A Bid for Affirmative Action: Annie Golding and the New South Wales Public School Teachers' Association, 1900-15

Labour History

Volumn , Issue 77, 1999, Pages 117-139

  Deverall, Kate ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0007251435     PISSN: 00236942     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3828/27516673     Document Type: Article

References (142)

1. Report of the fifth annual conference of the Public School Teachers' Association (hereafter PSTA) in Sydney Morning Herald (hereafter SMH), 2 July 1902, p.5.
2. For example, Judith Smart, 'Feminists, labour women and venereal disease in early twentieth century Melbourne', Australian Feminist Studies, no. 15, Autumn 1992, pp. 25-40;
3. and, Melanie Raymond, 'Labour Pains: Women in Unions and the Labor Party in Victoria, 1903-1918/Lilith, no. 5, Spring 1988.
4. Judith Allen, 'Does feminism need a theory of state/in Sophie Watson (ed.), Playing the State: Australian Feminist Interventions, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1989, pp. 21-38.
5. There is no study of women in the Labor Party to compare with Joy Damousi's, Women Come Rally: Socialism and Gender in Australia, 1890-1955, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1994. Rae Frances has highlighted the lack of attention paid in labour feminist history to women as workers in the public service and professions, 'Shifting barriers: twentieth century women's labour patterns/in Kay Saunders and Raymond Evans, Gender Relations in Australia: Domination and Negotiation, Harcourt Brace, Sydney, 1994, p.259.
6. Damousi, Women Come Rally, pp. 87-89.
7. Marilyn Lake, The Independence of Women and the Brotherhood of Man: debates in the labour movement over equal pay and motherhood endowment in the 1920s', Labour History, no. 63, November 1992, pp. 1-24, at pp. 1-2;
8. and, The constitution of political subjectivity and the writing of labour history', in Terry Irving (ed.), Challenges to labour History, UNSW Press, Sydney, 1994, pp. 75-87.
9. Audrey Oldfield, Woman Suffrage in Australia: A Gift or a Struggle?, Cambridge University Press, Melbourne, 1992, pp. 93-98;
10. Beverley Kingston, 'Golding, Annie Mackenzie and Isabella Theresa' and V. Gallego 'Dwyer, Catherine Winifred' in Australian Dictionary of Biography, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 1966, vol. 8, p. 386 and vol. 9, pp. 41-42, respectively;
11. Heather Radi, 'Kate Dwyer/in Heather Radi (ed.), 200 Australian Women: A Redress Anthology, Sydney, 1988;
12. Pamela Allan, A preliminary sketch of the role of women in the NSW branch of the Australian Labour Party, BA (Hons) thesis in Government, University of Sydney, 1974, ch. 2;
13. Julie Atkinson, Aspects of the developing political relationship between working class women and feminists, BA (Hons) thesis in History, University of Sydney, 1979, chs 4-6;
14. Australian Labor Party - New South Wales, Reports of the Executive, 1915-1948 (binder's tide), call no. ML 329.3106/3, Mitchell Library, New South Wales (hereafter ML NSW).
15. On disputes between Rose Scott and the Golding sisters in the WSL, see Judith Allen, Rose Scott: Vision and Revision in Australian Feminism, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1990, pp. 165-167, p. 181, pp. 196-202. Golding and Dwyer played a prominent part in a number of a significant factional disputes, including the debate in relation to the socialist objective and the controversy surrounding the expulsion of Jack Bailey. See report of the 1921 Federal Conference of the Australian Labor Party in Official Report of Proceedings, 1902-1921, binder's title, call no. ML 329.305/4, ML NSW; Australian Worker (hereafter Worker), 4 June 1924, p.15,11 June 1924, p.15,13 June 1924, p.15,2 July 1924, p.17.
16. Mitchell, Teachers, Education and Politics: A History of Organisations of Public School Teachers in New South Wales, University of Queensland Press, St. Lucia, Qld, 1975, p. 1.
17. Mitchell, Teachers, Education and Politics: A History of Organisations of Public School Teachers in New South Wales, University of Queensland Press, St. Lucia, Qld, 1975, pp. 24-26.
18. Department of Education files, Teacher Personnel Division, Teachers Rolls, AO Reels 1991-1998, State Archives of New South Wales (hereafter SA NSW).
19. Marilyn Lake, The politics of respectability: identifying the masculinist context', Australian Historical Studies, vol. 22, no. 86, April 1986, pp. 116-131;
20. Judith Allen, '"Our Deeply Degraded Sex" and the "Animal in Man": Rose Scott, feminism and sexuality, 1880-1925', Australian Feminist Studies, nos 7 & 8, Summer 1988, pp. 65-94.
21. See Noeline Williamson, The feminisation of teaching in New South Wales: a historical perspective', The Australian Journal of Education (hereafter AJE), vol. 27, no. 1,1983, pp. 33-44;
22. Noeline Kyle, 'Woman's "Natural Mission" but Man's Real Domain: the masculinisation of the State elementary teaching service in New South Wales', in Sandra Taylor and Miriam Henry (eds), Battlers and Bluestockings: Women's Place in Australian Education, Australian College of Education, Deakin ACT, 1988, pp. 25-36;
23. Majorie Theobald, The Creation of Dissonance in the Education of Girls: A Historical Perspective', paper presented to the Australian and New Zealand History of Education Society Conference, 1988.
24. Noeline Kyle, Her Natural Destiny: The Education of Women in New South Wales, New South Wales University Press, Kensington NSW, 1986, ch. 8. See also, Noeline Williamson, The employment of female teachers in the small bush schools of New South Wales, 1880-1890: a case of Stay Bushed or Stay Home', Labour History, no. 43, November 1982, pp. 1-12. However, by the turn of century, women were not being appointed as teachers in charge even in smaller schools. Compare, Kay Whitehead, 'Career paths for provisional school teachers in South Australia, 1875-1915', History of Education Review, vol. 23, no. 1,1994, pp. 53-67.
25. Kyle, Her Natural Destiny, p. 136.
26. Between 200 and 300 delegates generally attended annual conferences, while membership of the PSTA hovered at around 2000 members. Mitchell calculates membership rates at a third to half of all teachers in service. Mitchell, Teachers, Education and Politics, pp.6-7, pp.24-25.
27. At the turn of the century, women represented about 45 per cent of the teaching service. The percentage of women in the service can be gauged from Public Service Lists, New South Wales Government Printer, Sydney, 1897-1915. See also, Kyle, Her Natural Destiny, p. 225, p. 233.
28. SMH, 27 June 1901, p.7,4 July 1902, p.4,3 July 1903, p.4,28 June 1905, p.5.
29. AJE, 15 January 1912, p.15.
30. Golding was a member of the original council of the PSTA and of its immediate predecessor, the Public School Teachers' Institute. She demonstrated her determination to represent the particular interests of female public school teachers as early as 1895, when she addressed a general meeting of public servants on women's superannuation rights. Transmitter, 13 April 1895, p.9.
31. SMH, 28 June 1901, p.4,4 July 1902, p.4.
32. AJE, 15 January 1908, p.7. Changes introduced in 1907, carefully preserved the ratio of women to men on the Council.
33. The PSTA annual conference was held in December of each year after 1905. For the 1906-1911 conferences, results of elections can be found in the January issue of the AJE for the following year. Results were also reported in the Daily Telegraph (hereafter Telegraph) until the PSTA's demise in 1918.
34. AJE, 15 January 1909, p.4. Three positions previously reserved for past-presidents on council were removed at the same time.
35. A fact borne out by reports of subsequent PSTA conferences, see Telegraph, 18 December 1912, p.13, 23 December 1913, p.5.
36. AJE, 15 January 1912, p.15.
37. 15 January 1912, pp.12-16,15 April 1912, pp.3-5. This new structure reflected that already used in the selection of delegates to conference, see AJE, 15 September 1909, p.10
38. 'Minutes of the Womanhood Suffrage League', 24 August 1901,3 September 1901,15 October 1901, 25 March 1902,24 June 1902,22 July 1902,26 August 1902, Rose Scott Papers, ML MSS 38/33, ML NSW. Woman's Sphere (hereafter Sphere), November 1902, p.280, SMH, 2 October 1902, p.5.
39. For the introduction of these provisions, see Worker, 17 December 1904, p. 6,4 February 1905, p. 5, 11 February 1905, p. 5. Labour feminist, Lilian Locke Burns, organised for the party throughout the Eastern States. For her assessment of the impact of the provisions on women's participation in the party in NSW vis-a-vis other States, see Worker, women's page, 17 August 1911.
40. Worker, 13 February 1913, p.17.
41. After Golding's retirement, these women proved more than capable of carrying on the campaigns she had begun. For example, see transcript of a deputation from the PSTA to the Minister for Public Instruction (hereafter MPI), 16 June 1915, Department of Education subject files: Teachers' Associations and Classes (hereafter subject files), K/w 20/13276, SA NSW.
42. AJE, 15 January 1912, p.15.
43. See Judith Biddington, The role of women teachers in the Victorian Education Department, 1872-1925, MEd thesis, University of Melbourne, 1977.
44. Female teachers in Victoria and New South Wales appeared to agree that the Victorians were in a worse position with regard to salaries than their northern peers. Those in New South Wales might have felt they had more to lose through high risk strategies. See Annie Golding T h e Industrial and Social Position of Women in the Australian Commonwealth,' in Proceedings of the Third Australasian Catholic Congress, Sydney, 1909, pp. 287-294, at p. 293 and Education Gazette and Teachers' Aid, 22 July 1913, p. 328.
45. On both occasions, the issue involved rights of representation. In the first instance, the WCOC was endeavouring to strengthen the rules securing positions for female delegates at party conferences. In the second, it sought action in favour of women's right to stand for parliament. Worker, 13 February 1913, p.13,26 February 1914, p.19.
46. Kate Dwyer to Sara Lewis, 28 August 1916, in Women's Central Organising Committee Correspondence, 30 April 1912-25 October 1942, ALP Victorian Branch Women's Central Organising Committee, ALP Series, Tom Merrifield Collection, MS 13045, Box 107, Item 1, Latrobe Library, State Library of Victoria.
47. Mitchell, Teachers, Education and Politics, pp. 32-34;
48. AJE, 15 August 1911, pp. 1-7.
49. AJE, 15 August 1911, p.4.
50. Newscutting of a letter to the editor from Annie Golding, President of the Women's Progressive Association, on 'Rates of Pay for Women' in 'Newcuttings re Women's Issues, 1911-1924', Rose Scott Papers, ML MSS 38/62, Items 1-5, Reel CY 3673, Frame 394, ML NSW.
51. Telegraph, 23 December 1914, p.5.
52. By her high profile involvement in the womanhood suffrage and federation debates. A description of the rules and their impact can be found in Mitchell, Teachers, Education and Politics, pp.7-9.
53. For examples, see SMH, 3 July 1903, p.4 and transcript of an interview granted to Annie Golding by the PSB, 11 September 1906, subject files, K/w 20/13271.1, SA NSW.
54. Other labour women supported the Golding sisters on this issue. SMH, 10 August 1904, p.10, 6 September 1904, p.6, Worker, 24 September 1904, p.2,23 January 1908, p.19,11 November 1909, p.7, 3 March 1910, p.3,17 November 1910, p.5,19 January 1911, p.6,20 July, 1911, p.7.
55. For Scott's involvement in campaigns to raise the age of consent, to reduce sweating in industry, and to provide for equal guardianship laws and testator's family maintenance, see Allen, Rose Scott, pp. 114-116, pp. 150-152, pp. 184-196.
56. News cuttings entitled 'For Women - Domestic's Wages Board - Mistresses and Maids in Committee' and 'The Other Side', c.1912 in 'Cuttings re. women's issues, 1912-1924/Rose Scott Papers, ML MSS 38/62, Items 1-5, cuttings nos 457-457a, microfilm roll CY 3673, ML NSW. Labour women had clashed with Scott and other women from conservative and non-party women's organisations in relation to this issue on previous occasions. See Worker, 10 December 1904, p.2,14 January 1905, p.5, and 9 November 1905, p.7.
57. Kate and her adult daughter managed the Dwyer household without paid domestic assistance. See Worker, 29 January 1914, p.9, Telegraph, 15 March 1915. Dwyer adopted a particularly conciliatory tone in relation to this matter but her real feelings on the views expressed by Scott are not difficult to imagine.
58. Labor government legislation to enable industrial regulation of domestic service passed the Legislative Assembly on several occasions but was blocked each time in the Legislative Council. See Worker, 9 April 1908, p.l, 2 September 1909, p.3,28 July 1910, p.5,8 June 1911, p.15,27 July 1911, p.23,12 October 1911, p. 23,7 December 1911, p.17,4 April 1912, p.13,28 November 1912, p.17.
59. Worker, 4 May 1911, p. 3.
60. Annie Golding, 'Rates of Pay for Women'. Dwyer agreed. See 'Mrs Kate Dwyer', Lone Hand, 1 November 1911, p. 30.
61. Mitchell, Teachers, Education and Politics, pp. 7-9,30-34;
62. AJE, 15 August 1911, pp. 1-7.
63. See Desley Deacon, The State, the New Middle Class and Women Workers, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1989, p.169, p.179, pp.184-193.
64. The NSWTF constitution allowed members to form sectional associations which were proportionately represented on the Federation's council. Several of these associations represented grades of female teachers exclusively. Mitchell, Teachers, Education and Politics, p.46.
65. For example, see transcript of a deputation from the PSTA to the PSB, 15 December 1906, subject files, reference no. K/w 20/13271.3, SA NSW.
66. See also, transcript of an interview granted to Annie Golding by the PSB, 11 September 1906 and transcript of a deputation from the PSTA to the MPI, 10 August 1901, also in subject files, K/w 20/13271.1, SA NSW.
67. Transcript of an interview granted to Annie Golding by the PSB, 11 September 1906, p.10. See also, transcript of a deputation from the PSTA to the MPI, 10 August 1901.
68. AJE, 15 October 1906, p.9.
69. 15 October 1906, p. 15,15 November 1906, p. 15,15 December 1906, pp. 5-6,15 January 1907, pp. 11-12.
70. See also, Mitchell, Teachers, Education and Politics, pp.27-28. Ironically, despite the fact that women's salaries did not always rise with men's, the Department insisted that men's salaries would need to rise if increases were granted to women. See memorandum re: 'Salaries of Teachers' from the Secretary of the PSB to the Under Secretary of Public Instruction, 1 November 1906;
71. memorandum re: 'Salaries of Teachers' from the Under Secretary of Public Instruction to the Secretary of the PSB, 29 November 1906, subject files, reference no. K/w 20/13271.3, SA NSW.
72. These comparisons and those that follow have been made on the basis of changes in the numbers, salary ranges and average salaries of the grades of teachers mentioned derived from Public Service Lists. Junior teachers who were not in charge of schools or departments of schools included first (ie. more senior) assistants, assistants, ex-students and ex-pupil teachers. Ex-students were graduates of the newly established teachers' training college while ex-pupil teachers had been trained in the class room.
73. AJE, 15 January 1907, p.12,15 January 1908, p.6,15 December 1908, p.l, 15 January 1909, p.4,15 February 1909, p.3,15 July 1909, p.9,15 June 1910, p.l.
74. AJE, 15 June 1910, p.l, Worker, 16 November 1910, p.3.
75. Sphere, 10 October 1902, p.218.
76. Sphere, January 1905, p.5, Worker, 11 February 1905, p.5,8 February 1906,26 November 1908, p.23.
77. Worker, 26 November 1908, p.29.
78. Melanie Nolan, 'Sex or class? The politics of the first equal pay campaign in Victoria', in Rae Frances and Bruce Scates (eds), Women, Work and the Labour Movement in Australia and Aeotearoa/New Zealand, Australian Society for the Study of Labour History, Sydney, 1991, pp. 101-122.
79. At this conference, Dwyer was the only woman on the policy sub-committee responsible for industrial legislation. Worker, 27 January 1909, p.4,4 February 1909, p.27.
80. Mitchell, Teachers, Politics and Education, p. 28-29.
81. Transcript of a deputation from the PSTA to the PSB, 15 December 1906, p. 14.
82. AJE, 15 June 1911, p. 5,15 July 1911, p. 9,15 October 1911, p. 5.
83. Compare, Public Service List, 1911, pp.130-131 and Public Service List, 1912, pp.158-159.
84. AJE, 15 June 1911, p. 1,15 July 1911, p. 9,15 December 1911, p. 9.
85. AJE, 15 February 1912, p. 1. The previous government had paved the way for the introduction of this policy by providing residences to all male head teachers regardless of their marital status. However, the Labor government cashed out these allowances and charged male head teachers rent where they were supplied with vested residences. In addition, marriage allowances paid to married male assistants were cashed out and given to all male assistants regardless of marital status.
86. The first deputation from the PSTU to the MPI was all male. One woman was included in the second deputation. She alone raised her voice for equal pay. Transcripts of deputations from the PSTU to the MPI, 1 July 1912 and 7 April 1913, in subject files, K/w 20/13275 and K/w 20/13276 respectively, SA NSW. Unlike the PSTA, the PSTU did not adopt a range of policies indicating an understanding of female teachers concerns with regards to training opportunities, salary schemes and career structures. For reports of its conferences see Telegraph, 17 December 1912, p.12,18 December 1912, p.ll, 17 December 1913, p.9,18 December 1913, p.9.
87. Letter to the Premier from the PLL Executive, 10 March 1914, subject files, reference no. K/w 20/13276, SA NSW
88. SMH, 6 March 1914, p.10.
89. Transcript of deputation from the Labor Council to the MPI, 23 March 1914, subject hies, K/w 20/13276, SA NSW.
90. AJE, 15 January 1912, p. 17. There is some evidence that the PSTA's leadership was more supportive of equal pay than were most delegates. The PSTA showed an on-going capacity to respond to its female members concerns relating to salaries and superannuation notwithstanding the initial rejection of equal pay policy, Transcript of deputation from the Labor Council to the MPI, 16 March 1911, p.13,15 October 1911, p.5, p.16,15 February 1912, pp.5-6,15 June 1912, p.6. In relation to superannuation, the PSTA once again rejected joint action with the PSA because of its lack of sensitivity to women's needs.
91. Telegraph, 16 December 1913, p. 9.
92. Transcript of a deputation from the PSTA to the MPI, 14 March 1914, p.16 (see also pp. 17-19 and pp. 30-31), subject files, K/w 20/13276, SA NSW.
93. The President had changed his tune. In 1906, prior to his election, he had been among those who opposed claims based on the comparative worth of women's work. While women were not elected to high office, their numbers within the Association may have given them some influence over who was elected. Other leading lights in the Association were also prone to demonstrations of their capacity to grasp 'the ladies' case'. See AJE, 15 October 1906, p. 1,15 January 1907, p. 10.
94. Transcript of a deputation from the PSTA to the MPI, 16 June 1915, and letter from the PSTA to the MPI, 1 November 1915, also in subject files, reference no. K/w 20/13276, SA NSW.
95. Transcript of deputation from the Labor Council to the MPI, 23 March 1914, pp.4-6. See also, transcript of a deputation from the PSTU to the MPI, 7 April 1913, and transcript of a deputation from the PSTA to the MPI, 14 March 1914.
96. Anderson was well known in Sydney for her social reform work, particularly in relation to kindergartens. Her first married name was Mrs Maybanke Wolstenholme. See J. Roberts, Maybanke Anderson: Sex, Suffrage and Social Reform, Hale & Iremonger, Sydney, 1993, passim. She worked closely with the Golding sisters in the League. See Oldfield, Woman Suffrage in Australia, pp. 83-84.
97. Mitchell, Teachers, Education and Politics, pp. 8-22.
98. Transcript of an interview granted to Annie Golding by the PSB, 11 September 1906, p.5.
99. AJE, 2 May 1904, p.5.
100. Worker, 3 June 1905, p.2,7 February 1907, p.9.
101. Transcript of an interview granted to Annie Golding by the PSB, 11 September 1906, p.7.
102. Board explained the figures by reference to the fact that the Department had ceased appointing female teachers to small schools because of the dangers presented by their remote locations. Golding was not convinced by this explanation. She also maintained that women were fit to manage remote schools. Transcript of an interview granted to Annie Golding by the PSB, pp.5-6.
103. AJE, 1 June 1904, p.7. Golding also maintained that, in districts where coeducation prevailed, most parents who could afford to also chose to send their daughters to private single-sex schools. Theobald has noted this same phenomenon in relation to nineteenth century Victoria. See Theobald, The creation of dissonance in the education of girls'. For background on the current coeducation debate, see Jennifer Jones, Noeline Kyle & Jan Black, The tidy classroom: an assessment of the change from single sex schooling to coeducation in New South Wales', AJE, vol. 31, no. 3, November 1987, pp. 284-302.
104. AJE, 15 May 1905, p.13.
105. Transcript of a deputation from the PSTA to the MPI, 15 December 1906, p. 36.
106. AJE, 16 January 1911, p. 11.
107. AJE, 15 April 1911, p. 7,15 January 1912, p. 9,15 April 1912, p.5.
108. Worker, 23 February 1911, p.3,20 February 1913, p.17.
109. Worker, 30 March 1911.
110. 9 February 1911, p. 5,16 February 1911, p. 3,20 February 1913, p. 17,19 June 1919, p. 17, and compare the 1918 and 1920 State platforms in Australian Labor Party - New South Wales branch, Rules and Constitution and the Policy and Platform (State and Federal), 1916-1925, binder's title, catalogue no. 329.3106/2, ML NSW.
111. Mitchell, Teachers, Education and Politics, pp. 25-26.
112. AJE, 16 March 1908, p. 6,15 January 1910, pp. 10-11,16 May 1910, pp. 9-10,16 January 1911, pp. 9-11,15 April 1911, p. 7,15 July 1911, p. 8,15 January 1912, p. 9,15 March 1912, pp. 7-9; transcripts of deputations from the PSTA to the MPI, 4 March 1908, pp. 11-12,26 March 1911, pp. 10-14, and 22 February 1913, pp. 3-6, in subject files K/w 20/13272, K/w 20/13274 and K/w 20/13276 respectively, SA NSW; and transcripts of deputations from the PSTA to the MPI, 14 March 1914, pp. 6-15,16 June 1915, pp. 3-5.
113. See Jenny Martin, The introduction of domestic science into New South Wales State schools, 1880-1930', BA (Hons) thesis, School of History, University of New South Wales, 1974, passim.
114. Worker, 20 February 1913, p.17.
115. Transcript of a deputation from the PSTA to the MPI, 26 March 1911, p. 10.
116. Worker, 6 February 1908, p.19.
117. Transcript of a deputation from the PSTA to the MPI, 14 March 1914, pp. 10-11.
118. Transcript of a deputation from the PSTA to the MPI, 14 March 1914, p. 23.
119. AJE, 15 January 1907, p. 6.
120. 15 January 1907, p. 6,15 January 1908, p. 6,15 January 1909, p. 4,15 January 1910, p.8, p.ll; transcripts of deputations from the PSTA to the MPI, 4 March 1908, pp. 8-12 and 26 March 1911, pp. 13-15.
121. The PLL adopted policy in favour of free education and the extension of bursaries before the PSTA. See Australian Labor Party - New South Wales, 'Rules and Constitution and the Policy and Platform (State and Federal), 1900-1915', binder's title, call no. s329.3106/2, ML NSW.
122. AJE, 15 January 1912, p. 17, Telegraph, 17 December 1912, p. 12.
123. AJE, 16 May 1910, p. 10.
124. Transcript of a deputation from the PSTA to the MPI, 26 March 1911, p.17. See also, Transcripts of deputations from the PSTA to the MPI, 22 February 1913, p. 4 and 16 June 1915, p.4.
125. Transcript of a deputation from the PSTA to the MPI, 14 March 1914, p. 29.
126. The degree was demanding and not effectively integrated with other University curriculum. It produced only one graduate. See Martin, The introduction of domestic science, pp. 97-101.
127. Jane Kenway and Margaret Banks, 'Gender justice, social change and home economics: collection of two articles', Journal of the Home Economics Associations of Australia, vol. 24, no. 2, June 1992, pp. 48-55, at p. 52. For other historical perspectives on the question of domestic education for girls, see Michael Sprod, 'Domestic training in Tasmanian State post-primary schools', Papers and Proceedings (Tasmanian Historical Research Association), vol. 41, no. 2, June 1994, pp. 101-109;
128. Jill Matthews, 'Education for femininity: domestic arts education in South Australia, 1875-1975', Labour History, no. 45, November 1983, pp. 30-53;
129. Beverley Kingston, 'When did we teach our girls to cook?', Australian Cultural History, no. 15,1996, pp. 89-101;
130. Claudia Quinn-Young 'The South Australian Education Act of 1915 in relation to technical education and girls between the two World Wars', paper presented to the 12th ANZHES Conference, University of Tasmania, 1982.
131. They successfully resisted a motion at a PSTA conference which would have further restricted single sex education and secured support for policies aimed at creating more positions for female first assistants. AJE, 16 January 1911, p. 11, Telegraph, 17 December 1913, p. 9.
132. Transcript of a deputation to the Minister for Public Instruction, 14 March 1914, p. 20 and see also pp. 31-35. Women had to fight to ensure support from the PSTA on this issue. See AJE, 15 January 1912, p. 9. Golding first advocated the reform through the WPA, Worker, 28 March 1907, p.20.
133. In 1916, the Labor government appointed Kate Dwyer to the Senate. However, this solution was an ad hoc one, not a structural reform.
134. Transcript of a deputation from the PSTA to the MPI, 14 March 1914, p. 13.
135. Mitchell, Teachers, Education and Politics, pp.45-50.
136. As well as the campaign for equal pay, female teachers fought against a ban on married women in the service. Majorie Theobald and Donna Dwyer, 'An Episode in Feminist Politics: The Married Women (Lecturers and Teachers) Act, 1932-1947/Labour History, no. 76, May 1999, pp.59-77.
137. Edna Ryan and Anne Cordon, Gentle Invaders: Australian Women at Work, 1788-1974, Thomas Nelson (Australia) Ltd., West Melbourne, Vic, 1975, pp. 145-151.
138. Mitchell, Teachers, Education and Politics, pp. 188-189.
139. Margaret Gardner, Women Workers, Trade Union Government and Strategies: the New South Wales Nurses Association and Teachers' Federation, PhD thesis, Faculty of Economics, University of Sydney, 1983, pp. 428-439.
140. See A.D. Spaull, 'Equal pay for women teachers and the New South Wales Teachers' Federation' and compare B.K. Hyams, The battle of the sexes in teachers' organisations: a South Australian episode', both in A.D. Spaull (ed.), Australian Teachers: Form Colonial Schoolmasters to Militant Professionals, Macmillan Company of Australia, South Melbourne, Vic, 1977, pp. 276-289 and pp. 212-222, respectively. Compare also, Jenny Hughey, 'Equal pay and the Queensland Teachers' Union: the seventy year struggle by women teachers', in Taylor and Henry (eds), Battlers and Bluestockings, pp. 51-64.
141. Margaret Gardner, "The Fateful Meridian": trade union strategies and women workers,' in Mark Bray and Vic Taylor (eds), Managing Labour? Essays in the Political Economy of Australian Industrial Relations, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Sydney, 1986.
142. Gardner, Women Workers, Trade Union Government and Strategy, pp.443-462.