A model of sustainable international trade in tropical timber

International Environmental Affairs

Volumn 9, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 3-21

  Dauvergne, Peter ^a  

^a AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0006217925     PISSN: 10414665     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (94)

1. Since the early 1990s, research on the links between international trade and environmental management, protection, and degradation has exploded. One recent bibliography on trade and the environment was twenty-six pages. Cited in Steve Charnovitz, "Trade and the Environment: Four Schools of Thought," Ecodecision 11 (January 1994): 23. Recent studies (not specifically referred to in this article) include: Peter L. Lallas, Daniel C. Esty, and David J. van Hoogstraten, "Environmental Protection and International Trade: Toward Mutually Supportive Rules and Policies," The Harvard Environmental Law Review 16, no. 2 (1992): 271-42; Edith Brown Weiss, "Environment and Trade as Partners in Sustainable Development: A Commentary," The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 728-35; Thomas J. Schoenbaum, "Free International Trade and Protection of the Environment: Irreconcilable Conflict?" The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 700-727; Patrick Low, "Mini-symposium: Trade and the Environment," The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 101-105; Patrick Low, "International Trade and the Environment: An Overview," in International Trade and the Environment, ed. Patrick Low (New York: World Bank, 1992); Arvind Subramanian, "Trade Measures for Environment: A Nearly Empty Box?" The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 135-52; Stewart Hudson, "Trade, Environment and the Pursuit of Sustainable Development," in International Trade, Judith Dean, "Trade and the Environment: A Survey of the Literature," in International Trade, Peter Uimonen and John Whalley, "Trade and Environment: Setting the Rules," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 46-48; Daniel C. Esty, "Beyond Rio: Trade and the Environment," Environmental Law 23, no. 2 (1993): 387-96; Richard Eglin, "GATT and Environment," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 34-36; Alex Trisoglio and Kerry ten Tate, "Systemic Integration of the Environment and Trade," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 23-28; Graciela Chichilnisky, "North-South Trade and the Global Environment, The American Economic Review 84, no. 4 (September 1994): 851-74; Andrea C. Durbin, "The North-South Divide," Environment 37 (September 1995): 6-20, 35; and Steve Charnovitz, "Improving Environmental and Trade Governance," International Environmental Affairs7, no. 1 (Winter 1995): 59-91. For a comprehensive overview of the links between trade and the environment, see International Institute For Sustainable Development (IISD), main contributors, David Runnalls and Aaron Cosbey, Trade and Sustainable Development: A Survey of the Issues and a New Research Agenda (Winnipeg: IISD, 1992).
2. Since the early 1990s, research on the links between international trade and environmental management, protection, and degradation has exploded. One recent bibliography on trade and the environment was twenty-six pages. Cited in Steve Charnovitz, "Trade and the Environment: Four Schools of Thought," Ecodecision 11 (January 1994): 23. Recent studies (not specifically referred to in this article) include: Peter L. Lallas, Daniel C. Esty, and David J. van Hoogstraten, "Environmental Protection and International Trade: Toward Mutually Supportive Rules and Policies," The Harvard Environmental Law Review 16, no. 2 (1992): 271-42; Edith Brown Weiss, "Environment and Trade as Partners in Sustainable Development: A Commentary," The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 728-35; Thomas J. Schoenbaum, "Free International Trade and Protection of the Environment: Irreconcilable Conflict?" The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 700-727; Patrick Low, "Mini-symposium: Trade and the Environment," The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 101-105; Patrick Low, "International Trade and the Environment: An Overview," in International Trade and the Environment, ed. Patrick Low (New York: World Bank, 1992); Arvind Subramanian, "Trade Measures for Environment: A Nearly Empty Box?" The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 135-52; Stewart Hudson, "Trade, Environment and the Pursuit of Sustainable Development," in International Trade, Judith Dean, "Trade and the Environment: A Survey of the Literature," in International Trade, Peter Uimonen and John Whalley, "Trade and Environment: Setting the Rules," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 46-48; Daniel C. Esty, "Beyond Rio: Trade and the Environment," Environmental Law 23, no. 2 (1993): 387-96; Richard Eglin, "GATT and Environment," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 34-36; Alex Trisoglio and Kerry ten Tate, "Systemic Integration of the Environment and Trade," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 23-28; Graciela Chichilnisky, "North-South Trade and the Global Environment, The American Economic Review 84, no. 4 (September 1994): 851-74; Andrea C. Durbin, "The North-South Divide," Environment 37 (September 1995): 6-20, 35; and Steve Charnovitz, "Improving Environmental and Trade Governance," International Environmental Affairs7, no. 1 (Winter 1995): 59-91. For a comprehensive overview of the links between trade and the environment, see International Institute For Sustainable Development (IISD), main contributors, David Runnalls and Aaron Cosbey, Trade and Sustainable Development: A Survey of the Issues and a New Research Agenda (Winnipeg: IISD, 1992).
3. Since the early 1990s, research on the links between international trade and environmental management, protection, and degradation has exploded. One recent bibliography on trade and the environment was twenty-six pages. Cited in Steve Charnovitz, "Trade and the Environment: Four Schools of Thought," Ecodecision 11 (January 1994): 23. Recent studies (not specifically referred to in this article) include: Peter L. Lallas, Daniel C. Esty, and David J. van Hoogstraten, "Environmental Protection and International Trade: Toward Mutually Supportive Rules and Policies," The Harvard Environmental Law Review 16, no. 2 (1992): 271-42; Edith Brown Weiss, "Environment and Trade as Partners in Sustainable Development: A Commentary," The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 728-35; Thomas J. Schoenbaum, "Free International Trade and Protection of the Environment: Irreconcilable Conflict?" The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 700-727; Patrick Low, "Mini-symposium: Trade and the Environment," The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 101-105; Patrick Low, "International Trade and the Environment: An Overview," in International Trade and the Environment, ed. Patrick Low (New York: World Bank, 1992); Arvind Subramanian, "Trade Measures for Environment: A Nearly Empty Box?" The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 135-52; Stewart Hudson, "Trade, Environment and the Pursuit of Sustainable Development," in International Trade, Judith Dean, "Trade and the Environment: A Survey of the Literature," in International Trade, Peter Uimonen and John Whalley, "Trade and Environment: Setting the Rules," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 46-48; Daniel C. Esty, "Beyond Rio: Trade and the Environment," Environmental Law 23, no. 2 (1993): 387-96; Richard Eglin, "GATT and Environment," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 34-36; Alex Trisoglio and Kerry ten Tate, "Systemic Integration of the Environment and Trade," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 23-28; Graciela Chichilnisky, "North-South Trade and the Global Environment, The American Economic Review 84, no. 4 (September 1994): 851-74; Andrea C. Durbin, "The North-South Divide," Environment 37 (September 1995): 6-20, 35; and Steve Charnovitz, "Improving Environmental and Trade Governance," International Environmental Affairs7, no. 1 (Winter 1995): 59-91. For a comprehensive overview of the links between trade and the environment, see International Institute For Sustainable Development (IISD), main contributors, David Runnalls and Aaron Cosbey, Trade and Sustainable Development: A Survey of the Issues and a New Research Agenda (Winnipeg: IISD, 1992).
4. Since the early 1990s, research on the links between international trade and environmental management, protection, and degradation has exploded. One recent bibliography on trade and the environment was twenty-six pages. Cited in Steve Charnovitz, "Trade and the Environment: Four Schools of Thought," Ecodecision 11 (January 1994): 23. Recent studies (not specifically referred to in this article) include: Peter L. Lallas, Daniel C. Esty, and David J. van Hoogstraten, "Environmental Protection and International Trade: Toward Mutually Supportive Rules and Policies," The Harvard Environmental Law Review 16, no. 2 (1992): 271-42; Edith Brown Weiss, "Environment and Trade as Partners in Sustainable Development: A Commentary," The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 728-35; Thomas J. Schoenbaum, "Free International Trade and Protection of the Environment: Irreconcilable Conflict?" The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 700-727; Patrick Low, "Mini-symposium: Trade and the Environment," The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 101-105; Patrick Low, "International Trade and the Environment: An Overview," in International Trade and the Environment, ed. Patrick Low (New York: World Bank, 1992); Arvind Subramanian, "Trade Measures for Environment: A Nearly Empty Box?" The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 135-52; Stewart Hudson, "Trade, Environment and the Pursuit of Sustainable Development," in International Trade, Judith Dean, "Trade and the Environment: A Survey of the Literature," in International Trade, Peter Uimonen and John Whalley, "Trade and Environment: Setting the Rules," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 46-48; Daniel C. Esty, "Beyond Rio: Trade and the Environment," Environmental Law 23, no. 2 (1993): 387-96; Richard Eglin, "GATT and Environment," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 34-36; Alex Trisoglio and Kerry ten Tate, "Systemic Integration of the Environment and Trade," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 23-28; Graciela Chichilnisky, "North-South Trade and the Global Environment, The American Economic Review 84, no. 4 (September 1994): 851-74; Andrea C. Durbin, "The North-South Divide," Environment 37 (September 1995): 6-20, 35; and Steve Charnovitz, "Improving Environmental and Trade Governance," International Environmental Affairs7, no. 1 (Winter 1995): 59-91. For a comprehensive overview of the links between trade and the environment, see International Institute For Sustainable Development (IISD), main contributors, David Runnalls and Aaron Cosbey, Trade and Sustainable Development: A Survey of the Issues and a New Research Agenda (Winnipeg: IISD, 1992).
5. Since the early 1990s, research on the links between international trade and environmental management, protection, and degradation has exploded. One recent bibliography on trade and the environment was twenty-six pages. Cited in Steve Charnovitz, "Trade and the Environment: Four Schools of Thought," Ecodecision 11 (January 1994): 23. Recent studies (not specifically referred to in this article) include: Peter L. Lallas, Daniel C. Esty, and David J. van Hoogstraten, "Environmental Protection and International Trade: Toward Mutually Supportive Rules and Policies," The Harvard Environmental Law Review 16, no. 2 (1992): 271-42; Edith Brown Weiss, "Environment and Trade as Partners in Sustainable Development: A Commentary," The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 728-35; Thomas J. Schoenbaum, "Free International Trade and Protection of the Environment: Irreconcilable Conflict?" The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 700-727; Patrick Low, "Mini-symposium: Trade and the Environment," The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 101-105; Patrick Low, "International Trade and the Environment: An Overview," in International Trade and the Environment, ed. Patrick Low (New York: World Bank, 1992); Arvind Subramanian, "Trade Measures for Environment: A Nearly Empty Box?" The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 135-52; Stewart Hudson, "Trade, Environment and the Pursuit of Sustainable Development," in International Trade, Judith Dean, "Trade and the Environment: A Survey of the Literature," in International Trade, Peter Uimonen and John Whalley, "Trade and Environment: Setting the Rules," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 46-48; Daniel C. Esty, "Beyond Rio: Trade and the Environment," Environmental Law 23, no. 2 (1993): 387-96; Richard Eglin, "GATT and Environment," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 34-36; Alex Trisoglio and Kerry ten Tate, "Systemic Integration of the Environment and Trade," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 23-28; Graciela Chichilnisky, "North-South Trade and the Global Environment, The American Economic Review 84, no. 4 (September 1994): 851-74; Andrea C. Durbin, "The North-South Divide," Environment 37 (September 1995): 6-20, 35; and Steve Charnovitz, "Improving Environmental and Trade Governance," International Environmental Affairs7, no. 1 (Winter 1995): 59-91. For a comprehensive overview of the links between trade and the environment, see International Institute For Sustainable Development (IISD), main contributors, David Runnalls and Aaron Cosbey, Trade and Sustainable Development: A Survey of the Issues and a New Research Agenda (Winnipeg: IISD, 1992).
6. Since the early 1990s, research on the links between international trade and environmental management, protection, and degradation has exploded. One recent bibliography on trade and the environment was twenty-six pages. Cited in Steve Charnovitz, "Trade and the Environment: Four Schools of Thought," Ecodecision 11 (January 1994): 23. Recent studies (not specifically referred to in this article) include: Peter L. Lallas, Daniel C. Esty, and David J. van Hoogstraten, "Environmental Protection and International Trade: Toward Mutually Supportive Rules and Policies," The Harvard Environmental Law Review 16, no. 2 (1992): 271-42; Edith Brown Weiss, "Environment and Trade as Partners in Sustainable Development: A Commentary," The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 728-35; Thomas J. Schoenbaum, "Free International Trade and Protection of the Environment: Irreconcilable Conflict?" The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 700-727; Patrick Low, "Mini-symposium: Trade and the Environment," The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 101-105; Patrick Low, "International Trade and the Environment: An Overview," in International Trade and the Environment, ed. Patrick Low (New York: World Bank, 1992); Arvind Subramanian, "Trade Measures for Environment: A Nearly Empty Box?" The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 135-52; Stewart Hudson, "Trade, Environment and the Pursuit of Sustainable Development," in International Trade, Judith Dean, "Trade and the Environment: A Survey of the Literature," in International Trade, Peter Uimonen and John Whalley, "Trade and Environment: Setting the Rules," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 46-48; Daniel C. Esty, "Beyond Rio: Trade and the Environment," Environmental Law 23, no. 2 (1993): 387-96; Richard Eglin, "GATT and Environment," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 34-36; Alex Trisoglio and Kerry ten Tate, "Systemic Integration of the Environment and Trade," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 23-28; Graciela Chichilnisky, "North-South Trade and the Global Environment, The American Economic Review 84, no. 4 (September 1994): 851-74; Andrea C. Durbin, "The North-South Divide," Environment 37 (September 1995): 6-20, 35; and Steve Charnovitz, "Improving Environmental and Trade Governance," International Environmental Affairs7, no. 1 (Winter 1995): 59-91. For a comprehensive overview of the links between trade and the environment, see International Institute For Sustainable Development (IISD), main contributors, David Runnalls and Aaron Cosbey, Trade and Sustainable Development: A Survey of the Issues and a New Research Agenda (Winnipeg: IISD, 1992).
7. Since the early 1990s, research on the links between international trade and environmental management, protection, and degradation has exploded. One recent bibliography on trade and the environment was twenty-six pages. Cited in Steve Charnovitz, "Trade and the Environment: Four Schools of Thought," Ecodecision 11 (January 1994): 23. Recent studies (not specifically referred to in this article) include: Peter L. Lallas, Daniel C. Esty, and David J. van Hoogstraten, "Environmental Protection and International Trade: Toward Mutually Supportive Rules and Policies," The Harvard Environmental Law Review 16, no. 2 (1992): 271-42; Edith Brown Weiss, "Environment and Trade as Partners in Sustainable Development: A Commentary," The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 728-35; Thomas J. Schoenbaum, "Free International Trade and Protection of the Environment: Irreconcilable Conflict?" The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 700-727; Patrick Low, "Mini-symposium: Trade and the Environment," The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 101-105; Patrick Low, "International Trade and the Environment: An Overview," in International Trade and the Environment, ed. Patrick Low (New York: World Bank, 1992); Arvind Subramanian, "Trade Measures for Environment: A Nearly Empty Box?" The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 135-52; Stewart Hudson, "Trade, Environment and the Pursuit of Sustainable Development," in International Trade, Judith Dean, "Trade and the Environment: A Survey of the Literature," in International Trade, Peter Uimonen and John Whalley, "Trade and Environment: Setting the Rules," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 46-48; Daniel C. Esty, "Beyond Rio: Trade and the Environment," Environmental Law 23, no. 2 (1993): 387-96; Richard Eglin, "GATT and Environment," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 34-36; Alex Trisoglio and Kerry ten Tate, "Systemic Integration of the Environment and Trade," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 23-28; Graciela Chichilnisky, "North-South Trade and the Global Environment, The American Economic Review 84, no. 4 (September 1994): 851-74; Andrea C. Durbin, "The North-South Divide," Environment 37 (September 1995): 6-20, 35; and Steve Charnovitz, "Improving Environmental and Trade Governance," International Environmental Affairs7, no. 1 (Winter 1995): 59-91. For a comprehensive overview of the links between trade and the environment, see International Institute For Sustainable Development (IISD), main contributors, David Runnalls and Aaron Cosbey, Trade and Sustainable Development: A Survey of the Issues and a New Research Agenda (Winnipeg: IISD, 1992).
8. Since the early 1990s, research on the links between international trade and environmental management, protection, and degradation has exploded. One recent bibliography on trade and the environment was twenty-six pages. Cited in Steve Charnovitz, "Trade and the Environment: Four Schools of Thought," Ecodecision 11 (January 1994): 23. Recent studies (not specifically referred to in this article) include: Peter L. Lallas, Daniel C. Esty, and David J. van Hoogstraten, "Environmental Protection and International Trade: Toward Mutually Supportive Rules and Policies," The Harvard Environmental Law Review 16, no. 2 (1992): 271-42; Edith Brown Weiss, "Environment and Trade as Partners in Sustainable Development: A Commentary," The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 728-35; Thomas J. Schoenbaum, "Free International Trade and Protection of the Environment: Irreconcilable Conflict?" The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 700-727; Patrick Low, "Mini-symposium: Trade and the Environment," The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 101-105; Patrick Low, "International Trade and the Environment: An Overview," in International Trade and the Environment, ed. Patrick Low (New York: World Bank, 1992); Arvind Subramanian, "Trade Measures for Environment: A Nearly Empty Box?" The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 135-52; Stewart Hudson, "Trade, Environment and the Pursuit of Sustainable Development," in International Trade, Judith Dean, "Trade and the Environment: A Survey of the Literature," in International Trade, Peter Uimonen and John Whalley, "Trade and Environment: Setting the Rules," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 46-48; Daniel C. Esty, "Beyond Rio: Trade and the Environment," Environmental Law 23, no. 2 (1993): 387-96; Richard Eglin, "GATT and Environment," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 34-36; Alex Trisoglio and Kerry ten Tate, "Systemic Integration of the Environment and Trade," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 23-28; Graciela Chichilnisky, "North-South Trade and the Global Environment, The American Economic Review 84, no. 4 (September 1994): 851-74; Andrea C. Durbin, "The North-South Divide," Environment 37 (September 1995): 6-20, 35; and Steve Charnovitz, "Improving Environmental and Trade Governance," International Environmental Affairs7, no. 1 (Winter 1995): 59-91. For a comprehensive overview of the links between trade and the environment, see International Institute For Sustainable Development (IISD), main contributors, David Runnalls and Aaron Cosbey, Trade and Sustainable Development: A Survey of the Issues and a New Research Agenda (Winnipeg: IISD, 1992).
9. Since the early 1990s, research on the links between international trade and environmental management, protection, and degradation has exploded. One recent bibliography on trade and the environment was twenty-six pages. Cited in Steve Charnovitz, "Trade and the Environment: Four Schools of Thought," Ecodecision 11 (January 1994): 23. Recent studies (not specifically referred to in this article) include: Peter L. Lallas, Daniel C. Esty, and David J. van Hoogstraten, "Environmental Protection and International Trade: Toward Mutually Supportive Rules and Policies," The Harvard Environmental Law Review 16, no. 2 (1992): 271-42; Edith Brown Weiss, "Environment and Trade as Partners in Sustainable Development: A Commentary," The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 728-35; Thomas J. Schoenbaum, "Free International Trade and Protection of the Environment: Irreconcilable Conflict?" The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 700-727; Patrick Low, "Mini-symposium: Trade and the Environment," The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 101-105; Patrick Low, "International Trade and the Environment: An Overview," in International Trade and the Environment, ed. Patrick Low (New York: World Bank, 1992); Arvind Subramanian, "Trade Measures for Environment: A Nearly Empty Box?" The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 135-52; Stewart Hudson, "Trade, Environment and the Pursuit of Sustainable Development," in International Trade, Judith Dean, "Trade and the Environment: A Survey of the Literature," in International Trade, Peter Uimonen and John Whalley, "Trade and Environment: Setting the Rules," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 46-48; Daniel C. Esty, "Beyond Rio: Trade and the Environment," Environmental Law 23, no. 2 (1993): 387-96; Richard Eglin, "GATT and Environment," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 34-36; Alex Trisoglio and Kerry ten Tate, "Systemic Integration of the Environment and Trade," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 23-28; Graciela Chichilnisky, "North-South Trade and the Global Environment, The American Economic Review 84, no. 4 (September 1994): 851-74; Andrea C. Durbin, "The North-South Divide," Environment 37 (September 1995): 6-20, 35; and Steve Charnovitz, "Improving Environmental and Trade Governance," International Environmental Affairs7, no. 1 (Winter 1995): 59-91. For a comprehensive overview of the links between trade and the environment, see International Institute For Sustainable Development (IISD), main contributors, David Runnalls and Aaron Cosbey, Trade and Sustainable Development: A Survey of the Issues and a New Research Agenda (Winnipeg: IISD, 1992).
10. Since the early 1990s, research on the links between international trade and environmental management, protection, and degradation has exploded. One recent bibliography on trade and the environment was twenty-six pages. Cited in Steve Charnovitz, "Trade and the Environment: Four Schools of Thought," Ecodecision 11 (January 1994): 23. Recent studies (not specifically referred to in this article) include: Peter L. Lallas, Daniel C. Esty, and David J. van Hoogstraten, "Environmental Protection and International Trade: Toward Mutually Supportive Rules and Policies," The Harvard Environmental Law Review 16, no. 2 (1992): 271-42; Edith Brown Weiss, "Environment and Trade as Partners in Sustainable Development: A Commentary," The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 728-35; Thomas J. Schoenbaum, "Free International Trade and Protection of the Environment: Irreconcilable Conflict?" The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 700-727; Patrick Low, "Mini-symposium: Trade and the Environment," The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 101-105; Patrick Low, "International Trade and the Environment: An Overview," in International Trade and the Environment, ed. Patrick Low (New York: World Bank, 1992); Arvind Subramanian, "Trade Measures for Environment: A Nearly Empty Box?" The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 135-52; Stewart Hudson, "Trade, Environment and the Pursuit of Sustainable Development," in International Trade, Judith Dean, "Trade and the Environment: A Survey of the Literature," in International Trade, Peter Uimonen and John Whalley, "Trade and Environment: Setting the Rules," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 46-48; Daniel C. Esty, "Beyond Rio: Trade and the Environment," Environmental Law 23, no. 2 (1993): 387-96; Richard Eglin, "GATT and Environment," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 34-36; Alex Trisoglio and Kerry ten Tate, "Systemic Integration of the Environment and Trade," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 23-28; Graciela Chichilnisky, "North-South Trade and the Global Environment, The American Economic Review 84, no. 4 (September 1994): 851-74; Andrea C. Durbin, "The North-South Divide," Environment 37 (September 1995): 6-20, 35; and Steve Charnovitz, "Improving Environmental and Trade Governance," International Environmental Affairs7, no. 1 (Winter 1995): 59-91. For a comprehensive overview of the links between trade and the environment, see International Institute For Sustainable Development (IISD), main contributors, David Runnalls and Aaron Cosbey, Trade and Sustainable Development: A Survey of the Issues and a New Research Agenda (Winnipeg: IISD, 1992).
11. Since the early 1990s, research on the links between international trade and environmental management, protection, and degradation has exploded. One recent bibliography on trade and the environment was twenty-six pages. Cited in Steve Charnovitz, "Trade and the Environment: Four Schools of Thought," Ecodecision 11 (January 1994): 23. Recent studies (not specifically referred to in this article) include: Peter L. Lallas, Daniel C. Esty, and David J. van Hoogstraten, "Environmental Protection and International Trade: Toward Mutually Supportive Rules and Policies," The Harvard Environmental Law Review 16, no. 2 (1992): 271-42; Edith Brown Weiss, "Environment and Trade as Partners in Sustainable Development: A Commentary," The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 728-35; Thomas J. Schoenbaum, "Free International Trade and Protection of the Environment: Irreconcilable Conflict?" The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 700-727; Patrick Low, "Mini-symposium: Trade and the Environment," The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 101-105; Patrick Low, "International Trade and the Environment: An Overview," in International Trade and the Environment, ed. Patrick Low (New York: World Bank, 1992); Arvind Subramanian, "Trade Measures for Environment: A Nearly Empty Box?" The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 135-52; Stewart Hudson, "Trade, Environment and the Pursuit of Sustainable Development," in International Trade, Judith Dean, "Trade and the Environment: A Survey of the Literature," in International Trade, Peter Uimonen and John Whalley, "Trade and Environment: Setting the Rules," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 46-48; Daniel C. Esty, "Beyond Rio: Trade and the Environment," Environmental Law 23, no. 2 (1993): 387-96; Richard Eglin, "GATT and Environment," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 34-36; Alex Trisoglio and Kerry ten Tate, "Systemic Integration of the Environment and Trade," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 23-28; Graciela Chichilnisky, "North-South Trade and the Global Environment, The American Economic Review 84, no. 4 (September 1994): 851-74; Andrea C. Durbin, "The North-South Divide," Environment 37 (September 1995): 6-20, 35; and Steve Charnovitz, "Improving Environmental and Trade Governance," International Environmental Affairs7, no. 1 (Winter 1995): 59-91. For a comprehensive overview of the links between trade and the environment, see International Institute For Sustainable Development (IISD), main contributors, David Runnalls and Aaron Cosbey, Trade and Sustainable Development: A Survey of the Issues and a New Research Agenda (Winnipeg: IISD, 1992).
12. Since the early 1990s, research on the links between international trade and environmental management, protection, and degradation has exploded. One recent bibliography on trade and the environment was twenty-six pages. Cited in Steve Charnovitz, "Trade and the Environment: Four Schools of Thought," Ecodecision 11 (January 1994): 23. Recent studies (not specifically referred to in this article) include: Peter L. Lallas, Daniel C. Esty, and David J. van Hoogstraten, "Environmental Protection and International Trade: Toward Mutually Supportive Rules and Policies," The Harvard Environmental Law Review 16, no. 2 (1992): 271-42; Edith Brown Weiss, "Environment and Trade as Partners in Sustainable Development: A Commentary," The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 728-35; Thomas J. Schoenbaum, "Free International Trade and Protection of the Environment: Irreconcilable Conflict?" The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 700-727; Patrick Low, "Mini-symposium: Trade and the Environment," The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 101-105; Patrick Low, "International Trade and the Environment: An Overview," in International Trade and the Environment, ed. Patrick Low (New York: World Bank, 1992); Arvind Subramanian, "Trade Measures for Environment: A Nearly Empty Box?" The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 135-52; Stewart Hudson, "Trade, Environment and the Pursuit of Sustainable Development," in International Trade, Judith Dean, "Trade and the Environment: A Survey of the Literature," in International Trade, Peter Uimonen and John Whalley, "Trade and Environment: Setting the Rules," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 46-48; Daniel C. Esty, "Beyond Rio: Trade and the Environment," Environmental Law 23, no. 2 (1993): 387-96; Richard Eglin, "GATT and Environment," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 34-36; Alex Trisoglio and Kerry ten Tate, "Systemic Integration of the Environment and Trade," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 23-28; Graciela Chichilnisky, "North-South Trade and the Global Environment, The American Economic Review 84, no. 4 (September 1994): 851-74; Andrea C. Durbin, "The North-South Divide," Environment 37 (September 1995): 6-20, 35; and Steve Charnovitz, "Improving Environmental and Trade Governance," International Environmental Affairs7, no. 1 (Winter 1995): 59-91. For a comprehensive overview of the links between trade and the environment, see International Institute For Sustainable Development (IISD), main contributors, David Runnalls and Aaron Cosbey, Trade and Sustainable Development: A Survey of the Issues and a New Research Agenda (Winnipeg: IISD, 1992).
13. Since the early 1990s, research on the links between international trade and environmental management, protection, and degradation has exploded. One recent bibliography on trade and the environment was twenty-six pages. Cited in Steve Charnovitz, "Trade and the Environment: Four Schools of Thought," Ecodecision 11 (January 1994): 23. Recent studies (not specifically referred to in this article) include: Peter L. Lallas, Daniel C. Esty, and David J. van Hoogstraten, "Environmental Protection and International Trade: Toward Mutually Supportive Rules and Policies," The Harvard Environmental Law Review 16, no. 2 (1992): 271-42; Edith Brown Weiss, "Environment and Trade as Partners in Sustainable Development: A Commentary," The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 728-35; Thomas J. Schoenbaum, "Free International Trade and Protection of the Environment: Irreconcilable Conflict?" The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 700-727; Patrick Low, "Mini-symposium: Trade and the Environment," The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 101-105; Patrick Low, "International Trade and the Environment: An Overview," in International Trade and the Environment, ed. Patrick Low (New York: World Bank, 1992); Arvind Subramanian, "Trade Measures for Environment: A Nearly Empty Box?" The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 135-52; Stewart Hudson, "Trade, Environment and the Pursuit of Sustainable Development," in International Trade, Judith Dean, "Trade and the Environment: A Survey of the Literature," in International Trade, Peter Uimonen and John Whalley, "Trade and Environment: Setting the Rules," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 46-48; Daniel C. Esty, "Beyond Rio: Trade and the Environment," Environmental Law 23, no. 2 (1993): 387-96; Richard Eglin, "GATT and Environment," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 34-36; Alex Trisoglio and Kerry ten Tate, "Systemic Integration of the Environment and Trade," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 23-28; Graciela Chichilnisky, "North-South Trade and the Global Environment, The American Economic Review 84, no. 4 (September 1994): 851-74; Andrea C. Durbin, "The North-South Divide," Environment 37 (September 1995): 6-20, 35; and Steve Charnovitz, "Improving Environmental and Trade Governance," International Environmental Affairs7, no. 1 (Winter 1995): 59-91. For a comprehensive overview of the links between trade and the environment, see International Institute For Sustainable Development (IISD), main contributors, David Runnalls and Aaron Cosbey, Trade and Sustainable Development: A Survey of the Issues and a New Research Agenda (Winnipeg: IISD, 1992).
14. Since the early 1990s, research on the links between international trade and environmental management, protection, and degradation has exploded. One recent bibliography on trade and the environment was twenty-six pages. Cited in Steve Charnovitz, "Trade and the Environment: Four Schools of Thought," Ecodecision 11 (January 1994): 23. Recent studies (not specifically referred to in this article) include: Peter L. Lallas, Daniel C. Esty, and David J. van Hoogstraten, "Environmental Protection and International Trade: Toward Mutually Supportive Rules and Policies," The Harvard Environmental Law Review 16, no. 2 (1992): 271-42; Edith Brown Weiss, "Environment and Trade as Partners in Sustainable Development: A Commentary," The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 728-35; Thomas J. Schoenbaum, "Free International Trade and Protection of the Environment: Irreconcilable Conflict?" The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 700-727; Patrick Low, "Mini-symposium: Trade and the Environment," The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 101-105; Patrick Low, "International Trade and the Environment: An Overview," in International Trade and the Environment, ed. Patrick Low (New York: World Bank, 1992); Arvind Subramanian, "Trade Measures for Environment: A Nearly Empty Box?" The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 135-52; Stewart Hudson, "Trade, Environment and the Pursuit of Sustainable Development," in International Trade, Judith Dean, "Trade and the Environment: A Survey of the Literature," in International Trade, Peter Uimonen and John Whalley, "Trade and Environment: Setting the Rules," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 46-48; Daniel C. Esty, "Beyond Rio: Trade and the Environment," Environmental Law 23, no. 2 (1993): 387-96; Richard Eglin, "GATT and Environment," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 34-36; Alex Trisoglio and Kerry ten Tate, "Systemic Integration of the Environment and Trade," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 23-28; Graciela Chichilnisky, "North-South Trade and the Global Environment, The American Economic Review 84, no. 4 (September 1994): 851-74; Andrea C. Durbin, "The North-South Divide," Environment 37 (September 1995): 6-20, 35; and Steve Charnovitz, "Improving Environmental and Trade Governance," International Environmental Affairs7, no. 1 (Winter 1995): 59-91. For a comprehensive overview of the links between trade and the environment, see International Institute For Sustainable Development (IISD), main contributors, David Runnalls and Aaron Cosbey, Trade and Sustainable Development: A Survey of the Issues and a New Research Agenda (Winnipeg: IISD, 1992).
15. Since the early 1990s, research on the links between international trade and environmental management, protection, and degradation has exploded. One recent bibliography on trade and the environment was twenty-six pages. Cited in Steve Charnovitz, "Trade and the Environment: Four Schools of Thought," Ecodecision 11 (January 1994): 23. Recent studies (not specifically referred to in this article) include: Peter L. Lallas, Daniel C. Esty, and David J. van Hoogstraten, "Environmental Protection and International Trade: Toward Mutually Supportive Rules and Policies," The Harvard Environmental Law Review 16, no. 2 (1992): 271-42; Edith Brown Weiss, "Environment and Trade as Partners in Sustainable Development: A Commentary," The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 728-35; Thomas J. Schoenbaum, "Free International Trade and Protection of the Environment: Irreconcilable Conflict?" The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 700-727; Patrick Low, "Mini-symposium: Trade and the Environment," The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 101-105; Patrick Low, "International Trade and the Environment: An Overview," in International Trade and the Environment, ed. Patrick Low (New York: World Bank, 1992); Arvind Subramanian, "Trade Measures for Environment: A Nearly Empty Box?" The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 135-52; Stewart Hudson, "Trade, Environment and the Pursuit of Sustainable Development," in International Trade, Judith Dean, "Trade and the Environment: A Survey of the Literature," in International Trade, Peter Uimonen and John Whalley, "Trade and Environment: Setting the Rules," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 46-48; Daniel C. Esty, "Beyond Rio: Trade and the Environment," Environmental Law 23, no. 2 (1993): 387-96; Richard Eglin, "GATT and Environment," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 34-36; Alex Trisoglio and Kerry ten Tate, "Systemic Integration of the Environment and Trade," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 23-28; Graciela Chichilnisky, "North-South Trade and the Global Environment, The American Economic Review 84, no. 4 (September 1994): 851-74; Andrea C. Durbin, "The North-South Divide," Environment 37 (September 1995): 6-20, 35; and Steve Charnovitz, "Improving Environmental and Trade Governance," International Environmental Affairs7, no. 1 (Winter 1995): 59-91. For a comprehensive overview of the links between trade and the environment, see International Institute For Sustainable Development (IISD), main contributors, David Runnalls and Aaron Cosbey, Trade and Sustainable Development: A Survey of the Issues and a New Research Agenda (Winnipeg: IISD, 1992).
16. Since the early 1990s, research on the links between international trade and environmental management, protection, and degradation has exploded. One recent bibliography on trade and the environment was twenty-six pages. Cited in Steve Charnovitz, "Trade and the Environment: Four Schools of Thought," Ecodecision 11 (January 1994): 23. Recent studies (not specifically referred to in this article) include: Peter L. Lallas, Daniel C. Esty, and David J. van Hoogstraten, "Environmental Protection and International Trade: Toward Mutually Supportive Rules and Policies," The Harvard Environmental Law Review 16, no. 2 (1992): 271-42; Edith Brown Weiss, "Environment and Trade as Partners in Sustainable Development: A Commentary," The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 728-35; Thomas J. Schoenbaum, "Free International Trade and Protection of the Environment: Irreconcilable Conflict?" The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 700-727; Patrick Low, "Mini-symposium: Trade and the Environment," The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 101-105; Patrick Low, "International Trade and the Environment: An Overview," in International Trade and the Environment, ed. Patrick Low (New York: World Bank, 1992); Arvind Subramanian, "Trade Measures for Environment: A Nearly Empty Box?" The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 135-52; Stewart Hudson, "Trade, Environment and the Pursuit of Sustainable Development," in International Trade, Judith Dean, "Trade and the Environment: A Survey of the Literature," in International Trade, Peter Uimonen and John Whalley, "Trade and Environment: Setting the Rules," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 46-48; Daniel C. Esty, "Beyond Rio: Trade and the Environment," Environmental Law 23, no. 2 (1993): 387-96; Richard Eglin, "GATT and Environment," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 34-36; Alex Trisoglio and Kerry ten Tate, "Systemic Integration of the Environment and Trade," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 23-28; Graciela Chichilnisky, "North-South Trade and the Global Environment, The American Economic Review 84, no. 4 (September 1994): 851-74; Andrea C. Durbin, "The North-South Divide," Environment 37 (September 1995): 6-20, 35; and Steve Charnovitz, "Improving Environmental and Trade Governance," International Environmental Affairs7, no. 1 (Winter 1995): 59-91. For a comprehensive overview of the links between trade and the environment, see International Institute For Sustainable Development (IISD), main contributors, David Runnalls and Aaron Cosbey, Trade and Sustainable Development: A Survey of the Issues and a New Research Agenda (Winnipeg: IISD, 1992).
17. Since the early 1990s, research on the links between international trade and environmental management, protection, and degradation has exploded. One recent bibliography on trade and the environment was twenty-six pages. Cited in Steve Charnovitz, "Trade and the Environment: Four Schools of Thought," Ecodecision 11 (January 1994): 23. Recent studies (not specifically referred to in this article) include: Peter L. Lallas, Daniel C. Esty, and David J. van Hoogstraten, "Environmental Protection and International Trade: Toward Mutually Supportive Rules and Policies," The Harvard Environmental Law Review 16, no. 2 (1992): 271-42; Edith Brown Weiss, "Environment and Trade as Partners in Sustainable Development: A Commentary," The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 728-35; Thomas J. Schoenbaum, "Free International Trade and Protection of the Environment: Irreconcilable Conflict?" The American Journal of International Law 86, no. 4 (October 1992): 700-727; Patrick Low, "Mini-symposium: Trade and the Environment," The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 101-105; Patrick Low, "International Trade and the Environment: An Overview," in International Trade and the Environment, ed. Patrick Low (New York: World Bank, 1992); Arvind Subramanian, "Trade Measures for Environment: A Nearly Empty Box?" The World Economy 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 135-52; Stewart Hudson, "Trade, Environment and the Pursuit of Sustainable Development," in International Trade, Judith Dean, "Trade and the Environment: A Survey of the Literature," in International Trade, Peter Uimonen and John Whalley, "Trade and Environment: Setting the Rules," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 46-48; Daniel C. Esty, "Beyond Rio: Trade and the Environment," Environmental Law 23, no. 2 (1993): 387-96; Richard Eglin, "GATT and Environment," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 34-36; Alex Trisoglio and Kerry ten Tate, "Systemic Integration of the Environment and Trade," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 23-28; Graciela Chichilnisky, "North-South Trade and the Global Environment, The American Economic Review 84, no. 4 (September 1994): 851-74; Andrea C. Durbin, "The North-South Divide," Environment 37 (September 1995): 6-20, 35; and Steve Charnovitz, "Improving Environmental and Trade Governance," International Environmental Affairs7, no. 1 (Winter 1995): 59-91. For a comprehensive overview of the links between trade and the environment, see International Institute For Sustainable Development (IISD), main contributors, David Runnalls and Aaron Cosbey, Trade and Sustainable Development: A Survey of the Issues and a New Research Agenda (Winnipeg: IISD, 1992).
18. Asia dominates the world timber trade, partly due to the high concentration of commercial species. See T. C. Whitmore, "Comparing Southeast Asian and Other Tropical Rainforests," in Ecology, Conservation, and Management of Southeast Asian Rainforests, ed. Richard B. Primack and Thomas E. Lovejoy (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1995). For this reason, much of the empirical evidence in this paper relates to past and current Asian timber exporters (especially the Philippines, the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands), and to the main importer, Japan.
19. For discussions of general trade principles to support sustainable development, see Charles Arden-Clarke, "South-North Terms of Trade: Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development," International Environmental Affairs 4, no. 2 (Spring 1992): 122-39; and USD, Trade and Sustainable Development Principles (Winnipeg: USD, 1994).
20. For discussions of general trade principles to support sustainable development, see Charles Arden-Clarke, "South-North Terms of Trade: Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development," International Environmental Affairs 4, no. 2 (Spring 1992): 122-39; and USD, Trade and Sustainable Development Principles (Winnipeg: USD, 1994).
21. According to Edward Barbier, "market prices of most widely traded timber products typically do not reflect the environmental costs of their production." Edward B. Barbier, "The Environmental Effects of Trade in the Forestry Sector," in The Environmental Effects of Trade, ed. OECD (Paris: OECD, 1994), p. 71. Interestingly, since the end of the second World War, export prices for hardwood logs and hardwood sawn timber from tropical countries "have been substantially lower than corresponding prices for temperate hardwood products." Jeffrey R. Vincent, "Timber Trade, Economics, and Tropical Forest Management," Ecology, Conservation, and Management of Southeast Asian Rainforests, p. 243.
22. According to Edward Barbier, "market prices of most widely traded timber products typically do not reflect the environmental costs of their production." Edward B. Barbier, "The Environmental Effects of Trade in the Forestry Sector," in The Environmental Effects of Trade, ed. OECD (Paris: OECD, 1994), p. 71. Interestingly, since the end of the second World War, export prices for hardwood logs and hardwood sawn timber from tropical countries "have been substantially lower than corresponding prices for temperate hardwood products." Jeffrey R. Vincent, "Timber Trade, Economics, and Tropical Forest Management," Ecology, Conservation, and Management of Southeast Asian Rainforests, p. 243.
23. Konrad von Moltke writes: "Without rules, the market does not produce environmental quality; it exploits the environment as a free good." Konrad von Moltke, "Free Trade and Mutual Tariffs: A Practical Approach to Sustainable Development," Ecodecision 5 (June 1992): 45.
24. For a general discussion of how government policies can create or ignore market failures for natural resources, see OECD, "The Environmental Effects of Trade: Summary," in The Environmental Effects of Trade.
25. For a succinct summary of the impact of sogo shosha on log production in Southeast Asia, see Peter Dauvergne, "Japanese Trade and Deforestation in Southeast Asia," in L'Asie du Sud-Est face àla mondialisation: les nouveaux champs d'analyse/Southeast Asia and Globalization: New Domains of Analysis, ed. Rodolphe De Koninck and Christine Veilleux (Québec: GERAC [Research and Study Group on Contemporary Southeast Asia], Université Laval, 1996); for a detailed study, see Peter Dauvergne, Shadows in the Forest: Japan and the Politics of Timber in Southeast Asia (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, forthcoming 1997).
26. For a succinct summary of the impact of sogo shosha on log production in Southeast Asia, see Peter Dauvergne, "Japanese Trade and Deforestation in Southeast Asia," in L'Asie du Sud-Est face àla mondialisation: les nouveaux champs d'analyse/Southeast Asia and Globalization: New Domains of Analysis, ed. Rodolphe De Koninck and Christine Veilleux (Québec: GERAC [Research and Study Group on Contemporary Southeast Asia], Université Laval, 1996); for a detailed study, see Peter Dauvergne, Shadows in the Forest: Japan and the Politics of Timber in Southeast Asia (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, forthcoming 1997).
27. For analyses of the impact of resource prices that ignore environmental and social costs, see Arden-Clarke, "South-North Terms of Trade," pp. 122-39; Daniel C. Esty, Greening the GATT: Trade, Environment, and the Future (Washington: Institute for International Economics, 1994); and the collection of essays in The Environmental Effects of Trade.
28. For analyses of the impact of resource prices that ignore environmental and social costs, see Arden-Clarke, "South-North Terms of Trade," pp. 122-39; Daniel C. Esty, Greening the GATT: Trade, Environment, and the Future (Washington: Institute for International Economics, 1994); and the collection of essays in The Environmental Effects of Trade.
29. For analyses of the impact of resource prices that ignore environmental and social costs, see Arden-Clarke, "South-North Terms of Trade," pp. 122-39; Daniel C. Esty, Greening the GATT: Trade, Environment, and the Future (Washington: Institute for International Economics, 1994); and the collection of essays in The Environmental Effects of Trade.
30. See USD, Trade and Sustainable Development, pp. 19, 22.
31. Some international commodity agreements, such as for coffee, tin, cocoa, and rubber, have tried to stabilize world prices. But these have been largely ineffective. Henk L. M. Kox, "Instruments for Promoting Sustainable Production of Primary Commodities," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 50.
32. Interview, senior official, ENR-SECAL (Environment and Natural Resources Sector Adjustment Loan Program), Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Quezon City, 3 February 1994.
33. For example, higher international tropical timber prices in the 1990s have sparked multinational interest in remote primary forests in Surinam, Guyana, Panama, Honduras, and Venezuela. See Nigel Sizer and Richard Rice, Backs To The Wall In Suriname: Forest Policy in a Country in Crisis (Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 1995); and Peter Dauvergne, Major Asian Tropical Timber Traders and Overseas Corporate Investors: Current Trends (Ottawa: Government of Canada, Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, November 1995).
34. For example, higher international tropical timber prices in the 1990s have sparked multinational interest in remote primary forests in Surinam, Guyana, Panama, Honduras, and Venezuela. See Nigel Sizer and Richard Rice, Backs To The Wall In Suriname: Forest Policy in a Country in Crisis (Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 1995); and Peter Dauvergne, Major Asian Tropical Timber Traders and Overseas Corporate Investors: Current Trends (Ottawa: Government of Canada, Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, November 1995).
35. Gareth Porter, "An International Campaign for New Trade Rules to Protect Forests and Diversity through the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests," Environmental and Energy Study Institute, 1995, p. 7. For a description of the illegal tropical timber trade in Asia, see Debra J. Callister, Illegal Tropical Timber Trade: Asia-Pacific (Cambridge, United Kingdom: Traffic International, 1992).
36. Gareth Porter, "An International Campaign for New Trade Rules to Protect Forests and Diversity through the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests," Environmental and Energy Study Institute, 1995, p. 7. For a description of the illegal tropical timber trade in Asia, see Debra J. Callister, Illegal Tropical Timber Trade: Asia-Pacific (Cambridge, United Kingdom: Traffic International, 1992).
37. For data and more details, see Dauvergne, Shadows in the Forest.
38. Barbier is also critical of the economic and environmental effects of tropical timber import bans. See Barbier, "The Environmental Effects of Trade in the Forestry Sector," pp. 89-91.
39. Interview, senior official, Bappenas, National Development Planning Agency, Jakarta, 4 March 1994.
40. Bob M. Hasan, Keynote Address, "Prospects for Plywood into the 21st Century," Proceedings of the World Conference on Tropical Plywood (Jakarta: International Tropical Timber Organization [ITTO], December 1991), p. 16.
41. Quoted in "Jakarta receives US$1.9 b in new loans from Japan for development," Star, 15 September 1992, p. 16.
42. For example, the Malaysian firm Leeling Timber plans to export veneer and furniture from Guyana, mostly "for the Caribbean, North American and European markets, taking advantage of lower tariff barriers due to the CARICOM and Lomé trade agreements." Marcus Colchester, "The New Sultans: Asian Loggers Move in on Guyana's Forests," Ecolagist 24, no. 2 (March/April 1994): 47.
43. Rachel A. Crossley, "A Preliminary Examination of the Economic and Environmental Effects of Log Export Bans." Draft Manuscript, Central Forestry Team, Natural Resources Division (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, November 1994), pp. 1-2.
44. See Carlos Alberto Primo Braga, "Tropical Forests and Trade Policy: The Cases of Indonesia and Brazil," in International Trade, pp. 173-96.
45. For a general analysis of the political factors driving deforestation in Indonesia, see Peter Dauvergne, "The Politics of Deforestation in Indonesia," Pacific Affairs 66 (Winter 1993-1994): 497-518. For a detailed study, see Dauvergne, Shadows in the Forest.
46. For a general analysis of the political factors driving deforestation in Indonesia, see Peter Dauvergne, "The Politics of Deforestation in Indonesia," Pacific Affairs 66 (Winter 1993-1994): 497-518. For a detailed study, see Dauvergne, Shadows in the Forest.
47. Calculated from ITTO, Annual Review and Assessment of the World Tropical Timber Situation: 1993-1994 (Yokohama: ITTO, 1995), p. 57; and ITTO, Annual Review and Assessment of the World Tropical Timber Situation 1995 (Yokohama: ITTO, 1996), p. 51.
48. Calculated from ITTO, Annual Review and Assessment of the World Tropical Timber Situation: 1993-1994 (Yokohama: ITTO, 1995), p. 57; and ITTO, Annual Review and Assessment of the World Tropical Timber Situation 1995 (Yokohama: ITTO, 1996), p. 51.
49. Various personal interviews, Sarawak Forest Department, Kuching, February 1994. By the year 2000, Sarawak plans to retain 50 percent of logs for domestic processors. Hamid Bugo, "The Significance of the Timber Industry in the Economic and Social Development of Sarawak," in Ecology, Conservation, and Management of Southeast Asian Rainforests, p. 230.
50. Many Indonesian government officials and academics apparently accept this logic. But Indonesia has avoided partial restrictions, since they are difficult to monitor and enforce. Various personal interviews, Ministry of Forestry, and Bogor Agricultural University, February and March 1994.
51. For details, see Dauvergne, Shadows in the Forest.
52. Besides removing direct state subsidies, it is also important for states to increase state taxes and timber royalties, which amount to a significant indirect subsidy for timber processors. See Porter, "An International Campaign."
53. Crossley argues that, "the limited amount of analysis on the impacts
54. For a discussion of the importance of cumulative environmental effects, see Gordon H. Oriens, "Thought for the Morrow: Cumulative Threats to the Environment," Environment 37, no. 7 (September 1995): 6-15.
55. Summarized in Frances F. Korten, "Questioning the Call for Environmental Loans: A Critical Examination of Forestry Lending in the Philippines," World Development22, no. 7 (1994): 972. For more details on the effects of deforestation in the Philippines, see David M. Kummer, Deforestation in the Postwar Philippines (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1991); and Philip Hurst, Rainforest Politics: Ecological Destruction in South-East Asia. (London: Zed Books, 1990), pp. 165-71.
56. Summarized in Frances F. Korten, "Questioning the Call for Environmental Loans: A Critical Examination of Forestry Lending in the Philippines," World Development22, no. 7 (1994): 972. For more details on the effects of deforestation in the Philippines, see David M. Kummer, Deforestation in the Postwar Philippines (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1991); and Philip Hurst, Rainforest Politics: Ecological Destruction in South-East Asia. (London: Zed Books, 1990), pp. 165-71.
57. Summarized in Frances F. Korten, "Questioning the Call for Environmental Loans: A Critical Examination of Forestry Lending in the Philippines," World Development22, no. 7 (1994): 972. For more details on the effects of deforestation in the Philippines, see David M. Kummer, Deforestation in the Postwar Philippines (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1991); and Philip Hurst, Rainforest Politics: Ecological Destruction in South-East Asia. (London: Zed Books, 1990), pp. 165-71.
58. More generally, Lyuba Zarsky writes: "Open trading systems provide unambiguous benefits to ESD [ecologically sustainable development], however, only if environmental costs and limits are expressly incorporated into the prices and quantities of traded goods. . . . Without ecological conditionally, open trading systems can accelerate or even generate market demands that deplete or irreversibly damage ecological resources." Lyuba Zarsky, "Environmental Trade Preferences and the Transition to 'Green Trade,'" Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 51.
59. The North consumes about 80 percent of world resources. As Konrad von Moltke argues, "its economies must presumably generate about 80 percent of the cost of worldwide environmental management." Konrad von Moltke, "Free Trade and Mutual Tariffs," p. 45.
60. Norman Myers discusses some of the problems of debt-for-nature swaps in "The Anatomy of Environmental Action: The Case of Tropical Deforestation," in The International Politics of the Environment: Actors, Interests, and Institutions, ed. Andrew Hurrell and Benedict Kingsley (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), p. 442. See also Cord Jakobeit, "Nonstate Actors Leading the Way: Debt-for-Nature Swaps," in Institutions for Environmental Aid: Pitfalls and Promise, ed. Robert O. Keohane and Marc A. Levy (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996), pp. 127-66.
61. Norman Myers discusses some of the problems of debt-for-nature swaps in "The Anatomy of Environmental Action: The Case of Tropical Deforestation," in The International Politics of the Environment: Actors, Interests, and Institutions, ed. Andrew Hurrell and Benedict Kingsley (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), p. 442. See also Cord Jakobeit, "Nonstate Actors Leading the Way: Debt-for-Nature Swaps," in Institutions for Environmental Aid: Pitfalls and Promise, ed. Robert O. Keohane and Marc A. Levy (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996), pp. 127-66.
62. Prem Kumar and Kris Syal, "Hazards of Environmental Aid to the Third World," Ecodecision 11 (January 1994): 84. This figure likely exaggerates Northern assistance to environmental protection because no consistent definition of environmental aid exists.
63. See Dauvergne, Shadows in the Forest.
64. For background on certification schemes, see Baharuddin Haji Ghazali and Markku Simula, Certification Schemes for All Timber and Timber Products, Report for the ITTO (Yokohama: ITTO, 15 April 1994); and Edward B. Barbier, "Policy Issues and Options Concerning Linkages Between the Tropical Timber Trade and Sustainable Forest Management," paper prepared for the 1993 market discussion on the LEEC Report, Tlie Economic Linkages Between the International Trade in Tropical Timber and the Sustainable Management of Tropical Forests, ITTO Activity (PCM(XI)/4), 14th Session of the International Tropical Timber Council in Kuala Lumpur, 12-13 May 1993, pp. 22-26.
65. For background on certification schemes, see Baharuddin Haji Ghazali and Markku Simula, Certification Schemes for All Timber and Timber Products, Report for the ITTO (Yokohama: ITTO, 15 April 1994); and Edward B. Barbier, "Policy Issues and Options Concerning Linkages Between the Tropical Timber Trade and Sustainable Forest Management," paper prepared for the 1993 market discussion on the LEEC Report, Tlie Economic Linkages Between the International Trade in Tropical Timber and the Sustainable Management of Tropical Forests, ITTO Activity (PCM(XI)/4), 14th Session of the International Tropical Timber Council in Kuala Lumpur, 12-13 May 1993, pp. 22-26.
66. Interview, Indonesian Eco-Labelling Program, Jakarta, 4 March 1994.
67. For background on the FSC, see Salahudin Yaacob, et al. (Malaysian FSC Consultative Study Working Group), Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) Malaysian Consultative Study (Selangor, Malaysia: WWF Malaysia, August 1993), pp. 2-4; Ghazali and Simula, Certification Schemes, pp. 19-20; FSC Notes. A Newsletter of the Forest Stewardship Council 1, no. 1 (Summer 1995); and http://antequera.com/FSC.
68. For background on the FSC, see Salahudin Yaacob, et al. (Malaysian FSC Consultative Study Working Group), Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) Malaysian Consultative Study (Selangor, Malaysia: WWF Malaysia, August 1993), pp. 2-4; Ghazali and Simula, Certification Schemes, pp. 19-20; FSC Notes. A Newsletter of the Forest Stewardship Council 1, no. 1 (Summer 1995); and http://antequera.com/FSC.
69. For background on the FSC, see Salahudin Yaacob, et al. (Malaysian FSC Consultative Study Working Group), Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) Malaysian Consultative Study (Selangor, Malaysia: WWF Malaysia, August 1993), pp. 2-4; Ghazali and Simula, Certification Schemes, pp. 19-20; FSC Notes. A Newsletter of the Forest Stewardship Council 1, no. 1 (Summer 1995); and http://antequera.com/FSC.
70. For background on the FSC, see Salahudin Yaacob, et al. (Malaysian FSC Consultative Study Working Group), Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) Malaysian Consultative Study (Selangor, Malaysia: WWF Malaysia, August 1993), pp. 2-4; Ghazali and Simula, Certification Schemes, pp. 19-20; FSC Notes. A Newsletter of the Forest Stewardship Council 1, no. 1 (Summer 1995); and http://antequera.com/FSC.
71. Pang Hin Yue, "Malaysia: Eco-labelling Must Apply to All Countries," New Straits Times, 27 May 1993, p. 3. Numerous Malaysian academics, corporate leaders, and government officials made this point during various personal interviews between January and March, 1994.
72. In Japan, plywood processors are increasingly substituting temperate logs for tropical logs. See Roger A. Sedjo, A. Clark Wiseman, David J. Brooks, and Kenneth S. Lyon, Changing Timber Supply and the Japanese Market, discussion paper 94-25 (Washington, D.C.: Resources For the Future, 1994).
73. Austria withdrew this proposal after strong criticism from Malaysia and Indonesia. See Jeffrey Ramayah, "Austria Warned of Likely ASEAN Boycott," New Straits Times, 27 October 1992, p. 7; The Economist, "For the Chop," 30 January 1993, p. 63; and "Malaysia's New Jungle War," Asiaweek, 10 February 1993, p. 47.
74. Austria withdrew this proposal after strong criticism from Malaysia and Indonesia. See Jeffrey Ramayah, "Austria Warned of Likely ASEAN Boycott," New Straits Times, 27 October 1992, p. 7; The Economist, "For the Chop," 30 January 1993, p. 63; and "Malaysia's New Jungle War," Asiaweek, 10 February 1993, p. 47.
75. Austria withdrew this proposal after strong criticism from Malaysia and Indonesia. See Jeffrey Ramayah, "Austria Warned of Likely ASEAN Boycott," New Straits Times, 27 October 1992, p. 7; The Economist, "For the Chop," 30 January 1993, p. 63; and "Malaysia's New Jungle War," Asiaweek, 10 February 1993, p. 47.
76. According to Karen West, general eco-labelling schemes have become tools of large corporations, undermining their effectiveness for enhancing environmental management. See Karen West, "Ecolabels: The Industrialization of Environmental Standards," The Ecologist 25, no. 1 (January/February 1995): 16-20.
77. For a list of possible criteria for certification, see Duncan Poore, "Ecolabelling and the Certification of Forest Management," DP-draft 1 21/02/94, supplied to the author by Pelangi Indonesia (Policy Research for Sustainable Development), Jakarta, 4 March 1994, pp. 3-5. For a list of questions to guide certification, see Duncan Poore, "The Certification of Forest Management," draft annex for discussion, DP 26/2/94, supplied to the author by Pelangi Indonesia, Jakarta, 4 March 1994, pp. 1-6.
78. For a list of possible criteria for certification, see Duncan Poore, "Ecolabelling and the Certification of Forest Management," DP-draft 1 21/02/94, supplied to the author by Pelangi Indonesia (Policy Research for Sustainable Development), Jakarta, 4 March 1994, pp. 3-5. For a list of questions to guide certification, see Duncan Poore, "The Certification of Forest Management," draft annex for discussion, DP 26/2/94, supplied to the author by Pelangi Indonesia, Jakarta, 4 March 1994, pp. 1-6.
79. See Dauvergne, Shadows in the Forest. Without international input and observers, corporate interests linked to the state will likely capture Indonesia's timber certification program. As well, the FSC decision to monitor and accredit domestic certifiers, while cheaper and more practical than an international certification program, may well lead to little more than an international stamp of approval for current management. In addition, even if states fully embrace these guidelines and goals, these programs do not tackle the critical problem that many developing states are simply unable to monitor and enforce guidelines.
80. Charles Arden-Clarke, "South-North Terms of Trade," makes a similar proposal. Henk Kox proposes International Commodity-Related Environmental Agreements (ICREAS), which would "include transfer mechanisms intended to internalize environmental costs in the price paid by importing nations. Under such schemes, there would be at least partial compensation for additional costs for using technologies that make the production of the commodity (more) sustainable." Kox argues further that, "though more variants are conceivable, import levies collected at the border of industrialized countries could well serve as the main funding source. The import levy is commodity-specific, and is paid by importers to their national fiscal authorities in the form of a fixed amount per imported quantity. Taxes collected in this way are periodically remitted to the ICREA Secretariat, which would use the funds to serve the various objectives of the International Commodity-Related Environmental Agreement. . . . Governments of exporting countries in the developing world obtain drawing rights on the ICREA fund." Kox, "Instruments For Promoting Sustainable Production," p. 50. Kox is coordinating a study on the feasibility of International Commodity-Related Environmental Agreements. Another similar idea for internalizing costs is mutual tariffs, proposed by Konrad von Moltke. Under this scheme, commodity producers would impose export levies; to avoid unfair discrimination, importers would respond by imposing equivalent levies on imports from countries that did not impose an export levy. Mutual tariffs are an attractive option for several reasons. They would increase final consumer prices; they do not require the consensus of all importers and exporters; they do not distort markets; they are not unilateral; they do not violate the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT); and they are quite simple to administer. A major drawback of this proposal is that it places the onus on Southern states to act (and allows Northern states to avoid action until Southern states implement an export tariff). It may be possible to combine the ideas of unilateral import levies and mutual tariffs. Depending on the situation, either mutual tariffs or unilateral import levies (or perhaps both) could generate sustainable management funds. In all cases, however, South-North management teams must ensure that funds are not syphoned by corrupt elites or multinational corporations; and that funds actually support sustainable timber management and forest conservation. For a discussion of mutual tariffs, see von Moltke, "Free Trade and Mutual Tariffs," p. 46.
81. Charles Arden-Clarke, "South-North Terms of Trade," makes a similar proposal. Henk Kox proposes International Commodity-Related Environmental Agreements (ICREAS), which would "include transfer mechanisms intended to internalize environmental costs in the price paid by importing nations. Under such schemes, there would be at least partial compensation for additional costs for using technologies that make the production of the commodity (more) sustainable." Kox argues further that, "though more variants are conceivable, import levies collected at the border of industrialized countries could well serve as the main funding source. The import levy is commodity-specific, and is paid by importers to their national fiscal authorities in the form of a fixed amount per imported quantity. Taxes collected in this way are periodically remitted to the ICREA Secretariat, which would use the funds to serve the various objectives of the International Commodity-Related Environmental Agreement. . . . Governments of exporting countries in the developing world obtain drawing rights on the ICREA fund." Kox, "Instruments For Promoting Sustainable Production," p. 50. Kox is coordinating a study on the feasibility of International Commodity-Related Environmental Agreements. Another similar idea for internalizing costs is mutual tariffs, proposed by Konrad von Moltke. Under this scheme, commodity producers would impose export levies; to avoid unfair discrimination, importers would respond by imposing equivalent levies on imports from countries that did not impose an export levy. Mutual tariffs are an attractive option for several reasons. They would increase final consumer prices; they do not require the consensus of all importers and exporters; they do not distort markets; they are not unilateral; they do not violate the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT); and they are quite simple to administer. A major drawback of this proposal is that it places the onus on Southern states to act (and allows Northern states to avoid action until Southern states implement an export tariff). It may be possible to combine the ideas of unilateral import levies and mutual tariffs. Depending on the situation, either mutual tariffs or unilateral import levies (or perhaps both) could generate sustainable management funds. In all cases, however, South-North management teams must ensure that funds are not syphoned by corrupt elites or multinational corporations; and that funds actually support sustainable timber management and forest conservation. For a discussion of mutual tariffs, see von Moltke, "Free Trade and Mutual Tariffs," p. 46.
82. Charles Arden-Clarke, "South-North Terms of Trade," makes a similar proposal. Henk Kox proposes International Commodity-Related Environmental Agreements (ICREAS), which would "include transfer mechanisms intended to internalize environmental costs in the price paid by importing nations. Under such schemes, there would be at least partial compensation for additional costs for using technologies that make the production of the commodity (more) sustainable." Kox argues further that, "though more variants are conceivable, import levies collected at the border of industrialized countries could well serve as the main funding source. The import levy is commodity-specific, and is paid by importers to their national fiscal authorities in the form of a fixed amount per imported quantity. Taxes collected in this way are periodically remitted to the ICREA Secretariat, which would use the funds to serve the various objectives of the International Commodity-Related Environmental Agreement. . . . Governments of exporting countries in the developing world obtain drawing rights on the ICREA fund." Kox, "Instruments For Promoting Sustainable Production," p. 50. Kox is coordinating a study on the feasibility of International Commodity-Related Environmental Agreements. Another similar idea for internalizing costs is mutual tariffs, proposed by Konrad von Moltke. Under this scheme, commodity producers would impose export levies; to avoid unfair discrimination, importers would respond by imposing equivalent levies on imports from countries that did not impose an export levy. Mutual tariffs are an attractive option for several reasons. They would increase final consumer prices; they do not require the consensus of all importers and exporters; they do not distort markets; they are not unilateral; they do not violate the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT); and they are quite simple to administer. A major drawback of this proposal is that it places the onus on Southern states to act (and allows Northern states to avoid action until Southern states implement an export tariff). It may be possible to combine the ideas of unilateral import levies and mutual tariffs. Depending on the situation, either mutual tariffs or unilateral import levies (or perhaps both) could generate sustainable management funds. In all cases, however, South-North management teams must ensure that funds are not syphoned by corrupt elites or multinational corporations; and that funds actually support sustainable timber management and forest conservation. For a discussion of mutual tariffs, see von Moltke, "Free Trade and Mutual Tariffs," p. 46.
83. An international minimum corporate forest code of conduct is one possible mechanism to help control the destructive trade practices of multinational corporations.
84. Myers, "The Anatomy of Environmental Action," p. 442.
85. Robert Madsen calls for the creation of an international tropical timber (rainforest) cartel to raise prices, lower consumption, control supply and demand, and stabilize prices. Robert A. Madsen, "Of Oil and Rainforests: Using Commodity Cartels to Conserve Depletable Natural Resources," International Environmental Affairs 7 (Summer 1995): 207-34. This is an attractive option since it appeals to the base instinct of states to maximize revenues and increase political power, while providing a mechanism to partially internalize environmental and social costs. Madsen documents the significant environmental benefits of the Organization of Petroleum States (OECD) in the mid-1970s. Prices rose rapidly and remained stable, while production fell sharply; consumers responded by using less oil more efficiently. As Madsen points out, however, there are considerable political obstacles to the development of an effective rainforest cartel. He is hopeful that these obstacles will erode, especially as tropical timber supplies dwindle and fewer countries have large stocks. But even if tropical countries could form a cartel, unlike oil in the 1970s, this would likely have a marginal impact on prices. While tropical timber supplies are relatively inelastic, it is unlikely that demand for tropical timber is "quite inelastic" (p. 223). That is, if the price of tropical timber is pushed too high, consumers will substitute temperate timber, metals, plastics, and concrete. The ability of temperate logs to substitute for tropical logs has been increasing in the last few years as tropical plywood processors develop new techniques to make plywood from temperate logs. While a wood cartel could perhaps integrate temperate producers, this would greatly increase the difficulties of creating and managing a cartel; and a fairly serious problem of substitution from plastics, metals, and concrete would still exist. In short, there are simply too many economic and political factors that can undermine a tropical timber cartel. Moreover, Apkindo, which currently has a virtual monopoly over the tropical plywood trade, hardly inspires confidence that monopolies or oligopolies will manage forest resources in a sustainable way.
86. Myers argues that a new world forest organization may be "the best option." Myers, "The Anatomy of Environmental Action," p. 450. In 1993, Malaysia announced that it would lead a Southern campaign to establish an International Forest Organization, perhaps built on a restructured ITTO, which would oversee the management of tropical, temperate, and boreal forests. According to Malaysian Primary Industries Minister Datuk Seri Dr Lim Keng Yaik, this organization would help counter the one-sided criticism of tropical forest management. See "M'sia to Push for World Body on Forestry," Peoples Mirror (Sarawak, Malaysia), 15 February 1993.
87. Myers argues that a new world forest organization may be "the best option." Myers, "The Anatomy of Environmental Action," p. 450. In 1993, Malaysia announced that it would lead a Southern campaign to establish an International Forest Organization, perhaps built on a restructured ITTO, which would oversee the management of tropical, temperate, and boreal forests. According to Malaysian Primary Industries Minister Datuk Seri Dr Lim Keng Yaik, this organization would help counter the one-sided criticism of tropical forest management. See "M'sia to Push for World Body on Forestry," Peoples Mirror (Sarawak, Malaysia), 15 February 1993.
88. For background on the Global Environment Facility, see Mohamed T. El-Ashry, "Funding For Global Environmental Concerns," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 72-73; Andrew Jordan and Jacob Werksman, "Power, Money, and the Global Environment: Restructuring and Replenishing the Global Environment Facility," Ecodecision 14 (Fall 1994): 68-70; Andrew Jordan, "Paying the Incremental Costs of Global Environmental Protection: The Evolving Role of GEF," Environment 36, no. 6 (July/August 1994): 12-20, 31-36; Michael P. Wells, "The Global Environment Facility and Prospects for Biodiversity Conservation," International Environmental Affairs 6 (Winter 1994): 69-97; and David Fairman, "The Global Environment Facility: Haunted by the Shadow of the Future," in Institutions for Environmental Aid, pp. 55-88.
89. For background on the Global Environment Facility, see Mohamed T. El-Ashry, "Funding For Global Environmental Concerns," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 72-73; Andrew Jordan and Jacob Werksman, "Power, Money, and the Global Environment: Restructuring and Replenishing the Global Environment Facility," Ecodecision 14 (Fall 1994): 68-70; Andrew Jordan, "Paying the Incremental Costs of Global Environmental Protection: The Evolving Role of GEF," Environment 36, no. 6 (July/August 1994): 12-20, 31-36; Michael P. Wells, "The Global Environment Facility and Prospects for Biodiversity Conservation," International Environmental Affairs 6 (Winter 1994): 69-97; and David Fairman, "The Global Environment Facility: Haunted by the Shadow of the Future," in Institutions for Environmental Aid, pp. 55-88.
90. For background on the Global Environment Facility, see Mohamed T. El-Ashry, "Funding For Global Environmental Concerns," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 72-73; Andrew Jordan and Jacob Werksman, "Power, Money, and the Global Environment: Restructuring and Replenishing the Global Environment Facility," Ecodecision 14 (Fall 1994): 68-70; Andrew Jordan, "Paying the Incremental Costs of Global Environmental Protection: The Evolving Role of GEF," Environment 36, no. 6 (July/August 1994): 12-20, 31-36; Michael P. Wells, "The Global Environment Facility and Prospects for Biodiversity Conservation," International Environmental Affairs 6 (Winter 1994): 69-97; and David Fairman, "The Global Environment Facility: Haunted by the Shadow of the Future," in Institutions for Environmental Aid, pp. 55-88.
91. For background on the Global Environment Facility, see Mohamed T. El-Ashry, "Funding For Global Environmental Concerns," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 72-73; Andrew Jordan and Jacob Werksman, "Power, Money, and the Global Environment: Restructuring and Replenishing the Global Environment Facility," Ecodecision 14 (Fall 1994): 68-70; Andrew Jordan, "Paying the Incremental Costs of Global Environmental Protection: The Evolving Role of GEF," Environment 36, no. 6 (July/August 1994): 12-20, 31-36; Michael P. Wells, "The Global Environment Facility and Prospects for Biodiversity Conservation," International Environmental Affairs 6 (Winter 1994): 69-97; and David Fairman, "The Global Environment Facility: Haunted by the Shadow of the Future," in Institutions for Environmental Aid, pp. 55-88.
92. For background on the Global Environment Facility, see Mohamed T. El-Ashry, "Funding For Global Environmental Concerns," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 72-73; Andrew Jordan and Jacob Werksman, "Power, Money, and the Global Environment: Restructuring and Replenishing the Global Environment Facility," Ecodecision 14 (Fall 1994): 68-70; Andrew Jordan, "Paying the Incremental Costs of Global Environmental Protection: The Evolving Role of GEF," Environment 36, no. 6 (July/August 1994): 12-20, 31-36; Michael P. Wells, "The Global Environment Facility and Prospects for Biodiversity Conservation," International Environmental Affairs 6 (Winter 1994): 69-97; and David Fairman, "The Global Environment Facility: Haunted by the Shadow of the Future," in Institutions for Environmental Aid, pp. 55-88.
93. Daniel Esty proposes a GEO based on internalizing environmental costs. See Esty, Greening the GATT.
94. Candice Stevens, "A GATT for the Environment: Options for a Multilateral Environmental Organization," Ecodecision 8 (March 1993): 42.