Logic, history, and the chemistry textbook I. Does chemistry have a logical structure?

Journal of Chemical Education

Volumn 75, Issue 6, 1998, Pages 679-687

  Jensen, William B ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0006644180     PISSN: 00219584     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1021/ed075p679     Document Type: Article

References (57)

1. The idea of classifying chemical concepts in tetms of dimensions was first suggested to me by a series of articles written by O. Theodor Benfey many years ago, and by a small book of lectures by Jacobus van't Hoff published posthumously in 1912. See, Benfey, O. T. Dimensional Analysis of Chemical Laws and Theories. J. Chem. Educ. 1957, 34, 286-288; Concepts of Time in Chemistry. J. Chem. Educ. 1963, 40, 574-577; The Concepts of Chemistry - Mechanical, Organicist, Magical, or What? J. Chem. Educ. 1982, 59, 395-398; van't Hoff, J. H. Die chemischen Grundlehren nach Menge, Mass und Zeit; Vieweg: Braunschweig, 1912.
2. The idea of classifying chemical concepts in tetms of dimensions was first suggested to me by a series of articles written by O. Theodor Benfey many years ago, and by a small book of lectures by Jacobus van't Hoff published posthumously in 1912. See, Benfey, O. T. Dimensional Analysis of Chemical Laws and Theories. J. Chem. Educ. 1957, 34, 286-288; Concepts of Time in Chemistry. J. Chem. Educ. 1963, 40, 574-577; The Concepts of Chemistry - Mechanical, Organicist, Magical, or What? J. Chem. Educ. 1982, 59, 395-398; van't Hoff, J. H. Die chemischen Grundlehren nach Menge, Mass und Zeit; Vieweg: Braunschweig, 1912.
3. The idea of classifying chemical concepts in tetms of dimensions was first suggested to me by a series of articles written by O. Theodor Benfey many years ago, and by a small book of lectures by Jacobus van't Hoff published posthumously in 1912. See, Benfey, O. T. Dimensional Analysis of Chemical Laws and Theories. J. Chem. Educ. 1957, 34, 286-288; Concepts of Time in Chemistry. J. Chem. Educ. 1963, 40, 574-577; The Concepts of Chemistry - Mechanical, Organicist, Magical, or What? J. Chem. Educ. 1982, 59, 395-398; van't Hoff, J. H. Die chemischen Grundlehren nach Menge, Mass und Zeit; Vieweg: Braunschweig, 1912.
4. The idea of classifying chemical concepts in tetms of dimensions was first suggested to me by a series of articles written by O. Theodor Benfey many years ago, and by a small book of lectures by Jacobus van't Hoff published posthumously in 1912. See, Benfey, O. T. Dimensional Analysis of Chemical Laws and Theories. J. Chem. Educ. 1957, 34, 286-288; Concepts of Time in Chemistry. J. Chem. Educ. 1963, 40, 574-577; The Concepts of Chemistry - Mechanical, Organicist, Magical, or What? J. Chem. Educ. 1982, 59, 395-398; van't Hoff, J. H. Die chemischen Grundlehren nach Menge, Mass und Zeit; Vieweg: Braunschweig, 1912.
5. The idea of classifying chemical concepts in terms of three levels of discourse was first suggested to me by a brief discussion of what the British philosopher of science, Rom Harre, has called "The Hierarchy of Mechanisms." See, Harré, R. Matter and Method; Macmillan: London, 1964; pp 24-27.
6. Hofmann, A. W. Introduction to Modem Chemistry, Experimental and Theoretic, Walton & Maberley: London, 1865; pp 140-141, 151. According to Hoffmann's terminology, physical changes are intermolecular, whereas chemical changes are interatomic (i.e., intramolecular). Hefmann's text had only one English edition but many German editions. Consequently, though his terminology had little influence on British and American texts, it was adopted by some German authors. See, for example, Lorscheid, J. Lehrbuch der anorganischen Chemic, Herder'sche Verlagshandlung: Freiburg, 1874; p 4. A further example can be found in the table of contents for Kelvin, L. Baltimore Lectures on Molecular Dynamics and the Wave Theory of Light; Clay & Sons: Cambridge, 1904. Here, the various lecture topics are classified as either molar or molecular.
7. Hofmann, A. W. Introduction to Modem Chemistry, Experimental and Theoretic, Walton & Maberley: London, 1865; pp 140-141, 151. According to Hoffmann's terminology, physical changes are intermolecular, whereas chemical changes are interatomic (i.e., intramolecular). Hefmann's text had only one English edition but many German editions. Consequently, though his terminology had little influence on British and American texts, it was adopted by some German authors. See, for example, Lorscheid, J. Lehrbuch der anorganischen Chemic, Herder'sche Verlagshandlung: Freiburg, 1874; p 4. A further example can be found in the table of contents for Kelvin, L. Baltimore Lectures on Molecular Dynamics and the Wave Theory of Light; Clay & Sons: Cambridge, 1904. Here, the various lecture topics are classified as either molar or molecular.
8. Hofmann, A. W. Introduction to Modem Chemistry, Experimental and Theoretic, Walton & Maberley: London, 1865; pp 140-141, 151. According to Hoffmann's terminology, physical changes are intermolecular, whereas chemical changes are interatomic (i.e., intramolecular). Hefmann's text had only one English edition but many German editions. Consequently, though his terminology had little influence on British and American texts, it was adopted by some German authors. See, for example, Lorscheid, J. Lehrbuch der anorganischen Chemic, Herder'sche Verlagshandlung: Freiburg, 1874; p 4. A further example can be found in the table of contents for Kelvin, L. Baltimore Lectures on Molecular Dynamics and the Wave Theory of Light; Clay & Sons: Cambridge, 1904. Here, the various lecture topics are classified as either molar or molecular.
9. Ostwald is credited with this innovation in Trautz, M. Lehrbuch der Chemie; Vereinigung Wissenschaftlicher Verleger: Berlin, 1922; Vol. 1, p 56 and in Nelson, P. G. The Elusive Mole. Educ. Chem. 1991, 28, 103-104. According to Nelson, the term first appears in Ostwald, W. Grundlinen der Anorganischen Chemie; Engelmann: Leipzig, 1900. Ostwald's use of the word was connected with his growing opposition to the atomic-molecular theory. Unfortunately he did not give a formal linguistic derivation of the term and in several places incorrectly implied that it was merely an abbreviation for the term molecular weight. This incorrect association is often repeated in dictionaries, especially in connection with the abbreviation "Mol.", though some chemical sources do give the correct derivation. See, for example, Kieffer, W. F. The Mole Concept in Chemistry, Reinhold: New York, 1963; p 1.
10. Ostwald is credited with this innovation in Trautz, M. Lehrbuch der Chemie; Vereinigung Wissenschaftlicher Verleger: Berlin, 1922; Vol. 1, p 56 and in Nelson, P. G. The Elusive Mole. Educ. Chem. 1991, 28, 103-104. According to Nelson, the term first appears in Ostwald, W. Grundlinen der Anorganischen Chemie; Engelmann: Leipzig, 1900. Ostwald's use of the word was connected with his growing opposition to the atomic-molecular theory. Unfortunately he did not give a formal linguistic derivation of the term and in several places incorrectly implied that it was merely an abbreviation for the term molecular weight. This incorrect association is often repeated in dictionaries, especially in connection with the abbreviation "Mol.", though some chemical sources do give the correct derivation. See, for example, Kieffer, W. F. The Mole Concept in Chemistry, Reinhold: New York, 1963; p 1.
11. Ostwald is credited with this innovation in Trautz, M. Lehrbuch der Chemie; Vereinigung Wissenschaftlicher Verleger: Berlin, 1922; Vol. 1, p 56 and in Nelson, P. G. The Elusive Mole. Educ. Chem. 1991, 28, 103-104. According to Nelson, the term first appears in Ostwald, W. Grundlinen der Anorganischen Chemie; Engelmann: Leipzig, 1900. Ostwald's use of the word was connected with his growing opposition to the atomic-molecular theory. Unfortunately he did not give a formal linguistic derivation of the term and in several places incorrectly implied that it was merely an abbreviation for the term molecular weight. This incorrect association is often repeated in dictionaries, especially in connection with the abbreviation "Mol.", though some chemical sources do give the correct derivation. See, for example, Kieffer, W. F. The Mole Concept in Chemistry, Reinhold: New York, 1963; p 1.
12. Ostwald is credited with this innovation in Trautz, M. Lehrbuch der Chemie; Vereinigung Wissenschaftlicher Verleger: Berlin, 1922; Vol. 1, p 56 and in Nelson, P. G. The Elusive Mole. Educ. Chem. 1991, 28, 103-104. According to Nelson, the term first appears in Ostwald, W. Grundlinen der Anorganischen Chemie; Engelmann: Leipzig, 1900. Ostwald's use of the word was connected with his growing opposition to the atomic-molecular theory. Unfortunately he did not give a formal linguistic derivation of the term and in several places incorrectly implied that it was merely an abbreviation for the term molecular weight. This incorrect association is often repeated in dictionaries, especially in connection with the abbreviation "Mol.", though some chemical sources do give the correct derivation. See, for example, Kieffer, W. F. The Mole Concept in Chemistry, Reinhold: New York, 1963; p 1.
13. Discussions of composition/structure at the molecular level can be found in virtually any monograph dealing with organic stereochemistry or with inorganic crystal chemistry. For some classic examples, see Eliel, E. Stereochemistry of Carbon; McGraw-Hill: New York, 1962 and Wells, A. F. Structural Inorganic Chemistry, 5th ed.; Clarendon: Oxford, 1984.
14. Discussions of composition/structure at the molecular level can be found in virtually any monograph dealing with organic stereochemistry or with inorganic crystal chemistry. For some classic examples, see Eliel, E. Stereochemistry of Carbon; McGraw-Hill: New York, 1962 and Wells, A. F. Structural Inorganic Chemistry, 5th ed.; Clarendon: Oxford, 1984.
15. van't Hoff, J. H. Lectures on Theoretical and Physical Chemistry, Part II: Chemical Statics; Arnold: London, 1899; pp 132-133.
16. Collings, P. J. Liquid Crystals, Nature's Delicate Phase of Matter; Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ, 1990.
17. A classic attempt to discuss chemistry solely from a molar viewpoint can be found in Ostwald, W. The Fundamental Principles of Chemistry: An Introduction to All Text-Books of Chemistry; Longmans, Green & Co: London, 1909. Less extreme treatments of molar composition can be found in any older monograph dealing with the phase rule, such as Ricci, J. E. The Phase Rule and Heterogeneous Equilibrium; Van Nostrand: New York, 1951. 9. In the early 20th-century literature on the phase rule, the term "allotrope" was generalized so as to subsume all of the cases that we have included under the term "allomorph". For some reason, this generalization never spread to the structure literature, which continues to use the term as an unnecessary parochialism for the isomers and polymers of simple substances. See Bowden, S. T. The Phase Rule and Phase Reactions; Macmillan: London, 1938; pp 47-51 and Smits, S. The Theory of Allotropy; Longmans, Green & Co: London, 1922.
18. A classic attempt to discuss chemistry solely from a molar viewpoint can be found in Ostwald, W. The Fundamental Principles of Chemistry: An Introduction to All Text-Books of Chemistry; Longmans, Green & Co: London, 1909. Less extreme treatments of molar composition can be found in any older monograph dealing with the phase rule, such as Ricci, J. E. The Phase Rule and Heterogeneous Equilibrium; Van Nostrand: New York, 1951. 9. In the early 20th-century literature on the phase rule, the term "allotrope" was generalized so as to subsume all of the cases that we have included under the term "allomorph". For some reason, this generalization never spread to the structure literature, which continues to use the term as an unnecessary parochialism for the isomers and polymers of simple substances. See Bowden, S. T. The Phase Rule and Phase Reactions; Macmillan: London, 1938; pp 47-51 and Smits, S. The Theory of Allotropy; Longmans, Green & Co: London, 1922.
19. A classic attempt to discuss chemistry solely from a molar viewpoint can be found in Ostwald, W. The Fundamental Principles of Chemistry: An Introduction to All Text-Books of Chemistry; Longmans, Green & Co: London, 1909. Less extreme treatments of molar composition can be found in any older monograph dealing with the phase rule, such as Ricci, J. E. The Phase Rule and Heterogeneous Equilibrium; Van Nostrand: New York, 1951. 9. In the early 20th-century literature on the phase rule, the term "allotrope" was generalized so as to subsume all of the cases that we have included under the term "allomorph". For some reason, this generalization never spread to the structure literature, which continues to use the term as an unnecessary parochialism for the isomers and polymers of simple substances. See Bowden, S. T. The Phase Rule and Phase Reactions; Macmillan: London, 1938; pp 47-51 and Smits, S. The Theory of Allotropy; Longmans, Green & Co: London, 1922.
20. A classic attempt to discuss chemistry solely from a molar viewpoint can be found in Ostwald, W. The Fundamental Principles of Chemistry: An Introduction to All Text-Books of Chemistry; Longmans, Green & Co: London, 1909. Less extreme treatments of molar composition can be found in any older monograph dealing with the phase rule, such as Ricci, J. E. The Phase Rule and Heterogeneous Equilibrium; Van Nostrand: New York, 1951. 9. In the early 20th-century literature on the phase rule, the term "allotrope" was generalized so as to subsume all of the cases that we have included under the term "allomorph". For some reason, this generalization never spread to the structure literature, which continues to use the term as an unnecessary parochialism for the isomers and polymers of simple substances. See Bowden, S. T. The Phase Rule and Phase Reactions; Macmillan: London, 1938; pp 47-51 and Smits, S. The Theory of Allotropy; Longmans, Green & Co: London, 1922.
21. Honig, J. M, et al. The Van Nostrand Chemist's Dictionary; Van Nostrand: Princeton: NJ, 1953; p 22.
22. Most textbooks dealing with the electrical level intermix the composition/structure and the energy dimensions. Some examples in which the major focus is composition/structure include: Ormerod, M. B. The Architecture and Properties of Matter, Arnold: London, 1970; Harcourt, R. D. Qualitative Valence-Bond Descriptions of Electron-Rich Molecules; Springer Verlag: Berlin, 1982; and Bader, R. W. Atoms in Molecules: A Quantum Theory, Clarendon: Oxford, 1990.
23. Most textbooks dealing with the electrical level intermix the composition/structure and the energy dimensions. Some examples in which the major focus is composition/structure include: Ormerod, M. B. The Architecture and Properties of Matter, Arnold: London, 1970; Harcourt, R. D. Qualitative Valence-Bond Descriptions of Electron-Rich Molecules; Springer Verlag: Berlin, 1982; and Bader, R. W. Atoms in Molecules: A Quantum Theory, Clarendon: Oxford, 1990.
24. Most textbooks dealing with the electrical level intermix the composition/structure and the energy dimensions. Some examples in which the major focus is composition/structure include: Ormerod, M. B. The Architecture and Properties of Matter, Arnold: London, 1970; Harcourt, R. D. Qualitative Valence-Bond Descriptions of Electron-Rich Molecules; Springer Verlag: Berlin, 1982; and Bader, R. W. Atoms in Molecules: A Quantum Theory, Clarendon: Oxford, 1990.
25. Most books on chemical thermodynamics tend to intermix the molar and molecular levels. Typical treatments which focus primarily on the molar level include Prigogine, I.; Defay, R. Chemical Thermodynamics; Longmans: London, 1954; and de Heer, J. Phenomenological Thermodynamics with Applications to Chemistry; Prentice Hall: Englewood Cliffs, NY, 1986.
26. Most books on chemical thermodynamics tend to intermix the molar and molecular levels. Typical treatments which focus primarily on the molar level include Prigogine, I.; Defay, R. Chemical Thermodynamics; Longmans: London, 1954; and de Heer, J. Phenomenological Thermodynamics with Applications to Chemistry; Prentice Hall: Englewood Cliffs, NY, 1986.
27. Elementary example treatments of entropy at the molecular level include Wyatt, P. A. H. The Molecular Basis of Entropy and Chemical Reactions; Royal Institute of Chemistry: London, 1971; Stebbins, D. M. Energy Levels in Chemistry, Macmillan: London, 1975; and Nash, L. K. Elements of Statistical Thermodynamics; Addison-Wesley: Reading, MA, 1968.
28. Elementary example treatments of entropy at the molecular level include Wyatt, P. A. H. The Molecular Basis of Entropy and Chemical Reactions; Royal Institute of Chemistry: London, 1971; Stebbins, D. M. Energy Levels in Chemistry, Macmillan: London, 1975; and Nash, L. K. Elements of Statistical Thermodynamics; Addison-Wesley: Reading, MA, 1968.
29. Elementary example treatments of entropy at the molecular level include Wyatt, P. A. H. The Molecular Basis of Entropy and Chemical Reactions; Royal Institute of Chemistry: London, 1971; Stebbins, D. M. Energy Levels in Chemistry, Macmillan: London, 1975; and Nash, L. K. Elements of Statistical Thermodynamics; Addison-Wesley: Reading, MA, 1968.
30. Typical treatments of enthalpy at the molecular level include Janz, G. J. Estimation of Thermodynamic Properties of Organic Molecules; Academic Press: New York, 1958 and Mortimer, C. T. Reaction Heats and Bond Strengths; Pergamon: New York, 1962.
31. Typical treatments of enthalpy at the molecular level include Janz, G. J. Estimation of Thermodynamic Properties of Organic Molecules; Academic Press: New York, 1958 and Mortimer, C. T. Reaction Heats and Bond Strengths; Pergamon: New York, 1962.
32. Example monographs dealing with the electrical level which focus primarily on the energy dimension include Cook, D. B. Structures and Approximations for Electrons in Molecules; Horwood: Chichester, 1978; and Mulliken, R. S. and Ermler, W. C. Polyatomic Molecules: Results of ab Initio Calculations; Academic Press: New York, 1981.
33. Example monographs dealing with the electrical level which focus primarily on the energy dimension include Cook, D. B. Structures and Approximations for Electrons in Molecules; Horwood: Chichester, 1978; and Mulliken, R. S. and Ermler, W. C. Polyatomic Molecules: Results of ab Initio Calculations; Academic Press: New York, 1981.
34. Most books on kinetics intermix the molar, molecular, and electrical levels. For an exception which focuses solely on the molar level, see Swindbourne, E. S. Analysis of Kinetic Data; Appleton-Century-Crofts: New York, 1971.
35. A typical treatment of activated complexes, activation energies, and entropies primarily at the molecular level may be found in Benson, S. W. Thermochemical Kinetics, 2nd ed.; Wiley-Interscience: New York, 1976.
36. Typical treatments of electronic reactivity indices include Daudel, R. Quantum Theory of Chemical Reactivity; Reidel: Dordrecht, 1973; Fleming, I. Frontier Orbitals and Organic Chemical Reactions; Wiley: New York, 1976; Dewar, M. J. S. and Dougherty, R. C. The PMO Theory of Organic Chemistry; Plenum: New York, 1975; and Chemical Reactivity and Reaction Paths; Klopman, G., Ed.; Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1974.
37. Typical treatments of electronic reactivity indices include Daudel, R. Quantum Theory of Chemical Reactivity; Reidel: Dordrecht, 1973; Fleming, I. Frontier Orbitals and Organic Chemical Reactions; Wiley: New York, 1976; Dewar, M. J. S. and Dougherty, R. C. The PMO Theory of Organic Chemistry; Plenum: New York, 1975; and Chemical Reactivity and Reaction Paths; Klopman, G., Ed.; Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1974.
38. Typical treatments of electronic reactivity indices include Daudel, R. Quantum Theory of Chemical Reactivity; Reidel: Dordrecht, 1973; Fleming, I. Frontier Orbitals and Organic Chemical Reactions; Wiley: New York, 1976; Dewar, M. J. S. and Dougherty, R. C. The PMO Theory of Organic Chemistry; Plenum: New York, 1975; and Chemical Reactivity and Reaction Paths; Klopman, G., Ed.; Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1974.
39. Typical treatments of electronic reactivity indices include Daudel, R. Quantum Theory of Chemical Reactivity; Reidel: Dordrecht, 1973; Fleming, I. Frontier Orbitals and Organic Chemical Reactions; Wiley: New York, 1976; Dewar, M. J. S. and Dougherty, R. C. The PMO Theory of Organic Chemistry; Plenum: New York, 1975; and Chemical Reactivity and Reaction Paths; Klopman, G., Ed.; Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1974.
40. A good discussion of the relation between time and our concept of an individual chemical species is given in Leffler, J. E. and Grunwald, E. Rates and Equilibria of Organic Reactions; Wiley: New York, 1963. A more recent discussion of its bearing on our definition of a component in relation to the phase law can be found in Zhao, M.; Wang, Z.; Xiao, L. Determining the Number of Independent Components by Brinkley's Method. J. Chem. Educ. 1992, 69, 539-542; and a discussion from the standpoint of quantum mechanics is given in Goodfriend, P. L. Concepts of Species and State in Chemistry and Molecular Physics. J. Chem. Educ. 1966, 43, 95-97.
41. A good discussion of the relation between time and our concept of an individual chemical species is given in Leffler, J. E. and Grunwald, E. Rates and Equilibria of Organic Reactions; Wiley: New York, 1963. A more recent discussion of its bearing on our definition of a component in relation to the phase law can be found in Zhao, M.; Wang, Z.; Xiao, L. Determining the Number of Independent Components by Brinkley's Method. J. Chem. Educ. 1992, 69, 539-542; and a discussion from the standpoint of quantum mechanics is given in Goodfriend, P. L. Concepts of Species and State in Chemistry and Molecular Physics. J. Chem. Educ. 1966, 43, 95-97.
42. A good discussion of the relation between time and our concept of an individual chemical species is given in Leffler, J. E. and Grunwald, E. Rates and Equilibria of Organic Reactions; Wiley: New York, 1963. A more recent discussion of its bearing on our definition of a component in relation to the phase law can be found in Zhao, M.; Wang, Z.; Xiao, L. Determining the Number of Independent Components by Brinkley's Method. J. Chem. Educ. 1992, 69, 539-542; and a discussion from the standpoint of quantum mechanics is given in Goodfriend, P. L. Concepts of Species and State in Chemistry and Molecular Physics. J. Chem. Educ. 1966, 43, 95-97.
43. For an interesting historical study of the role played by time with regard to the concept of a pure substance as defined by the phase rule, see Goldwhite, H. Intensive Drying: Anomaly and the Chemical Community. J. Chem. Educ. 1987, 64, 657-659; Smits, A. The Theory of Allotropy, Longmans, Green & Co.: London, 1922; and Smits, A. Die Theorie der Komplexität und der Allotropie; Verlag Chemie: Berlin, 1938.
44. For an interesting historical study of the role played by time with regard to the concept of a pure substance as defined by the phase rule, see Goldwhite, H. Intensive Drying: Anomaly and the Chemical Community. J. Chem. Educ. 1987, 64, 657-659; Smits, A. The Theory of Allotropy, Longmans, Green & Co.: London, 1922; and Smits, A. Die Theorie der Komplexität und der Allotropie; Verlag Chemie: Berlin, 1938.
45. For an interesting historical study of the role played by time with regard to the concept of a pure substance as defined by the phase rule, see Goldwhite, H. Intensive Drying: Anomaly and the Chemical Community. J. Chem. Educ. 1987, 64, 657-659; Smits, A. The Theory of Allotropy, Longmans, Green & Co.: London, 1922; and Smits, A. Die Theorie der Komplexität und der Allotropie; Verlag Chemie: Berlin, 1938.
46. Peacocke, A. R. An Introduction to die Physical Chemistry of Biological Organization; Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1983.
47. For an attempt at developing such a theory, see Giddings, J. C. Unified Separation Science; Wiley: New York, 1991.
48. Wilhelm Osrwald even went so far as to suggest that the observation that specific properties can be used to group material objects into classes of substances should be accorded the status of a fundamental law of chemistry. Thus in the 1914 edition of his text, Principles of Inorganic Chemistry (Ostwald, W. Principles of Inorganic Chemistry; Macmillan: London, 1914; pp 1-2), he wrote, "This fact can also be expressed by saying that in bodies there do not occur all imaginable collocations of [specific] properties, but only certain definite ones. Every such collocation of properties which does really occur, characterizes a definite substance, and the fact that the bodies which occur in nature can be arranged in such groups or 'substance-species', is the statement of an important law of nature, the fundamental law of chemistry."
49. Popular accounts can be found in Rouvray, D. H. Predicting Chemistry from Topology. Sci. Am. 1986, 255(3), 40-47 and Seybold, P. G.; May, M.; Bagal, U. A. Molecular Structure-Property Relationships. J. Chem. Educ., 1987, 64, 575-581. A more detailed account is given in Kier, L. B. and Hall, L. H. Molecular Connectivity and Drug Research; Academic Press: New York, 1976.
50. Popular accounts can be found in Rouvray, D. H. Predicting Chemistry from Topology. Sci. Am. 1986, 255(3), 40-47 and Seybold, P. G.; May, M.; Bagal, U. A. Molecular Structure-Property Relationships. J. Chem. Educ., 1987, 64, 575-581. A more detailed account is given in Kier, L. B. and Hall, L. H. Molecular Connectivity and Drug Research; Academic Press: New York, 1976.
51. Popular accounts can be found in Rouvray, D. H. Predicting Chemistry from Topology. Sci. Am. 1986, 255(3), 40-47 and Seybold, P. G.; May, M.; Bagal, U. A. Molecular Structure-Property Relationships. J. Chem. Educ., 1987, 64, 575-581. A more detailed account is given in Kier, L. B. and Hall, L. H. Molecular Connectivity and Drug Research; Academic Press: New York, 1976.
52. Ostwald, W. Outline of General Chemistry, Macmillan: London, 1895; pp 58, 93-94.
53. Curie, M. Rayons émis par les composés de l'uranium et du thorium. Comptes rendus 1898, 126, 1101-1103. Curie, P.; Curie, M.; and Bémont, G. Sur une nouvelle substance fortement radioactive, contenue dans la pechblende. Comptes rendus 1898, 127, 1215-1217. The term "atomic property" is not used until the second paper. English translations of both papers may be found in Radioactivity and the Discovery of Isotopes; Romer, A., Ed.; Dover: New York, 1970.
54. Curie, M. Rayons émis par les composés de l'uranium et du thorium. Comptes rendus 1898, 126, 1101-1103. Curie, P.; Curie, M.; and Bémont, G. Sur une nouvelle substance fortement radioactive, contenue dans la pechblende. Comptes rendus 1898, 127, 1215-1217. The term "atomic property" is not used until the second paper. English translations of both papers may be found in Radioactivity and the Discovery of Isotopes; Romer, A., Ed.; Dover: New York, 1970.
55. Curie, M. Rayons émis par les composés de l'uranium et du thorium. Comptes rendus 1898, 126, 1101-1103. Curie, P.; Curie, M.; and Bémont, G. Sur une nouvelle substance fortement radioactive, contenue dans la pechblende. Comptes rendus 1898, 127, 1215-1217. The term "atomic property" is not used until the second paper. English translations of both papers may be found in Radioactivity and the Discovery of Isotopes; Romer, A., Ed.; Dover: New York, 1970.
56. Moseley, J. G. The High-Frequency Spectra of the Elements. Phil. Mag. 1913, 26, 1024-1034; 1914, 27, 703-713.
57. Moseley, J. G. The High-Frequency Spectra of the Elements. Phil. Mag. 1913, 26, 1024-1034; 1914, 27, 703-713.