Scanning electron microscopy of bone: Instrument, specimen, and issues

Microscopy Research and Technique

Volumn 33, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 92-120

  Boyde, Alan ^a   Jones, Sheila J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Bone; Mineralisation; Osteoporosis; Resorption; Scanning electron microscopy

Indexed keywords

BONE;

BONE ARCHITECTURE; CANCELLOUS BONE; ENVIRONMENTAL SEM; LOW-DISTORTION; MATRIX; MINERALISATION; OSTEOPOROSIS; RESORPTION; REVIEW CONTENTS; WET TISSUES;

SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY;

AUTOPSY; BONE BIOPSY; BONE DEMINERALIZATION; BONE MINERALIZATION; ELECTRON BEAM; EMBEDDING; HISTOLOGY; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; LOW ENERGY RADIATION; LUMINESCENCE; NONHUMAN; OSTEOLYSIS; OSTEOPOROSIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RADIATION SCATTERING; REVIEW; SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY; THREE DIMENSIONAL IMAGING;

EID: 0007506435     PISSN: 1059910X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0029(19960201)33:2<92::AID-JEMT2>3.0.CO;2-0     Document Type: Review

References (131)

1. Abe, K., Kanno, T., and Schneider, G.B, (1983) Surface structures and osteoclasts of mouse parietal bones: A light and scanning electron microscopic study. Arch. Histol. Japonicum, 46:633-676.
2. Abe, K., Hashizume, H., and Ushiki, T. (1992) An EDTA-KOH method to expose bone cells for scanning electron microscopy. J. Electron Microsc., 41:113-115.
3. 2, changes the shape of osteoblasts maintained on bone in vitro. J. Bone Miner. Res., 5:115-121.
4. Arsenault, A.L. (1990) Vascular canals in bovine cortical bone studied by corrosion casting. Calcif. Tissue Int., 47:320-325.
5. Baud, C.A. (1968) Submicroscopic structure and functional aspects of the osteocyte. Clin. Orthop. Rel. Res., 56:227-236.
6. Belanger LF (1969) Osteocytic osteolysis. Calcif. Tissue Res., 4:1-12.
7. Bell, L.S. (1990) Palaeopathology and diagenesis: An SEM evaluation of structural changes using backscattered electron imaging J. Archaeol. Sci., 17:85-102.
8. Bell, L.S., Boyde, A., and Jones, S.J. (1991) Diagenetic alteration to teeth in-situ illustrated by backscattered electron imaging. Scanning, 13:173-183.
9. Boyce, B.F., Elder, H.Y., Fell G.S., Nicholson W.A.P., Smith G.D., Dempster D.W., Gray C.C., and Boyle I.T. (1981) Quantitation and localisation of aluminium in human cancellous bone in renal osteodystrophy. Scanning Electron Microsc., 1981(3):329-337.
10. Boyce, T.M., Bloebaum, R.D., Bachus, K.N., and Skedros, J.G. (1990) Reproducible method for the calibration of the backscattered electron signal for quantitative assessment of mineral content in bone. Scanning Microsc., 4:591-603.
11. Boyde, A. (1968a) Height measurements from stereopair scanning electron micrographs. Beitr. Elektronenmikroskop. Direktabb. Oberfl., 1:97-105.
12. Boyde, A. (1968b) SEM of collagen-free calcified connective tissues. Beitr. Elektronenmikroskop. Direktabb. Oberfl. (Münster), 1:213-222.
13. Boyde, A. (1972) Scanning electron microscopic studies of bone. In: Biochemistry and Physiology of Bone, Vol. 1. G.H. Bourne, ed. Academic Press, New York, pp. 259-310.
14. Boyde, A. (1975) A method for the preparation of cell surfaces hidden within bulk tissue for examination in the SEM. Scanning Electron Microsc., 1975:295-304.
15. Boyde, A. (1978) Cutting teeth in the SEM. Scanning, 1:157-165.
16. Boyde, A. (1980) Electron microscopy of the mineralising front. Metab. Bone Dis. Rel. Res., 23:69-78.
17. Boyde, A. (1984a) Dependence of rate of physical erosion on orientation and density in mineralized tissues. Anat. Embryol., 170:57-62.
18. Boyde, A. (1984b) Methodology of calcified tissue specimen preparation for SEM. In: Methods of Calcified Tissue Preparation. G.R. Dickson, ed. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 251-307.
19. Boyde, A., Ali, N.N., and Jones, S.J. (1984) Resorption of dentine by isolated osteoclasts in vitro. Br. Dent. J., 156:216-220.
20. Boyde, A., Ali, N.N., and Jones, S.J. (1985) Optical and scanning electron microscopy in the single osteoclast resorption assay. Scanning Electron Microsc., 1985(3):1259-1271.
21. Boyde, A., and Althoff J. (1978) Preparation of anorganic mineralized tissues for the SEM. Scanning, 1.130.
22. Boyde, A., and Cowham, M. (1980) An alternative method for obtaining converted BSE imaging by specimen biasing in biological SEM. Scanning Electron Microsc., 1980(1):227-232.
23. Boyde, A., and Franc, F. (1981) Freeze drying shrinkage of glutaraldehyde fixed liver. J. Microsc., 122:75-86.
24. Boyde, A., and Hobdell, M.H. (1969a) Scanning electron microscopy of lamellar bone. Z. Zellforsch. Mikrosk. Anat., 93:213-231.
25. Boyde, A., and Hobdell, M.H. (1969b) Scanning electron microscopy of primary membrane bone. Z. Zellforsch. Mikrosk. Anat., 99:98-108.
26. Boyde, A., and Jones, S.J. (1972) Scanning electron microscopic studies of the formation of mineralized tissues. In: Developmental Aspects of Oral Biology. H.C. Slavkin and L.A. Bavetta, eds. Academic Press, New York, pp. 243-273.
27. Boyde, A., and Jones, S.J. (1979) Estimation of the size of resorption lacunae in mammalian calcified tissues using SEM stereophotogrammetry. Scanning Electron Microsc. 1979(2):393-402.
28. Boyde, A., and Jones, S.J. (1983a) Scanning electron microscopy of cartilage. In: Cartilage I. B.K. Hall, ed. Academic Press, New York, pp. 105-148.
29. Boyde, A., and Jones, S.J. (1983b) Backscattered electron imaging of skeletal tissues. Metab. Bone Dis. Rel. Res., 5:145-150.
30. Boyde, A., and Jones, S.J. (1987) Early scanning electron microscopic studies of hard tissue resorption: Their relation to current concepts reviewed. Scanning Microsc., 1:369-381.
31. Boyde, A., and Jones, S.J. (1992) Surveying surfaces at sub-micrometre resolution: The measurement of osteoclastic resorption lacuna. Photogram. Rec., 14:59-84.
32. Boyde, A., and Lester, K.S. (1967) Electron microscopy of resorbing surfaces of dental hard tissues. Z. Zellforsch., 83:538-540.
33. Boyde, A., and Maconnachie, E. (1979) Volume changes during preparation of mouse embryonic tissue for SEM. Scanning, 2:149-163.
34. Boyde, A., and Reid, S.A. (1983a) New methods for cathodoluminescence in the SEM. Scanning Electron Microsc., 1983(4):1803-1814.
35. Boyde, A., and Reid, S.A. (1983b) Tetracycline cathodoluminescence in bone, dentine and enamel. Histochemistry, 77:525-533.
36. Boyde, A., and Reid, S.A. (1983c) Simple collectors for cathodoluminescence in the SEM made from aluminium foil. J. Microse., 132: 239-242.
37. Boyde, A., and Sela, J. (1978) SEM study of separated calcospherites from the matrices of different mineralizing systems. Calcif. Tissue Res., 26:47-49.
38. Boyde, A., and Shapiro, I.M. (1980) Energy dispersive X-ray elemental analysis of isolated epiphyseal growth plate chondrocyte fragments. Histochemistry, 69:85-94.
39. Boyde, A., and Vesely, P. (1972) Comparison of fixation and drying procedures for some cultured cell lines for examination in the SEM. Scanning Electron Microsc. 1972:233-240.
40. Boyde, A., and Wood, C. (1969) Preparation of animal tissues for scanning electron microscopy. J. Microsc., 90:221-249.
41. Boyde, A., Banes, A.J., Dillaman, R.M., and Mechanic, G.L. (1978a) A morphological study of an avian bone disorder caused by myeloblastosis-associated virus. Metab. Bone Dis. Rel. Res., 1:235-242.
42. Boyde, A., Dary, K.W.M., and Joues, S.J. (1995) Standards for mineral quantitation of bone by analysis of backscattered electron images. Scanning, 17 Suppl. V:6-7.
43. Boyde, A., Reith, E.J., Jones, S.J. (1978b) Intercellular attachments between calcified collagenous tissue forming cells in the rat. Cell Tissue Res. 191:507-512.
44. Boyde, A., Franc, F., and Maconnachie, E. (1981) Measurement of critical point drying shrinkage of glutaraldehyde fixed mouse liver. Scanning, 4:68-82.
45. Boyde, A., Jones, S.J., and Ashford, J. (1982) Scanning electron microscope observations and the question of possible osteocytic bone mini- (re-) modelling. In: Current Advances in Skeletogenesis. Int. Congr. Ser. No. 589. M. Silbermann and H.C. Slavkin, eds. Elsevier. Amsterdam, pp. 305-314.
46. Boyde, A., Reid, S.A., and Howell, P.G.T. (1983) Stereology of bone using both backscattered electron and cathodoluminescence imaging for the SEM. Beitr. Elektronenmikroskop. Direktabb. Oberfl. (Münster), 16:419-430.
47. Boyde, A , Howell P.G.T., and Franc, F. (1986a) Simple SEM stereophotogrammetric method for three-dimensional evaluation of features on flat substrates. J. Microsc., 143:257-264.
48. Boyde, A., Maconnachie, E., Reid, S.A., Delling, G., and Mundy, G.R (1986b) SEM in bone pathology: Review of methods, potential and applications. Scanning Electron Microsc., 1986(4):1537-1554.
49. Boyde, A., Jayasinghe, J.A P., and Jequier, B. (1989) Three dimensional integram images of trabecular bone. Bone, 10:12.
50. Boyde, A., Radcliffe, R., Watson, T.F., and Jayasinghe, J.A.P. (1990a) Continuous motion parallax in the display and analysis of trabecular bone structure. Bone, 11:228.
51. Boyde, A., Hendel, P., Hendel, R.G., Maconnachie, E., and Jones, S.J. (1990b) Human cranial bone structure and the healing of cranial bone grafts: A study using backscattered electron imaging and confocal microscopy. Anat. Embryol., 181:235-251.
52. Boyde, A., Howell, P.G.T., Bromage, T., Elliott, J.C, Riggs, C.M., Bell, L.S., Kneissel, M., Reid, S.A., Jayasinghe, J.A.P., and Jones, S.J. (1992) Applications of mineral quantitation of bone by histogram analysis of backscattered electron images. In: Chemistry and Biology of Mineralized Tissues. Excerpta Medica Int. Congr. Ser. ICS 1002. H.C. Slavkin and P. Price, eds. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 47-60.
53. Boyde, A., Elliott, J.C, and Jones, S.J. (1993) Stereology and histogram analysis of backscattered electron images: Age changes in bone. Bone, 14:205-210.
54. Boyde, A., Wolfe, L., Maly, M., and Jones, S.J. (1995) Vital confocal microscopy in bone. Scanning, 17:72-85.
55. Bromage, T.G. (1984) Interpretation of scanning electron microscopic images of abraded forming bone surfaces. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol., 64:161-178.
56. Bromage, T.G. (1987) The scanning electron microscopy/replica technique and recent applications to the study of fossil bone. Scanning Microsc., 1(2):607-613.
57. Bromage, T.G., and Boyde, A. (1984) Microscopic criteria for the determination of directionality of cutmarks on bone. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol., 65:359-366.
58. Burr, D.B., Schaffler, M.B., and Frederickson R.G. (1988) Composition of the cement line and its possible mechanical role as a local interface in human compact bone. J. Biomech., 21:939-945.
59. Chambers, T.J., and Fuller, K. (1985) Bone cells predispose bone surfaces to resorption by exposure of mineral to osteoclastic contact. J. Cell Sci., 76:155-165.
60. Danilatos, G.D. (1991) Review and outline of environmental SEM at present. J. Microsc., 162:391-402.
61. Davies, J.E., Shapiro, G., and Lowenberg, B.F. (1993) Osteoclastic resorption of calcium phosphate ceramic thin films. Cells Mater., 3:245-256.
62. Dempster, D.W., Shane, E., Horbert, W., and Lindsay, R. (1986) A simple method for correlative light and scanning electron microscopy of human iliac crest bone biopsis: Qualitative observations in normal and osteoporotic subjects. J. Bone Miner. Res., 1:15-21.
63. Dopping-Hepenstal, P.J.C., Ali, S.Y., and Stamp (1981) Matrix vesicles in the osteoid of human bone. In: Matrix Vesicles, A. Ascenzi, E. Bonucci, and B. de Bernard, eds. Wichtig Editore srl, Milano, pp. 229-234.
64. Draenert, K. (1983) Studying bone regeneration with the scanning electron microscope. Scanning Electron Microsc., 1983(1):247-254.
65. Draenert, K., and Draenert, Y. (1979) The architecture of metaphyseal bone healing. Scanning Electron Microsc., 1979(2):521-528.
66. Draenert, K., and Draenert, Y. (1980a) Die Gefässversorgung langer Röhrenknochen. Beitr. Elektronen-Mikroskop. Direktabb. Oberfl., 13:317-324.
67. Draenert, K., and Draenert, Y (1980b) The vascular system of bone marrow. Scanning Electron Microsc., 1980(4):113-122.
68. Draenert, K., and Draenert, Y. (1980c) The gap healing of compact bone marrow. Scanning Electron Microsc., 1980(4):103-111.
69. Ejiri, S., and Ozawa, H. (1982) Scanning electron microscopic observations of rat tibia using the HCl-collagenase method. Arch. Histol. Japonicum, 45:399-404.
70. Frasca, P., Harper, R.A., and Katz, J.L. (1976) Isolation of single osteons and osteon lamellae. Acta Anat., 95:122-129.
71. Gebhardt, W. (1906) Über funktionelle wichtige Anordnungsweisen der feineren und gröberen Bauelemente des Wirbeltierknochens. II. Spezieller Teil. Der Bau der Haversschen Lamellensysteme und seine funktionelle Bedeutung. Arch. Entwickl.-Mech. Org. 20:187-322.
72. Grynpas, M. (1993) Age and disease-related changes in the mineral of bone. Calcif. Tissue Int., 53(Suppl.):S57-S64.
73. Grynpas, M.D., and Holmyard, D. (1988) Changes in quality of bone mineral on ageing and in disease. Scanning Microsc., 2:1045-1054.
74. Hall, S.J.B, Haroon, Y., Jones, S.J., Gray, C. and Boyde, A. (1993) Confocal autofluorescence microscopy of bone. Bone, 15:461.
75. Howell, P.G.T., and Boyde, A. (1994) Monte Carlo simulations of electron backscattering in lamellar bone. Bone, 15:285-291.
76. Howell, P.G.T., and Reid, S.A. (1986) A microcomputer-based system for rapid on-line stereological analysis in the SEM. Scanning, 8:139-144.
77. Jayasinghe, J.A.P., Jones, S.J., and Boyde, A. (1993) Scanning electron microscopy of human vertebral trabecular bone surfaces. Virchows Arch. A Pathol. Anat. Histopathol., 422:25-34.
78. Johnson, R.B., and Highison, G.J. (1983) A re-examination of the osteocytic network of interdental bone. J. Submicrosc. Cytol., 15: 619-625.
79. Jones, S.J. (1973) Morphological and Experimental Observations on Bony Tissues Using the Scanning Electron Microscope. Ph.D. thesis, University of London.
80. Jones, S.J. (1974) Secretory territories and rate of matrix production of osteoblasts. Calcif. Tissue Res., 14:309-315
81. Jones, S.J., and Boyde, A. (1970) Experimental studies of the interpretation of bone surfaces studied with the SEM. Scanning Electron Microsc., 1970:193-200.
82. Jones, S.J., and Boyde, A. (1974) Coronal cementogenesis in the horse. Arch. Oral Biol, 19:605-614.
83. Jones, S.J., and Boyde, A. (1977) Some morphological observations on osteoclasts. Cell Tissue Res., 185:387-397.
84. Jones, S.J., and Boyde, A. (1982) The junction between uncalcified and calcified cartilage. In: Current Advances in Skeletogenesis. Int. Cong. Ser. 589. M. Silberman and H.C. Slavkin, eds. Excerpta Medica, Amsterdam, pp. 362-367.
85. Jones, S.J., and Boyde, A. (1984) Scanning electron microscopy of tissues in biocompatibility testing. In: Techniques in Biocompatibility Testing I. D.F. Williams, ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 131-148.
86. Jones, S.J., and Boyde, A. (1988) The resorption of dentine and cementum in vivo and in vitro. In Biological Mechanisms of Tooth Eruption and Root Resorption. Z. Davidovitch, ed. Ebsco Media, Birmingham, AL, pp. 335-354.
87. Jones, S.J., and Boyde, A. (1993) Histomorphometry of Howship's lacunae formed in vivo and in vitro: Depths and volumes measured by scanning electron and confocal microscopy. Bone, 14:455-460.
88. Jones, S. J., and Boyde, A. (1994) Questions of quality and quantity - a morphological view of bone biology. Acta Anat. Nippon., 69:229-243.
89. Jones, S.J., and Ness, A.R. (1977) A study of the arrangement of osteoblasts of rat calvarium cultured in medium with, or without, added parathyroid extract. J. Cell Sci., 25:247-263.
90. Jones, S.J., Pawley, J.B. and Boyde, A. (1974) Some practical applications of real-time TV speed stereo SEM in hard tissue research. Scanning Electron Microsc., 1974:109-116.
91. Jones, S.J., Boyde, A., and Pawley, J.B. (1975) Osteoblasts and collagen orientation. Calcif. Tissue Res., 159:73-80.
92. Jones, S.J., Boyde, A., and Ness, A.R. (1977) SEM studies of osteoblasts: Size, shape and anisotropy in relation to hormonal status in organ culture. In: Bone Histomorphometry. P.J. Meunier, ed. Societe de la Nouvelle Imprimerie Fournie, Toulouse, pp. 275-289.
93. Jones, S.J., Boyde, A, and Shapiro, I. (1981) The response of osteoblasts to parathyroid hormone (PTH 1-34) in vitro. Metab. Bone Dis. Rel. Res., 2:335-338.
94. Jones, S.J., Boyde, A., and Ali, N.N. (1984) The resorption of biological and non-biological substrates by cultured avian and mammalian osteoclasts. Anat. Embryol., 170:247-256.
95. Jones, S.J., Boyde, A., Ali, N.N., and Maconnachie, E. (1985) A review of bone cell and substratum interactions. Scanning, 7:5-24.
96. Jones, S.J., Boyde, A., and Ali, N.N. (1986a) The interface of cells and their matrices in mineralized tissues: A review. Scanning Electron Microsc., 1986(4):1555-1569.
97. Jones, S.J., Boyde, A., Ali, N.N., and Maconnachie, E. (1986b) Variation in the sizes of resorption lacunae made in vitro. Scanning Electron Microsc., 1986(4):1571-1580.
98. Jones, S.J., Gray, C., and Boyde, A. (1994) Simulation of bone resorption-repair coupling in vitro. Anat. Embryol., 190:339-349.
99. Kingsmill, V., Boyde, A., and Kathirgamanathan, P. (1994) Electroless plating - a new technique for the preparation of hard tissue specimens for scanning electron microscopy. Scanning, 16:18-20.
100. Kneissel, M. (1993) Vergleich von nicht-invasiven and invasiven Methoden zur Erfassung des alters- und geschlechtsabhängigen trabekulären Knochenverlustes an archaologischem Material. Ph.D. thesis, University of Vienna.
101. Kneissel, M., Boyde, A. Hahn, M., Teschler-Nicola, M., Kalchhauser, G., and Plenk, H. (1994) Age- and sex-dependent cancellous bone changes in a 4000y BP population. Bone, 15:539-545.
102. Krempien, B. (1979) Bone modelling processes at the endosteal surface of human femora. Scanning electron microscopical studies in normal bone and in renal osteodystrophy. Virchows Arch. A Pathol Anat. Histopathol., 382:73-88.
103. Krempien, B., and Klimpel, F. (1981) Scanning electron microscopical studies of resorbing surfaces. In: Bone Histomorphometry. W.S.S Jee and A.M. Parfitt, eds. Armour Montagu, Paris, pp. 45-51.
104. Maly, M., and Boyde, A. (1994) Real time stereoscopic confocal reflection microscopy using objective lenses with linear longitudinal chromatic dispersion. Scanning, 16:187-192.
105. Marotti, G. (1993) A new theory of bone lamellation. Calcif. Tissue Int., 53(Suppl.):S47-S56.
106. Marotti, G., and Muglia, M.A. (1988) A scanning electron microscopic study of human bony lamellae. Proposal for a new model of collagen lamellar organisation. Arch. Ital. Anat. Embryol., 93:163-175.
107. Martin, D.M., and Hallsworth, A.S. (1977) A method for the study of internal spaces in hard tissue matrices by SEM, with special reference to dentine. J. Microsc., 112:345-352.
108. McKee, M.D., and Nanci, A. (1993) Ultrastructural, cytochemical and immunocytochemical studies on bone and its interfaces. Cells Mater., 3:219-243.
109. Mjör, I.A. (1969) Bone lamellae. Acta Anat, 73:127-135.
110. Mosekilde, L. (1990) Consequences of the remodelling process for vertebral trabecular bone structure: A scanning electron microscopy study (uncoupling of unloaded structures). Bone Miner., 10:13-35.
111. Mosekilde, L. (1993) Vertebral structure and strength in vivo and in vitro. Calcif. Tissue Int., 53(Suppl.):S121-S126.
112. Nicholson, W.A.P., Ashton, B.A., Rohling, H.J., Quint, P., Schreiber, J., and Ashton, I.K. (1977) Electron microprobe investigations into the process of hard tissue formation. Cell Tissue Res., 177:331-345.
113. Niedrig, H. (1978) Physical background of electron backscattering. Scanning, 1:17-34.
114. Parfitt, A.M. (1984) Age-related structural changes in trabecular and cortical bone: Cellular mechanisms and biomechanical consequences. Calcif. Tissue Int., 36(Suppl.):S123-S128.
115. Pesch, H.-J., Henschke, E.F., and Seibold, H. (1977) The influence of mechanical forces and age on the remodelling of the spongy bone in lumbar vertebrae and in the neck of the femur. A structural analysis. Virchows Arch. A Pathol. Anat. Histopathol., 377:27-42.
116. Reid, S.A. (1986a) A study of lamellar organisation in juvenile and adult human bone. Anat. Embryol., 174:329-338.
117. Reid, S.A. (1986b) Effect of mineral content of human bone on in vitro resorption. Anat. Embryol., 174:225-234.
118. Reid, S.A. (1987) Micromorphological characterterterisation of normal human bone surfaces as a function of age. Scanning Microsc., 1(2):579-597.
119. Reid, S.A., and Boyde, A. (1987) Changes in the mineral density distribution in human bone with age: Image analysis using backscattered electrons in SEM. J. Bone Miner. Res., 2:13-22.
120. Reimer, L. (1978) Scanning electron microscopy - present state and trends. Scanning, 1:3-16.
121. Riggs, C.M., Lanyon, L.E., Boyde, A. (1993) Functional associations between collagen fibre orientation and locomotor strain direction in cortical bone of the equine radius. Anat. Embryol., 187:231-238.
122. Sahara, N., Okafuji, N., Toyoki, A., Ashizawa, Y., Deguehi, T., and Suzuki, K. (1994) Odontoclast resorption of a superficial nonmineralized layer of predentine in the shedding of human deciduous teeth. Cell Tissue Res., 277:19-26.
123. Sasaki, T., Debari, K., and Hasemi, M. (1993) Measurement of Howship's resorption lacunae by a scanning probe microscope system. J. Electron Microsc., 42:356-359.
124. Schaffler, M.B., Pitchford, W.C., Choi, K., Riddle, J.M. (1994) Examination of compact bone micro-damage using backscattered electron microscopy. Bone, 15:483-488.
125. Sela, J. (1977) Bone remodelling in pathologic conditions. A scanning electron microscopic study. Calcif. Tissue Res., 23:229-234.
126. Shapiro, I.M., and Boyde, A. (1984) Microdissection-elemental analysis of the mineralizing growth cartilage of the normal and rachitic chick Metab. Bone Dis. Rel. Res., 5:317-326.
127. Stanka, P., Bellack, U., and Lindner, A. (1991) On the morphology of the terminal microvasculature during endochondral ossification in rats. Bone Miner., 13:93-101.
128. Steendijk, R., and Boyde, A. (1973) SEM observations on bone from patients with hypophosphataemic (vitamin D resistant) rickets Calcif. Tissue Res , 11:242-250.
129. Takita, T., Naguro, T., and Yamamoto, K. (1992) Fine structure of remodeling sites on iliac cancellous bone in senile osteoporosis: A study by scanning electron microscopy using an improved organic specimen preparation method. Cells Mater., 2:135-142.
130. Tomazic, B.B., Brown, W.E., and Eanes, E.D. (1993) A critical evaluation of the purification of biominerals by hypochlorite treatment. J. Biomed. Mater. Res., 27:217-225.
131. Whitehouse, W.J., Dyson, E.D., and Jackson, C.K. (1971) The scanning electron microscope in studies of trabecular bone from a human vertebral body. J. Anat., 108:481-496.