When the frame is the game: Revisiting the impact of "strategic" campaign coverage on citizens' information retention

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 78, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 93-112

  Valentino, Nicholas A ^a   Buhr, Thomas A ^a   Beckmann, Matthew N ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0007209774     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769900107800107     Document Type: Article

References (41)

1. We would like to thank Donald Kinder for helpful feedback on this project. We are also in debt to Anthony Collings, who wrote the newspaper articles used as experimental treatments for this project. Dara Paris, Peter Burkewicz, Johanna Cohen, and Victor Kucek provided invaluable research assistance. This project was made possible by generous support from the Marsh Center for Journalistic Performance at the University of Michigan to the first author. Errors are the authors' alone.
2. Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion (NY: Harcourt, Brace, 1992); John Dewey, The Public and Its Problems (NY: H. Holt, 1927); Harold Lasswell, "The Structure and Function of Communication in Society," in The Communication of Ideas, ed. Lyman Bryson (NY: Harper, 1948), 37-52.
3. Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion (NY: Harcourt, Brace, 1992); John Dewey, The Public and Its Problems (NY: H. Holt, 1927); Harold Lasswell, "The Structure and Function of Communication in Society," in The Communication of Ideas, ed. Lyman Bryson (NY: Harper, 1948), 37-52.
4. Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion (NY: Harcourt, Brace, 1992); John Dewey, The Public and Its Problems (NY: H. Holt, 1927); Harold Lasswell, "The Structure and Function of Communication in Society," in The Communication of Ideas, ed. Lyman Bryson (NY: Harper, 1948), 37-52.
5. For a review, see Steve H. Chaffee and Stacey Frank Kanihan, "Learning about Politics from the Mass Media," Political Communication 14 (October 1997): 421-30.
6. Charles Atkin, "Anticipated Communication and Mass Media Information-Seeking," Public Opinion Quarterly 36 (summer 1972): 188-99; Stephen H. Chaffee, Xinshu Zhao, and Glenn Leshner, "Political Knowledge and the Campaign Media of 1992," Communication Research 21 (June 1994): 305-324; Hugh M. Culbertson and Guido H. Stempel III, "How Media Use and Reliance Affect Knowledge Level," Communication Research 2 (October 1986): 3-23; Jack M. McCleod, Zhongshi Guo, Katie Daily, Catherine A. Steele, Huiping Huang, Edward Hororwitz, and Huailin Chen, "The Impact of Traditional and Nontraditional Media Forms in the 1992 Presidential Election," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (summer 1996): 401-416; Thomas E. Patterson and Robert D. McClure, The Unseeing Eye : the Myth of Television Power in National Politics (NY: Putnam, 1976).
7. Charles Atkin, "Anticipated Communication and Mass Media Information-Seeking," Public Opinion Quarterly 36 (summer 1972): 188-99; Stephen H. Chaffee, Xinshu Zhao, and Glenn Leshner, "Political Knowledge and the Campaign Media of 1992," Communication Research 21 (June 1994): 305-324; Hugh M. Culbertson and Guido H. Stempel III, "How Media Use and Reliance Affect Knowledge Level," Communication Research 2 (October 1986): 3-23; Jack M. McCleod, Zhongshi Guo, Katie Daily, Catherine A. Steele, Huiping Huang, Edward Hororwitz, and Huailin Chen, "The Impact of Traditional and Nontraditional Media Forms in the 1992 Presidential Election," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (summer 1996): 401-416; Thomas E. Patterson and Robert D. McClure, The Unseeing Eye : the Myth of Television Power in National Politics (NY: Putnam, 1976).
8. Charles Atkin, "Anticipated Communication and Mass Media Information-Seeking," Public Opinion Quarterly 36 (summer 1972): 188-99; Stephen H. Chaffee, Xinshu Zhao, and Glenn Leshner, "Political Knowledge and the Campaign Media of 1992," Communication Research 21 (June 1994): 305-324; Hugh M. Culbertson and Guido H. Stempel III, "How Media Use and Reliance Affect Knowledge Level," Communication Research 2 (October 1986): 3-23; Jack M. McCleod, Zhongshi Guo, Katie Daily, Catherine A. Steele, Huiping Huang, Edward Hororwitz, and Huailin Chen, "The Impact of Traditional and Nontraditional Media Forms in the 1992 Presidential Election," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (summer 1996): 401-416; Thomas E. Patterson and Robert D. McClure, The Unseeing Eye : the Myth of Television Power in National Politics (NY: Putnam, 1976).
9. Charles Atkin, "Anticipated Communication and Mass Media Information-Seeking," Public Opinion Quarterly 36 (summer 1972): 188-99; Stephen H. Chaffee, Xinshu Zhao, and Glenn Leshner, "Political Knowledge and the Campaign Media of 1992," Communication Research 21 (June 1994): 305-324; Hugh M. Culbertson and Guido H. Stempel III, "How Media Use and Reliance Affect Knowledge Level," Communication Research 2 (October 1986): 3-23; Jack M. McCleod, Zhongshi Guo, Katie Daily, Catherine A. Steele, Huiping Huang, Edward Hororwitz, and Huailin Chen, "The Impact of Traditional and Nontraditional Media Forms in the 1992 Presidential Election," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (summer 1996): 401-416; Thomas E. Patterson and Robert D. McClure, The Unseeing Eye : the Myth of Television Power in National Politics (NY: Putnam, 1976).
10. Charles Atkin, "Anticipated Communication and Mass Media Information-Seeking," Public Opinion Quarterly 36 (summer 1972): 188-99; Stephen H. Chaffee, Xinshu Zhao, and Glenn Leshner, "Political Knowledge and the Campaign Media of 1992," Communication Research 21 (June 1994): 305-324; Hugh M. Culbertson and Guido H. Stempel III, "How Media Use and Reliance Affect Knowledge Level," Communication Research 2 (October 1986): 3-23; Jack M. McCleod, Zhongshi Guo, Katie Daily, Catherine A. Steele, Huiping Huang, Edward Hororwitz, and Huailin Chen, "The Impact of Traditional and Nontraditional Media Forms in the 1992 Presidential Election," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (summer 1996): 401-416; Thomas E. Patterson and Robert D. McClure, The Unseeing Eye : the Myth of Television Power in National Politics (NY: Putnam, 1976).
11. Edith Efron, The News Twisters (Los Angeles, CA: Nash, 1971).
12. Thomas E. Patterson, Out of Order (NY: Vintage, 1994), 115. Myriad content analyses have found no evidence that reporters' political views lead to partisan biases in coverage of campaigns. See, for example, Doris Graber, Mass Media and American Politics, 5th ed. (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1997); Michael Robinson and Margaret Sheehan, Over the Wire and on TV (NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 1983), 56; Richard C. Hofstetter, Bias in the News (Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press, 1976); Paul Weaver, "Is Television News Biased?" Public Interest 26 (winter 1972): 52-74. Paul Weaver and G. Cleveland Wilhoit, The American Journalist, 2d ed. (Bloomington, IN: University Press, 1986).
13. Thomas E. Patterson, Out of Order (NY: Vintage, 1994), 115. Myriad content analyses have found no evidence that reporters' political views lead to partisan biases in coverage of campaigns. See, for example, Doris Graber, Mass Media and American Politics, 5th ed. (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1997); Michael Robinson and Margaret Sheehan, Over the Wire and on TV (NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 1983), 56; Richard C. Hofstetter, Bias in the News (Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press, 1976); Paul Weaver, "Is Television News Biased?" Public Interest 26 (winter 1972): 52-74. Paul Weaver and G. Cleveland Wilhoit, The American Journalist, 2d ed. (Bloomington, IN: University Press, 1986).
14. Thomas E. Patterson, Out of Order (NY: Vintage, 1994), 115. Myriad content analyses have found no evidence that reporters' political views lead to partisan biases in coverage of campaigns. See, for example, Doris Graber, Mass Media and American Politics, 5th ed. (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1997); Michael Robinson and Margaret Sheehan, Over the Wire and on TV (NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 1983), 56; Richard C. Hofstetter, Bias in the News (Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press, 1976); Paul Weaver, "Is Television News Biased?" Public Interest 26 (winter 1972): 52-74. Paul Weaver and G. Cleveland Wilhoit, The American Journalist, 2d ed. (Bloomington, IN: University Press, 1986).
15. Thomas E. Patterson, Out of Order (NY: Vintage, 1994), 115. Myriad content analyses have found no evidence that reporters' political views lead to partisan biases in coverage of campaigns. See, for example, Doris Graber, Mass Media and American Politics, 5th ed. (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1997); Michael Robinson and Margaret Sheehan, Over the Wire and on TV (NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 1983), 56; Richard C. Hofstetter, Bias in the News (Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press, 1976); Paul Weaver, "Is Television News Biased?" Public Interest 26 (winter 1972): 52-74. Paul Weaver and G. Cleveland Wilhoit, The American Journalist, 2d ed. (Bloomington, IN: University Press, 1986).
16. Thomas E. Patterson, Out of Order (NY: Vintage, 1994), 115. Myriad content analyses have found no evidence that reporters' political views lead to partisan biases in coverage of campaigns. See, for example, Doris Graber, Mass Media and American Politics, 5th ed. (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1997); Michael Robinson and Margaret Sheehan, Over the Wire and on TV (NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 1983), 56; Richard C. Hofstetter, Bias in the News (Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press, 1976); Paul Weaver, "Is Television News Biased?" Public Interest 26 (winter 1972): 52-74. Paul Weaver and G. Cleveland Wilhoit, The American Journalist, 2d ed. (Bloomington, IN: University Press, 1986).
17. Thomas E. Patterson, Out of Order (NY: Vintage, 1994), 115. Myriad content analyses have found no evidence that reporters' political views lead to partisan biases in coverage of campaigns. See, for example, Doris Graber, Mass Media and American Politics, 5th ed. (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1997); Michael Robinson and Margaret Sheehan, Over the Wire and on TV (NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 1983), 56; Richard C. Hofstetter, Bias in the News (Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press, 1976); Paul Weaver, "Is Television News Biased?" Public Interest 26 (winter 1972): 52-74. Paul Weaver and G. Cleveland Wilhoit, The American Journalist, 2d ed. (Bloomington, IN: University Press, 1986).
18. W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 4th ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Robert M. Entman, Democracy without Citizens: Media and the Decay of American Politics (NY: Oxford University Press, 1989); James Fallows, Breaking the News (NY: Vintage, 1997); Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Dirty Politics (NY: Oxford University Press, 1992); Robert S. Lichter and Richard E. Noyes, Good Intentions Make Bad News (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Inc, 1996); Patterson, Out of Order; Larry J. Sabato, Feeding Frenzy: Attack Journalism and American Politics (Baltimore, MD: Lanahan, 2000).
19. W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 4th ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Robert M. Entman, Democracy without Citizens: Media and the Decay of American Politics (NY: Oxford University Press, 1989); James Fallows, Breaking the News (NY: Vintage, 1997); Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Dirty Politics (NY: Oxford University Press, 1992); Robert S. Lichter and Richard E. Noyes, Good Intentions Make Bad News (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Inc, 1996); Patterson, Out of Order; Larry J. Sabato, Feeding Frenzy: Attack Journalism and American Politics (Baltimore, MD: Lanahan, 2000).
20. W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 4th ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Robert M. Entman, Democracy without Citizens: Media and the Decay of American Politics (NY: Oxford University Press, 1989); James Fallows, Breaking the News (NY: Vintage, 1997); Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Dirty Politics (NY: Oxford University Press, 1992); Robert S. Lichter and Richard E. Noyes, Good Intentions Make Bad News (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Inc, 1996); Patterson, Out of Order; Larry J. Sabato, Feeding Frenzy: Attack Journalism and American Politics (Baltimore, MD: Lanahan, 2000).
21. W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 4th ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Robert M. Entman, Democracy without Citizens: Media and the Decay of American Politics (NY: Oxford University Press, 1989); James Fallows, Breaking the News (NY: Vintage, 1997); Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Dirty Politics (NY: Oxford University Press, 1992); Robert S. Lichter and Richard E. Noyes, Good Intentions Make Bad News (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Inc, 1996); Patterson, Out of Order; Larry J. Sabato, Feeding Frenzy: Attack Journalism and American Politics (Baltimore, MD: Lanahan, 2000).
22. W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 4th ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Robert M. Entman, Democracy without Citizens: Media and the Decay of American Politics (NY: Oxford University Press, 1989); James Fallows, Breaking the News (NY: Vintage, 1997); Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Dirty Politics (NY: Oxford University Press, 1992); Robert S. Lichter and Richard E. Noyes, Good Intentions Make Bad News (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Inc, 1996); Patterson, Out of Order; Larry J. Sabato, Feeding Frenzy: Attack Journalism and American Politics (Baltimore, MD: Lanahan, 2000).
23. W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 4th ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Robert M. Entman, Democracy without Citizens: Media and the Decay of American Politics (NY: Oxford University Press, 1989); James Fallows, Breaking the News (NY: Vintage, 1997); Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Dirty Politics (NY: Oxford University Press, 1992); Robert S. Lichter and Richard E. Noyes, Good Intentions Make Bad News (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Inc, 1996); Patterson, Out of Order; Larry J. Sabato, Feeding Frenzy: Attack Journalism and American Politics (Baltimore, MD: Lanahan, 2000).
24. W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 4th ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Robert M. Entman, Democracy without Citizens: Media and the Decay of American Politics (NY: Oxford University Press, 1989); James Fallows, Breaking the News (NY: Vintage, 1997); Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Dirty Politics (NY: Oxford University Press, 1992); Robert S. Lichter and Richard E. Noyes, Good Intentions Make Bad News (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Inc, 1996); Patterson, Out of Order; Larry J. Sabato, Feeding Frenzy: Attack Journalism and American Politics (Baltimore, MD: Lanahan, 2000).
25. Patterson, Out of Order, 57.
26. Patterson, Out of Order, 81-82.
27. Patterson, Out of Order; Joseph Cappella and Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Spiral of Cynicism (NY: Oxford, 1997); Lichter and Noyes, Good Intentions Make Bad News.
28. Patterson, Out of Order; Joseph Cappella and Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Spiral of Cynicism (NY: Oxford, 1997); Lichter and Noyes, Good Intentions Make Bad News.
29. Patterson, Out of Order; Joseph Cappella and Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Spiral of Cynicism (NY: Oxford, 1997); Lichter and Noyes, Good Intentions Make Bad News.
30. Lichter and Noyes, Good Intentions Make Bad News, 268.
31. Cappella and Jamieson, Spiral of Cynicism.
32. Cappella and Jamieson, Spiral of Cynicism, Appendix.
33. Cappella and Jamieson, Spiral of Cynicism, 33.
34. Professor Anthony Collings worked for several years at the Wall Street Journal, the Associated Press, and Newsweek covering business and politics. From 1981-1997, Collings was a CNN Washington correspondent covering the White House, the State Department, the Pentagon, the Justice Department, and the Supreme Court. He is now a lecturer in the Department of Communication Studies at the University of Michigan.
35. For a complete transcription of the stories used in this study, please see Appendices 1-3.
36. No specific welfare program was mentioned in the story.
37. The Kemp and Rivers information index consisted of only one item each. The Kemp item concerned the approximate number of annual partial birth abortions in the United States. The Rivers item involved the average number of computers in each Ann Arbor public school. Each information scale ranged from 0-1, so the score can be interpreted as the percent identifying the correct answer, or, in the case of the Engler scale, the average percent correct across the three items in the scale. We chose these individual items because the articles were short, and these questions were directly relevant to the main point of the article. The fact that we find consistent results across all three items gives us confidence in the validity of these measures.
38. All told, 672 separate comments were made by respondents in this section. The majority of these comments (64%) were general points about politics or the issues discussed in the stories. A smaller share of comments (28%) was directed specifically at the candidates, and an even smaller share (8%) discussed the way the article was written. The overall patterns reported here are born out for each type of comment, with the largest effects found in the "general" comment category.
39. The inter-coder reliability for the tone variable was over 80%. Discrepancies were discussed by the coders and the first author, and a final decision was made.
40. We would expect that some of those who correctly answered these items did so by chance. To determine whether people actually retained any information from the stories, we need to compare the actual percent correct to the baseline likely to occur by chance alone. In the case of Rivers and Kemp measures, which consisted of only one item each with four levels, 25% would be the expected baseline correct. The info scale in the Engler cells is built on with three items, two with 4 possible levels and one with 5. The probability that someone would get all three of these items correct is just over 1% (.25*.25*.20= 1.3%). By a T-test, all of the articles except the Rivers article led to information recognition significantly better than chance.
41. Chaffee and Kanihan, "Learning about Politics from the Mass Media," 423.