1998).
137. 507 P.2d 23 (Or. 1973).
138. 533 P.2d 772 (Or. 1975).
139. Edward J. Sullivan, Oregon Blazes a Trail, in STATE & REGIONAL COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING: IMPLEMENTING NEW METHODS FOR GROWTH MANAGEMENT 52 (Peter A. Buchsbaum & Larry J. Smith, eds. 1993).
140. 456 A.2d 390 (N.J. 1983).
141. Peter A. Buchsbaum, The New Jersey Experience, in STATE & REGIONAL COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING: IMPLEMENTING NEW METHODS FOR GROWTH MANAGEMENT ch. 8 (Peter A. Buchsbaum & Larry J. Smith, eds. 1993).
142. 540 N.W.2d 189 (Wis. 1995).
143. Id.
144. Id.
145. Id. at 190-91.
146. While the case was pending, however, the developer constructed the building. Lake Bluff Hous. Partners v. South Milwaukee, 588 N.W.2d 45,46 (Wis. Ct. App. 1998). Subsequent lawsuits were brought by the city to have the developer tear down the building. See id. 111. 548 N.W.2d 528 (1996).
147. 505 U.S. 1003 (1992). See Brian W. Ohm, The Wisconsin Supreme Court Responds to Lucas, 48 LAND USE LAW & ZONING DIG. 3 (Wis. 1996).
148. Harvey M. Jacobs & Brian W. Ohm, Statutory Takings Legislation: The National Context, the Wisconsin and Minnesota Proposals, 2 WIS. ENVTL. L. J. 173, 208 (1995).
149. WISCONSIN REALTORS ASSOCIATION, WISCONSIN BUILDERS ASSOCIATION, WISCONSIN FARM BUREAU FEDERATION, WHO OWNS YOUR LAND? (1996).
150. 558 N.W.2d 100 (Wis. 1997).
151. WIS. STAT. § 62.23(1)(a)(1999).
152. WIS. STAT. § 62.23(2)(1999).
153. WIS. STAT. § 236.10(3)(1999).
154. AMERICAN PLANNING ASSOCIATION, GROWING SMART LEGISLATIVE GUIDEBOOK: MODEL STATUTES FOR PLANNING AND THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE (PHASES I AND II INTERIM EDITION) (1998).
155. MANDELKER, supra note 20, at 58.
156. J. BERRY CULLINGWORTH, THE POLITICAL CULTURE OF PLANNING: AMERICAN LAND USE PLANNING IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE 3 (1993).
157. Paul A. Jargowsky, Metropolitan Restructuring and Urban Policy, 8 STAN. L. & POL'Y REV. 47, 50 (1997).
158. Paul Jargowsky, Ghetto Poverty Among Blacks in the 1980s, 13 J. POL'Y ANALYSIS & MGMT. 288 (1994).
159. 563 N.W.2d 145 (Wis. 1997).
160. D. J. Wood & B. Gray, Towards a Comprehensive Theory of Collaboration, 27 J. APPLIED BEHAV. SCI. 139, 141 (1991).
161. Judith E. Innes, Group Processes and the Social Construction of Growth Management: Florida, Vermont, and New Jersey, 58 J. AM. PLAN. ASS'N 440 (1992).
162. L. SUSSKIND & J. CRUIKSHANK, BREAKING THE IMPASSE: CONSENSUAL APPROACHES TO RESOLVING PUBLIC DISPUTES (1987).
163. The activities in Wisconsin led the Wisconsin Realtors Association to push the National Association of Realtors to establish a "Smart Growth" task force to provide research and positions on growing smart activities nationally and in the states.
164. The informal "grassroots" process stands in marked contrast to more formal efforts undertaken in other states by commissions appointed by governors or legislators. See, e.g., JOHN M. DEGROVE, LAND, GROWTH, AND POLITICS (1984); and DEGROVE, supra note 54.
165. S. 45, 1999 Leg. (Wis. 1999); A. 133, 1999 Leg. (Wis. 1999) (both bills available at 〈http//www.legis.state.wi.us/〉).
166. LFB Amendment to 1999 Assembly Bill 133 and 1999 Senate Bill 45.
167. 1999 Wis. Legis Serv. Act 9 (1999 A.B. 133)(West) (1999 Wis. Act 9, also available at 〈http//www.legis.state.wi.us/〉).
168. Id.
169. Mary English et al., Smart Growth Guide for Tennessee Towns and Counties: A Process Guide (available at 〈http://eerc.ra.utk.edu/smart.htm.〉).
170. KENT, supra note 12.
171. Judith E. Innes, Planning Through Consensus Building: A New View of the Comprehensive Planning Ideal, 62 J. AM. PLAN. ASS'N 460, 461 (1996).
172. KENT, supra note 12, at 98-9.
173. EDWARD M. BASSETT, THE MASTER PLAN: WITH A DISCUSSION OF THE THEORY OF COMMUNITY LAND PLANNING LEGISLATION 5 (1938).
174. Frank J. Popper, Understanding American Land Use Regulation Since 1970: A Revisionist Interpretation, 54 J. AM. PLAN. ASS'N 291 (1988); JOSEPH F. ZIMMERMAN, FEDERAL PREEMPTION: THE SILENT REVOLUTION (1991).
175. Frank J. Popper, Understanding American Land Use Regulation Since 1970: A Revisionist Interpretation, 54 J. AM. PLAN. ASS'N 291 (1988); JOSEPH F. ZIMMERMAN, FEDERAL PREEMPTION: THE SILENT REVOLUTION (1991).
176. Recent examples of federal laws which directly impact local planning include the American with Disabilities Act, the Federal Fair Housing Act Amendments, and the Federal Telecommunications Act of 1996.
177. STRATEGIC GROWTH TASK FORCE, STATE OF WISCONSIN, LAND USE ISSUES FACING WISCONSIN (Vol. 1) (1995).
178. MINN. STAT. §§ 473.859, subd. 2; 473.859, subd. 3(4)(1998).
179. MINN. STAT. § 473.859(1998).
180. MINN. STAT. §§ 473.859, subd. 1; 473.859, subd. 5(1998).
181. ZIMMERMAN, 1995, supra note 24.
182. Innes, supra note 137.
183. Dick Wheeler, Capitol Watch: My How Things Have Changed at the Capitol, 2 ON COMMON GROUND 27 (Summer 1999).
184. See, e.g., CONFRONTING ENVIRONMENTAL RACISM: VOICES FROM THE GRASSROOTS (Robert D. Bullard ed., 1993).