Migration, (im)mobility, and modernity: Toward a feminist understanding of the 'global' prostitution scene in Amsterdam

Millenium

Volumn 27, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 955-981

  Marchand, Marianne H ^a   Reid, Julian ^a   Berents, Boukje ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0007320589     PISSN: 03058298     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/03058298980270040201     Document Type: Article

References (93)

1. See, for example, Cynthia Enloe, The Morning After: Sexual Politics at the End of the Cold War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993); Jan Jindy Pettman, Worlding Women: A Feminist International Politics (London: Routledge, 1996); and Katherine H.S. Moon, Sex among Allies: Military Prostitution in U.S.-Korea Relations (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1997).
2. See, for example, Cynthia Enloe, The Morning After: Sexual Politics at the End of the Cold War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993); Jan Jindy Pettman, Worlding Women: A Feminist International Politics (London: Routledge, 1996); and Katherine H.S. Moon, Sex among Allies: Military Prostitution in U.S.-Korea Relations (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1997).
3. See, for example, Cynthia Enloe, The Morning After: Sexual Politics at the End of the Cold War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993); Jan Jindy Pettman, Worlding Women: A Feminist International Politics (London: Routledge, 1996); and Katherine H.S. Moon, Sex among Allies: Military Prostitution in U.S.-Korea Relations (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1997).
4. As argued elsewhere we prefer the term global restructuring over globalisation, see Marianne H. Marchand, 'Reconceptualising "Gender and Development" in and Era of "Globalisation"', Millennium: Journal of International Studies (Vol. 25, No.3, 1996), p. 577. However, because much of the literature does explicitly use the tenu globalisation, in particular in the context of discussions about modernity, we use the two terms-global restructuring and globalisation-interchangeably in this article. See Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-Identity (Cambridge: Polity, 1991); Mike Featherstone and Scott Lash, 'Globalization, Modernity and the Spatialization of Social Theory: An Introduction', in Mike Featherstone, Scott Lash, and Roland Robertson (eds.), Global Modernities (London: Sage, 1995), pp. 1-24; Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); Martin Albrow, The Global Age (Cambridge: Polity, 1996); and Martin Albrow, 'Globalization after Modernization: A New Paradigm for Development Studies?', paper presented at the Workshop 'Globalization and Development Studies' organised by the Third World Centre, University of Nijmegen, 30 Octobcr-1 November, 1997.
5. As argued elsewhere we prefer the term global restructuring over globalisation, see Marianne H. Marchand, 'Reconceptualising "Gender and Development" in and Era of "Globalisation"', Millennium: Journal of International Studies (Vol. 25, No.3, 1996), p. 577. However, because much of the literature does explicitly use the tenu globalisation, in particular in the context of discussions about modernity, we use the two terms-global restructuring and globalisation-interchangeably in this article. See Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-Identity (Cambridge: Polity, 1991); Mike Featherstone and Scott Lash, 'Globalization, Modernity and the Spatialization of Social Theory: An Introduction', in Mike Featherstone, Scott Lash, and Roland Robertson (eds.), Global Modernities (London: Sage, 1995), pp. 1-24; Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); Martin Albrow, The Global Age (Cambridge: Polity, 1996); and Martin Albrow, 'Globalization after Modernization: A New Paradigm for Development Studies?', paper presented at the Workshop 'Globalization and Development Studies' organised by the Third World Centre, University of Nijmegen, 30 Octobcr-1 November, 1997.
6. As argued elsewhere we prefer the term global restructuring over globalisation, see Marianne H. Marchand, 'Reconceptualising "Gender and Development" in and Era of "Globalisation"', Millennium: Journal of International Studies (Vol. 25, No.3, 1996), p. 577. However, because much of the literature does explicitly use the tenu globalisation, in particular in the context of discussions about modernity, we use the two terms-global restructuring and globalisation-interchangeably in this article. See Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-Identity (Cambridge: Polity, 1991); Mike Featherstone and Scott Lash, 'Globalization, Modernity and the Spatialization of Social Theory: An Introduction', in Mike Featherstone, Scott Lash, and Roland Robertson (eds.), Global Modernities (London: Sage, 1995), pp. 1-24; Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); Martin Albrow, The Global Age (Cambridge: Polity, 1996); and Martin Albrow, 'Globalization after Modernization: A New Paradigm for Development Studies?', paper presented at the Workshop 'Globalization and Development Studies' organised by the Third World Centre, University of Nijmegen, 30 Octobcr-1 November, 1997.
7. As argued elsewhere we prefer the term global restructuring over globalisation, see Marianne H. Marchand, 'Reconceptualising "Gender and Development" in and Era of "Globalisation"', Millennium: Journal of International Studies (Vol. 25, No.3, 1996), p. 577. However, because much of the literature does explicitly use the tenu globalisation, in particular in the context of discussions about modernity, we use the two terms-global restructuring and globalisation-interchangeably in this article. See Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-Identity (Cambridge: Polity, 1991); Mike Featherstone and Scott Lash, 'Globalization, Modernity and the Spatialization of Social Theory: An Introduction', in Mike Featherstone, Scott Lash, and Roland Robertson (eds.), Global Modernities (London: Sage, 1995), pp. 1-24; Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); Martin Albrow, The Global Age (Cambridge: Polity, 1996); and Martin Albrow, 'Globalization after Modernization: A New Paradigm for Development Studies?', paper presented at the Workshop 'Globalization and Development Studies' organised by the Third World Centre, University of Nijmegen, 30 Octobcr-1 November, 1997.
8. As argued elsewhere we prefer the term global restructuring over globalisation, see Marianne H. Marchand, 'Reconceptualising "Gender and Development" in and Era of "Globalisation"', Millennium: Journal of International Studies (Vol. 25, No.3, 1996), p. 577. However, because much of the literature does explicitly use the tenu globalisation, in particular in the context of discussions about modernity, we use the two terms-global restructuring and globalisation-interchangeably in this article. See Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-Identity (Cambridge: Polity, 1991); Mike Featherstone and Scott Lash, 'Globalization, Modernity and the Spatialization of Social Theory: An Introduction', in Mike Featherstone, Scott Lash, and Roland Robertson (eds.), Global Modernities (London: Sage, 1995), pp. 1-24; Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); Martin Albrow, The Global Age (Cambridge: Polity, 1996); and Martin Albrow, 'Globalization after Modernization: A New Paradigm for Development Studies?', paper presented at the Workshop 'Globalization and Development Studies' organised by the Third World Centre, University of Nijmegen, 30 Octobcr-1 November, 1997.
9. As argued elsewhere we prefer the term global restructuring over globalisation, see Marianne H. Marchand, 'Reconceptualising "Gender and Development" in and Era of "Globalisation"', Millennium: Journal of International Studies (Vol. 25, No.3, 1996), p. 577. However, because much of the literature does explicitly use the tenu globalisation, in particular in the context of discussions about modernity, we use the two terms-global restructuring and globalisation-interchangeably in this article. See Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-Identity (Cambridge: Polity, 1991); Mike Featherstone and Scott Lash, 'Globalization, Modernity and the Spatialization of Social Theory: An Introduction', in Mike Featherstone, Scott Lash, and Roland Robertson (eds.), Global Modernities (London: Sage, 1995), pp. 1-24; Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); Martin Albrow, The Global Age (Cambridge: Polity, 1996); and Martin Albrow, 'Globalization after Modernization: A New Paradigm for Development Studies?', paper presented at the Workshop 'Globalization and Development Studies' organised by the Third World Centre, University of Nijmegen, 30 Octobcr-1 November, 1997.
10. On the representation of Asian women in Western literature see, among others: Chandra Mohanty, 'Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses', Feminist Review (Vol. 30, Autumn 1988), pp. 61-88 and Jongwoo Han and Lily U.M. Ling, 'Authoritarianism in the Hypermasculinzed State: Hybridity, Patriarchy, and Capitalism in Korea' International Studies Quarterly (Vol. 42, No.1, 1998), pp. 53-78.
11. On the representation of Asian women in Western literature see, among others: Chandra Mohanty, 'Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses', Feminist Review (Vol. 30, Autumn 1988), pp. 61-88 and Jongwoo Han and Lily U.M. Ling, 'Authoritarianism in the Hypermasculinzed State: Hybridity, Patriarchy, and Capitalism in Korea' International Studies Quarterly (Vol. 42, No.1, 1998), pp. 53-78.
12. Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, L 'Anti-Oedipe: Capitalisme et Schizophrénie (Paris: Editions de Minuit, 1972) and Eugene W. Holland, 'Schizoanalysis and Baudelaire: Some Illustrations of Decoding at Work', in Paul Patton (ed.), Deleuze: A Critical Reader (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996).
13. Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, L 'Anti-Oedipe: Capitalisme et Schizophrénie (Paris: Editions de Minuit, 1972) and Eugene W. Holland, 'Schizoanalysis and Baudelaire: Some Illustrations of Decoding at Work', in Paul Patton (ed.), Deleuze: A Critical Reader (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996).
14. Eugene Holland, op. cit., in note 4, p. 244 Also, see Holland for a short explanation of the terms decoding/receding and deterritorialisation/reterritorialisation.
15. Giddens, op. cit. in note 2, pp. 4-5.
16. For an overview of these debates, see the literature listed in note 3 as well as the following authors: Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, trans. G. C. Spivak (Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 1976); Jean François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, trans. G. Bennington and B. Massumi (Minneapolis, MN: Minneapolis University Press, 1984); Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity, 1990); David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990); and Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991).
17. For an overview of these debates, see the literature listed in note 3 as well as the following authors: Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, trans. G. C. Spivak (Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 1976); Jean François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, trans. G. Bennington and B. Massumi (Minneapolis, MN: Minneapolis University Press, 1984); Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity, 1990); David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990); and Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991).
18. For an overview of these debates, see the literature listed in note 3 as well as the following authors: Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, trans. G. C. Spivak (Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 1976); Jean François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, trans. G. Bennington and B. Massumi (Minneapolis, MN: Minneapolis University Press, 1984); Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity, 1990); David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990); and Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991).
19. For an overview of these debates, see the literature listed in note 3 as well as the following authors: Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, trans. G. C. Spivak (Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 1976); Jean François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, trans. G. Bennington and B. Massumi (Minneapolis, MN: Minneapolis University Press, 1984); Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity, 1990); David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990); and Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991).
20. For an overview of these debates, see the literature listed in note 3 as well as the following authors: Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, trans. G. C. Spivak (Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 1976); Jean François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, trans. G. Bennington and B. Massumi (Minneapolis, MN: Minneapolis University Press, 1984); Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity, 1990); David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990); and Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991).
21. Giddens, op. cit. in note 2;
22. Jan Nederveen Pieterse, 'Globalization as Hybridization', in Mike Featherstone et al., op. cit. in note 2, p. 51;
23. Dorothy O. Helly and Susan M. Reverby (eds.). Gendered Domains: Rethinking Public and Private in Women's History (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992);
24. Gillian Youngs, 'Breaking Patriarchal Bonds: Demythologizing the Public/Private', in Marianne H. Marchand and Anne Sisson Runyan (eds.), Gender and Global Restructuring: Sightings, Sites and Resistances (working title), forthcoming.
25. Helly and Reverby (cds.), op. cit., in note 8; Youngs, op. cit., in note 8.
26. Jean Baudrillard, 'Symbolic Exchange and Death', in Jean Baudrillard, Selected Writings (Cambridge: Polity, 1988), p. 128.
27. Ibid., p. 128.
28. Ibid., p. 127.
29. Ibid., p. 162.
30. Than-Dam Truong, Sex, Money and Morality: The Political Economy of Prostitution and Tourism in South East Asia (Ph.D. Thesis, University of Amsterdam, 1988).
31. Ibid., p. 324-5.
32. For a discussion of these new challenges, see Giddens, op. cit., in note 2, especially the introduction.
33. Nederveen Pieterse, op. cit., in note 8, p. 51.
34. Shannon Bell, Reading Writing and Rewriting the Prostitute Body (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press,1994), p. 135.
35. See, for instance, Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making feminist Sense of International Politics (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990); Truong, op. cit., in note 15; Marije Schuurman Hess, Global Margins: Polish Women Trafficked (MA Thesis, University of Amsterdam, 1996); Pettman, op. cit., in note 1; Moon, op. cit., in note 1; and Jan Jindy Pettman, 'Women on the Move: Globalisation, Gender and Labour Migration', FAIR Working Papers (Vol. 1, No. 1, 1998).
36. See, for instance, Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making feminist Sense of International Politics (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990); Truong, op. cit., in note 15; Marije Schuurman Hess, Global Margins: Polish Women Trafficked (MA Thesis, University of Amsterdam, 1996); Pettman, op. cit., in note 1; Moon, op. cit., in note 1; and Jan Jindy Pettman, 'Women on the Move: Globalisation, Gender and Labour Migration', FAIR Working Papers (Vol. 1, No. 1, 1998).
37. See, for instance, Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making feminist Sense of International Politics (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990); Truong, op. cit., in note 15; Marije Schuurman Hess, Global Margins: Polish Women Trafficked (MA Thesis, University of Amsterdam, 1996); Pettman, op. cit., in note 1; Moon, op. cit., in note 1; and Jan Jindy Pettman, 'Women on the Move: Globalisation, Gender and Labour Migration', FAIR Working Papers (Vol. 1, No. 1, 1998).
38. Enloe, ibid.; and Moon, op. cit. in note 1.
39. Enloe, op. cit., in note 1, p. 154.
40. Enloe, op.cit., in note 19.
41. Truong, op. cit., in note 14.
42. Gail Pheterson, The Prostitution Prism (Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam Press, 1996), p. 103.
43. Petra de Vries, Kuisheid voor Mannen, Vrijheil voor Vrouwen: De Reglamentering en Bestrijding van Prostitutie in Nederland, 1850-1911 (Hilversum: Verloren, 1997), p. 276, author's translation.
44. Marjan Sax, 'Nette meisjes Komen in de Hemel, Slechte Meisjes Komen Ovcral', in Frank Belderbos and Jan Visser (eds.), Beroep: Prositutie (Utrecht: Stichting Welzijnspublikatie, 1987), pp. 82-90.
45. Pheterson, op.cit., in note 45, p. 103.
46. See, in particular, the chapters by Sakia Saasen-Koob, Peter Hall, and Manuel Castells in Jeffrey Henderson and Manuel Castells (eds.), Global Restructuring and Territorial Development (London: Sage, 1987), and Saskia Sassen, The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991).
47. See, in particular, the chapters by Sakia Saasen-Koob, Peter Hall, and Manuel Castells in Jeffrey Henderson and Manuel Castells (eds.), Global Restructuring and Territorial Development (London: Sage, 1987), and Saskia Sassen, The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991).
48. See, for example, Saskia Sassen-Koob, 'Issues of Core and Periphery: Labour Migration and Global Restructuring', in Henderson and Castells (eds.), op, cit., in note 29, pp. 60-87, and Kimberly Chang and Lily H.M. Ling, 'Globalizatiou and its Intimate Other: Filipino Domestic Workers in Hong Kong', in Marchand and Runyan (eds.), op. cit., in note 8.
49. See, for example, Saskia Sassen-Koob, 'Issues of Core and Periphery: Labour Migration and Global Restructuring', in Henderson and Castells (eds.), op, cit., in note 29, pp. 60-87, and Kimberly Chang and Lily H.M. Ling, 'Globalizatiou and its Intimate Other: Filipino Domestic Workers in Hong Kong', in Marchand and Runyan (eds.), op. cit., in note 8.
50. Chris Hamnett, 'Social Polarisation in Global Cities: Theory and Evidence', Urban Studies (Vol. 31, No. 3, 1994), pp. 401-424, and Eleonore Kofman, 'The Unskilled, Deskilled and the Professional: Diverse Situations of Female Immigrants in Major European Cities', in Marchand and Runyan (eds.), op. cit., in note 8.
51. Chris Hamnett, 'Social Polarisation in Global Cities: Theory and Evidence', Urban Studies (Vol. 31, No. 3, 1994), pp. 401-424, and Eleonore Kofman, 'The Unskilled, Deskilled and the Professional: Diverse Situations of Female Immigrants in Major European Cities', in Marchand and Runyan (eds.), op. cit., in note 8.
52. th Century, Volume 2: The Wheels of Commerce, trans. S. Reynolds (New York, NY: Harper and Row, 1982).
53. th Century, Volume 2: The Wheels of Commerce, trans. S. Reynolds (New York, NY: Harper and Row, 1982).
54. Many of these ups and downs are related to the economic and political climate in The Netherlands (and particularly Amsterdam). A prosperous economic climate was often accompanied by a booming prostitution business; however, after the prostitution business had thrived for a while, it was usually met by public outcry about the city's declining moral standards and, in response, city officials resorted to tighter regulation of the sex industry. For the international reputation of the Amsterdam prostitution scene, see ibid.
55. B.J. Schuurmans, Ontsluyerde Geheimen der Stad Amsterdam (Amsterdam: n.p, 1862), p. 24, quoted in van Marieke van Doorninck and Margot Jongedijk, In het Leven: Vier Eeuwen Prostitutie in Nederland (Amsterdam/Apeldoorn: Historisch Museum Apeldoorn and Mr. A. de Graaf Stichting, 1997), p. 66, authors' translation.
56. B.J. Schuurmans, Ontsluyerde Geheimen der Stad Amsterdam (Amsterdam: n.p, 1862), p. 24, quoted in van Marieke van Doorninck and Margot Jongedijk, In het Leven: Vier Eeuwen Prostitutie in Nederland (Amsterdam/Apeldoorn: Historisch Museum Apeldoorn and Mr. A. de Graaf Stichting, 1997), p. 66, authors' translation.
57. Chang and Ling first introduced this distinction between dominant and subordinate forms of globalisation by juxtaposing globalization I (GI) of'techno-muscular capitalism' to globalization 2 (G2) involving a sexualised and racialised 'regime of labour intimacy'. Sec op. cit., in note 29.
58. These games were held outside the North American region for the first time in 1998. This fact helped to establish Amsterdam as the gay capital of Europe. Although the organising committee of the games (as well as Amsterdam city officials) were very optimistic about the economic benefits that the games were ' supposed to generate, they turned out to be a financial disaster. Not only was the chair of the committee fired, the organising committee had to file for bankruptcy as well. Moreover, the city of Amsterdam provided a 4 million guilders (around .US $ 2 million) emergency loan to prevent the premature termination of the games. Interestingly, the international accounting firm KPMG appears to be responsible for some of the budgeting errors as it never caught some of the errors and mistakes made by the organising committee. One could say that this is another example of the links between Amsterdam's global capital-oriented image and its image of permissiveness. For an account of the financial problems surrounding the gay games, see the Dutch press, in particular, De Volkskrant, Het Parool, and De Groene Amsterdammer.
59. 'Amsterdam Ontvangt Vijftien Staatsbezoeken Tegelijk', De Volkskrant 19 December 1996 (electronic version), http://www.volkskrant.nl, authors' translation.
60. Frederiek Wierda, 'Een Acht bij Vertrek', NRC Handelsblad (electronic version), http://www.nrc.nl (January 9, 1997).
61. On the Amsterdam logo and slogan 'Amsterdam-Capital of Inspiration', see http://www.amsterdam.nl.
62. The term 'sex tourist' is often used in the Red Light district to distinguish potential clients from tourists who are visiting the district to just 'have a look'. We placed the term 'sex tourist' in quotation marks because most of these tourists have no intention of visiting a prostitute and should, therefore, be distinguished from what is usually understood by sex tourism. It should be noted that this kind of tourism also occur in Amsterdam, but remains largely invisible. We have anecdotal information that every Friday night flights from various European countries arrive which carry mainly male passengers who are coming to Amsterdam as (potential) clients of the sex industry.
63. VVV-Amsterdam Tourist Office, 1998-1999: 64 Excursions in and around Amsterdam (Amsterdam: Amsterdam Tourist Office, 1998), p. II.
64. In The Netherlands, each town or region has a public health office, called Gemeentelijke Geneeskundige en Gezondheidsdienst (GG&GD) or Gemeentelijke Gezondheidsdienst (GGD). These offices deal with public health issues, such as AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) and have always played an important role in the regulation of prostitution.
65. We have conducted the following interviews: (I) Maricke van Doorninck, policy consultant for the Mr. A. De Graaf Stichting, July 22, 1998 (The Mr. De Graaf Stichting is an institute dealing with prostitution issues. It not only collects information about the prostitution business and the position of prostitutes in The Netherlands, but it also conducts policy-oriented research in order to influence policymaking. The efforts of the Mr. A. De Graaf Stichting are generally directed at the empowerment of prostitutes and the social acceptance of prostitution/prostitutes); (2) Sietske Altink, policy consultant, Rode Draad, (telephone interview), 24 August 1998. The 'Rode Draad' (Red Thread) is an advocacy organisation of prostitutes' rights, comparable to a labour union and was founded in the 1980s; and (3) Thérèse van der Helm Project leader for migrant prostitution, Amsterdam GG&GD, 22 September 1998. The Dutch term for the GG&GD project headed by Thérèse van der Helm is 'Project Vertrouwensvrouw (Migranten) Prostitutie' which means literally 'Confidential Woman for (Migrant) Prostitution'. This office can be compared to the institution of an ombuds(wo)man or counselling service and operates under strict rules of privacy and confidentiality. It has an out-rcach and counselling function for migrant prostitutes. It also tries to provide policymakers, social workers, and activists with information concerning the position of migrant prostitutes.
66. In 1911 a law was passed which prohibited the exploitation of brothels. This law was introduced to counter the trafficking in women which was widespread back then.
67. Van Doorninck and Jongedijk, op. cit., in note 33, p. 75.
68. In our interview with lier, Thérèse Van der Helm informed us about the most recent changes in the nationalities which are represented in the district. Since a recent ruling by the Amsterdam Appeals Court during the summer of 1998, overturning an earlier decision by the lower court (see note 51), it is now illegal for East and Central European prostitutes to work as self-employed entrepreneurs. As a result, ca. 80 per cent of the East and Central European prostitutes have disappeared from the regular prostitution scene (window, clubs, etc) in Amsterdam and their places have been taken by returning Latin American prostitutes, who had initially left because of the competition by the East and Central European sex workers. The influenee of regulation (and the implementation of various immigration laws) on the prostitution industry at large and the position of migrant women without work permits has once again been illustrated by a story which recently broke in the Dutch press. According to the reports, about 80-85 per cent of the windows in The Hague are now unoccupied because the local police checked all prostitutes in the district on their migrant status. According to the (window) owners, this is reversing a longstanding policy of tolerance toward migrant prostitutes who are working without work permits. The owners are now looking for other, legal prostitutes coming from other European Union countries to replace the women who have either lied or have been deported. These same owners also suggested that Dutch prostitutes are racist and will not accept migrant men as clients. According to the owners, this could lead to a situation whereby women who are not prostitutes are being harassed by frustrated (migrant) clients. In other words, the measures by the police are endangering the safety of women in The Hague. Radio I Report, 5 January 1999.
69. Van der Helm, op. cit., in note 42.
70. Ibid.
71. Altink, op. cit., in note 42.
72. GG&GD, Jaarverslag 1995-1996: Vertrounwensvrouw (Migranten)prostitutie (Amsterdam: GG&GD; 1997), p. 4, and GG&GD, Jaarverslag 1997: Project Vertrouwensvrouw (Migranten)prostitutie (Amsterdam: GG&GD, 1998), p. 4.
73. GG&GD, Jaarverslag 1995-1996: Vertrounwensvrouw (Migranten)prostitutie (Amsterdam: GG&GD; 1997), p. 4, and GG&GD, Jaarverslag 1997: Project Vertrouwensvrouw (Migranten)prostitutie (Amsterdam: GG&GD, 1998), p. 4.
74. Gemeentelijke Geneeskundige en Gezondheidsdienst, Jaarverslag 1997, Project Vertrouwensvrouw (Migranten)prostitutie (Amsterdam, The Netherlands: GG&GD, 1998), p. 5.
75. GG&GD, Jaarverslag 1997, op. cit., in note 49, p. 5. As we have already noted, since the summer of 1998, this trend has been reversed because of a court ruling; see note 45. What this illustrates is the speed of circulation in the district and the industry.
76. The prostitutes won in the lower courts, but the Immigration Service has appealed and refuses to acknowledge that prostitutes are self-employed. The prostitutes arc now taking the Immigration Service to court because of loss of income. See, De Volkskrant, 14 August 1998.
77. Nederveen Pieterse, op. cit., in note 8, p. 51; Helly and Reverby, op. cit., in note 8; and Youngs in Marchand and Runyon (eds.), op. cit., in note 8.
78. Melanie Wells, 'Woman as Goddess: Camille Paglia Tours Strip Clubs', Penthouse (October 1994), p. 132.
79. Wendy Chapkis, Live Sex Acts (New York, NY: Routledge, 1997), p. 160.
80. Ibid, pp. 151-152.
81. Merci Ülsü (director), Raamwerk [(Film Documentary, 27 minutes] (Amsterdam, The Nederlands).
82. Licia Brussa, Migrant Prostitution, TAMPEP (Amsterdam: De Graaf Stichting, 1996).
83. Janine Brodie, 'Shifting Boundaries: Gender and the Politics of Restructuring', in Isabella Bakker (ed.), The Strategic Silence: Gender and Economic Policy (London: Zed Books, 1994), p. 51.
84. Named after the courtesan of Homeric myth who had sex with the crew of Odysseus's ship, only to reduce them to animality.
85. Article 250ter of the Dutch Penal Code. See Marjan Wijers and Lin Lap-Chew, Trafficking in Women: Forced Labour and Slavery-like Practices in Marriage, Domestic Labour and Prostitution (Utrecht: Stichting Tegen Vrouwenhandel, 1997), p. 126.
86. The Roze Draad is a (feminist) sister and support group of the Rode Draad and has recently merged with the Rode Draad.
87. Bell, op. cit., in note 18, pp. 140-42.
88. Hansje Verbeek, De Schuchtere Toenadering tussen Prostituées en Feministen (Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Amsterdam University Press, 1986).
89. These measures are taken as part of the so-called 'gedoogbeleid' (a policy of tolerance) in anticipation of the changes in the law which will permit brothels and sex clubs to operate. In Amsterdam the municipal gedoogbeleid is focused on enforcing strict rules and regulations in terms of building and fire safety as well as certain minimum standards for health and hygiene.
90. Pheterson, op. cit., in note 24, p. 20.
91. Ibid.,
92. Ischa Meijer and Margot A., 'Prostituéein de Politick', (newspaperclipping - source unknown), found at Mr. A. De Graaf Stichting, Amsterdam.
93. Pheterson, op. cit., in note 24, pp. 103-104.