Human rights: A new standard of civilization?

International Affairs

Volumn 74, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 1-23

  Donnelly, Jack ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0005836821     PISSN: 00205850     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1468-2346.00001     Document Type: Review

References (111)

1. R. J. Vincent, Human rights and international relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. viii.
2. Gerrit W. Gong, The standard of civilisation' in international society (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984). See also Georg Schwarzenberger, 'The standard of civilisation in international law', Current Legal Problems 17, 1955, pp. 212-34; B.V.A. Roling, International law in an expanded world (Amsterdam: Djambatan, 1960), ch. 4. Vincent addressed related issues in 'The factor of culture in the global international order', Year Book of World Affairs 1980 (London: Stevens) p. 34; 'Race in international relations', International Affairs 58:3 Autumn 1982, pp. 658-70; and 'Racial equality', in Hedley Bull and Adam Watson, eds, The expansion of international society (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984).
3. Gerrit W. Gong, The standard of civilisation' in international society (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984). See also Georg Schwarzenberger, 'The standard of civilisation in international law', Current Legal Problems 17, 1955, pp. 212-34; B.V.A. Roling, International law in an expanded world (Amsterdam: Djambatan, 1960), ch. 4. Vincent addressed related issues in 'The factor of culture in the global international order', Year Book of World Affairs 1980 (London: Stevens) p. 34; 'Race in international relations', International Affairs 58:3 Autumn 1982, pp. 658-70; and 'Racial equality', in Hedley Bull and Adam Watson, eds, The expansion of international society (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984).
4. Gerrit W. Gong, The standard of civilisation' in international society (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984). See also Georg Schwarzenberger, 'The standard of civilisation in international law', Current Legal Problems 17, 1955, pp. 212-34; B.V.A. Roling, International law in an expanded world (Amsterdam: Djambatan, 1960), ch. 4. Vincent addressed related issues in 'The factor of culture in the global international order', Year Book of World Affairs 1980 (London: Stevens) p. 34; 'Race in international relations', International Affairs 58:3 Autumn 1982, pp. 658-70; and 'Racial equality', in Hedley Bull and Adam Watson, eds, The expansion of international society (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984).
5. Gerrit W. Gong, The standard of civilisation' in international society (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984). See also Georg Schwarzenberger, 'The standard of civilisation in international law', Current Legal Problems 17, 1955, pp. 212-34; B.V.A. Roling, International law in an expanded world (Amsterdam: Djambatan, 1960), ch. 4. Vincent addressed related issues in 'The factor of culture in the global international order', Year Book of World Affairs 1980 (London: Stevens) p. 34; 'Race in international relations', International Affairs 58:3 Autumn 1982, pp. 658-70; and 'Racial equality', in Hedley Bull and Adam Watson, eds, The expansion of international society (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984).
6. Gerrit W. Gong, The standard of civilisation' in international society (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984). See also Georg Schwarzenberger, 'The standard of civilisation in international law', Current Legal Problems 17, 1955, pp. 212-34; B.V.A. Roling, International law in an expanded world (Amsterdam: Djambatan, 1960), ch. 4. Vincent addressed related issues in 'The factor of culture in the global international order', Year Book of World Affairs 1980 (London: Stevens) p. 34; 'Race in international relations', International Affairs 58:3 Autumn 1982, pp. 658-70; and 'Racial equality', in Hedley Bull and Adam Watson, eds, The expansion of international society (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984).
7. Gerrit W. Gong, The standard of civilisation' in international society (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984). See also Georg Schwarzenberger, 'The standard of civilisation in international law', Current Legal Problems 17, 1955, pp. 212-34; B.V.A. Roling, International law in an expanded world (Amsterdam: Djambatan, 1960), ch. 4. Vincent addressed related issues in 'The factor of culture in the global international order', Year Book of World Affairs 1980 (London: Stevens) p. 34; 'Race in international relations', International Affairs 58:3 Autumn 1982, pp. 658-70; and 'Racial equality', in Hedley Bull and Adam Watson, eds, The expansion of international society (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984).
8. Peter Lyon, 'New states and international order', in Alan James, ed., The bases of international order: essays in honour of C. A. W. Manning (London: Oxford University Press, 1973), p. 57.
9. See Hedley Bull, The anarchical society: a study of order in world politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977), pp. 9-15.
10. Martin Wight, Systems of states (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1977), p. 153.
11. Ibid. Cf. Thomas M. Franck, The power of legitimacy among nations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 189-92.
12. Ibid. Cf. Thomas M. Franck, The power of legitimacy among nations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 189-92.
13. The following draws heavily on John King Fairbank, ed., The Chinese world order: traditional China's foreign relations (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968); and Immanuel C.Y. Hsu, China's entrance into the family of nations: the diplomatic phase, 1858-1880 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960). The over-simplified essentialism poses few problems, given my limited, illustrative purposes. James L. Hevia, Cherishing men from afar: Qing guest ritual and the Macartney embassy of 1793 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995), provides a more complex, post-structuralist reading that points in a similar direction.
14. The following draws heavily on John King Fairbank, ed., The Chinese world order: traditional China's foreign relations (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968); and Immanuel C.Y. Hsu, China's entrance into the family of nations: the diplomatic phase, 1858-1880 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960). The over-simplified essentialism poses few problems, given my limited, illustrative purposes. James L. Hevia, Cherishing men from afar: Qing guest ritual and the Macartney embassy of 1793 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995), provides a more complex, post-structuralist reading that points in a similar direction.
15. The following draws heavily on John King Fairbank, ed., The Chinese world order: traditional China's foreign relations (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968); and Immanuel C.Y. Hsu, China's entrance into the family of nations: the diplomatic phase, 1858-1880 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960). The over-simplified essentialism poses few problems, given my limited, illustrative purposes. James L. Hevia, Cherishing men from afar: Qing guest ritual and the Macartney embassy of 1793 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995), provides a more complex, post-structuralist reading that points in a similar direction.
16. Mark Mancall, 'The Ch'ing tribute system: an interpretive essay', in Fairbank, ed., The Chinese world order, p. 63.
17. Hsu, China's entrance, p. 7.
18. Cemal Kafadar, Between two worlds: the construction of the Ottoman state (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1995), p. 120. Shai Har-El, Struggle for domination in the Middle East (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1995), pp. 8-13, briefly discusses the place of Islam in the rise of the Ottoman Empire.
19. Cemal Kafadar, Between two worlds: the construction of the Ottoman state (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1995), p. 120. Shai Har-El, Struggle for domination in the Middle East (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1995), pp. 8-13, briefly discusses the place of Islam in the rise of the Ottoman Empire.
20. See e.g. Wight, Systems of states, chs 4, 5; Roling, International law, chs 2, 3. Vincent's most direct approach to this issue was, 'Edmund Burke and the theory of international relations', Review of International Studies 10: 3, 1984, pp. 205-18. See also the work of his student Jennifer M. Welsh, Edmund Burke and internationl relations: the commonwealth of Europe and the crusade against the French Revolution (New York: St Martin's Press, 1995), ch. 3.
21. See e.g. Wight, Systems of states, chs 4, 5; Roling, International law, chs 2, 3. Vincent's most direct approach to this issue was, 'Edmund Burke and the theory of international relations', Review of International Studies 10: 3, 1984, pp. 205-18. See also the work of his student Jennifer M. Welsh, Edmund Burke and internationl relations: the commonwealth of Europe and the crusade against the French Revolution (New York: St Martin's Press, 1995), ch. 3.
22. See e.g. Wight, Systems of states, chs 4, 5; Roling, International law, chs 2, 3. Vincent's most direct approach to this issue was, 'Edmund Burke and the theory of international relations', Review of International Studies 10: 3, 1984, pp. 205-18. See also the work of his student Jennifer M. Welsh, Edmund Burke and internationl relations: the commonwealth of Europe and the crusade against the French Revolution (New York: St Martin's Press, 1995), ch. 3.
23. See e.g. Wight, Systems of states, chs 4, 5; Roling, International law, chs 2, 3. Vincent's most direct approach to this issue was, 'Edmund Burke and the theory of international relations', Review of International Studies 10: 3, 1984, pp. 205-18. See also the work of his student Jennifer M. Welsh, Edmund Burke and internationl relations: the commonwealth of Europe and the crusade against the French Revolution (New York: St Martin's Press, 1995), ch. 3.
24. For an exposition, accompanied by a brilliant application to modern sovereignty practices, see Jens Bartelson, A genealogy of sovereignty (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). See also Steve Smith, 'Positivism and beyond', in Steve Smith, Ken Booth, and Marysia Zalewski, eds, International theory: positivism and beyond (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Cynthia Weber, Simulating sovereignty: intervention, the state, and symbolic exchange (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), ch. 3. Without directly addressing the theoretical literature on social constructivist approaches, I offer this essay as an example of the insights that may be available from taking ideas and historical contingency much more seriously than mainstream 'positivist' approaches. For an argument that the English School, running from Martin Wight through Hedley Bull and John Vincent, should be seen in largely constructivist terms, see Timothy Dunne, 'The social construction of international society', European Journal of International Relations 1, September 1995, pp. 367-89. See also, somewhat less directly, James Der Derian, 'Hedley Bull and the idea of diplomatic culture', in Rick Fawn and Jeremy Larkins, eds, International society after the Cold War: anarchy and order reconsidered (London: Macmillan, 1996).
25. For an exposition, accompanied by a brilliant application to modern sovereignty practices, see Jens Bartelson, A genealogy of sovereignty (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). See also Steve Smith, 'Positivism and beyond', in Steve Smith, Ken Booth, and Marysia Zalewski, eds, International theory: positivism and beyond (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Cynthia Weber, Simulating sovereignty: intervention, the state, and symbolic exchange (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), ch. 3. Without directly addressing the theoretical literature on social constructivist approaches, I offer this essay as an example of the insights that may be available from taking ideas and historical contingency much more seriously than mainstream 'positivist' approaches. For an argument that the English School, running from Martin Wight through Hedley Bull and John Vincent, should be seen in largely constructivist terms, see Timothy Dunne, 'The social construction of international society', European Journal of International Relations 1, September 1995, pp. 367-89. See also, somewhat less directly, James Der Derian, 'Hedley Bull and the idea of diplomatic culture', in Rick Fawn and Jeremy Larkins, eds, International society after the Cold War: anarchy and order reconsidered (London: Macmillan, 1996).
26. For an exposition, accompanied by a brilliant application to modern sovereignty practices, see Jens Bartelson, A genealogy of sovereignty (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). See also Steve Smith, 'Positivism and beyond', in Steve Smith, Ken Booth, and Marysia Zalewski, eds, International theory: positivism and beyond (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Cynthia Weber, Simulating sovereignty: intervention, the state, and symbolic exchange (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), ch. 3. Without directly addressing the theoretical literature on social constructivist approaches, I offer this essay as an example of the insights that may be available from taking ideas and historical contingency much more seriously than mainstream 'positivist' approaches. For an argument that the English School, running from Martin Wight through Hedley Bull and John Vincent, should be seen in largely constructivist terms, see Timothy Dunne, 'The social construction of international society', European Journal of International Relations 1, September 1995, pp. 367-89. See also, somewhat less directly, James Der Derian, 'Hedley Bull and the idea of diplomatic culture', in Rick Fawn and Jeremy Larkins, eds, International society after the Cold War: anarchy and order reconsidered (London: Macmillan, 1996).
27. For an exposition, accompanied by a brilliant application to modern sovereignty practices, see Jens Bartelson, A genealogy of sovereignty (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). See also Steve Smith, 'Positivism and beyond', in Steve Smith, Ken Booth, and Marysia Zalewski, eds, International theory: positivism and beyond (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Cynthia Weber, Simulating sovereignty: intervention, the state, and symbolic exchange (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), ch. 3. Without directly addressing the theoretical literature on social constructivist approaches, I offer this essay as an example of the insights that may be available from taking ideas and historical contingency much more seriously than mainstream 'positivist' approaches. For an argument that the English School, running from Martin Wight through Hedley Bull and John Vincent, should be seen in largely constructivist terms, see Timothy Dunne, 'The social construction of international society', European Journal of International Relations 1, September 1995, pp. 367-89. See also, somewhat less directly, James Der Derian, 'Hedley Bull and the idea of diplomatic culture', in Rick Fawn and Jeremy Larkins, eds, International society after the Cold War: anarchy and order reconsidered (London: Macmillan, 1996).
28. For an exposition, accompanied by a brilliant application to modern sovereignty practices, see Jens Bartelson, A genealogy of sovereignty (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). See also Steve Smith, 'Positivism and beyond', in Steve Smith, Ken Booth, and Marysia Zalewski, eds, International theory: positivism and beyond (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Cynthia Weber, Simulating sovereignty: intervention, the state, and symbolic exchange (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), ch. 3. Without directly addressing the theoretical literature on social constructivist approaches, I offer this essay as an example of the insights that may be available from taking ideas and historical contingency much more seriously than mainstream 'positivist' approaches. For an argument that the English School, running from Martin Wight through Hedley Bull and John Vincent, should be seen in largely constructivist terms, see Timothy Dunne, 'The social construction of international society', European Journal of International Relations 1, September 1995, pp. 367-89. See also, somewhat less directly, James Der Derian, 'Hedley Bull and the idea of diplomatic culture', in Rick Fawn and Jeremy Larkins, eds, International society after the Cold War: anarchy and order reconsidered (London: Macmillan, 1996).
29. Gong, Standard of 'civilisation', pp. 4-6, 25-35.
30. On the category of 'savage', see Gong, Standard of 'civilisation', pp. 55-8.
31. L. Oppenheim, ed., The collected papers of John Westlake on public international law, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1914), pp. 138, 145.
32. Lord Lugard, The dual mandate in British tropical Africa (Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons, 1922), p. 1.
33. Relations with the states of South and South-East Asia, despite their inherent interest and obvious relevance, are beyond my scope, largely out of an ignorance that limitations of space have allowed me to leave unremedied.
34. China also faced increasingly onerous international legal 'servitudes', involving (more or less) permanent territorial rights of foreign sovereigns, including railway and telegraph rights, military garrisons and special rights for Christian missionaries. In addition, trading privileges, which initially were voluntarily granted, became increasingly involuntary. Westel W. Willoughby, Foreign rights and interests in China (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1927), vol. II, provides an extensive summary.
35. Oppenheim, Papers of John Westlake, pp. 145, 143-4. Compare Schwarzenberger, 'The standard of civilisation', p. 221, and L. Oppenheim, International law: a treatise, 3rd edn (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1920), vol. I, p. 32.
36. Oppenheim, Papers of John Westlake, pp. 145, 143-4. Compare Schwarzenberger, 'The standard of civilisation', p. 221, and L. Oppenheim, International law: a treatise, 3rd edn (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1920), vol. I, p. 32.
37. Oppenheim, Papers of John Westlake, pp. 145, 143-4. Compare Schwarzenberger, 'The standard of civilisation', p. 221, and L. Oppenheim, International law: a treatise, 3rd edn (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1920), vol. I, p. 32.
38. I will largely ignore issues of civilized warfare, however, because this story is relatively well covered in the international legal literature and because this body of norms developed largely independently of those connected with colonialism and extraterritoriality.
39. See e.g. Michel Foucault, Power/knowledge: selected interviews and other writings 1972-1977 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980).
40. Gramsci's own discussion is scattered through (and can be roughly followed using the index in) Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the prison notebooks, eds, Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey N. Smith (New York: International Publishers, 1971). See also Stephen Gill, ed., Gramsci, historical materialism and international relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Robert Cox, Approaches to world order (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), chs 6, 7.
41. Gramsci's own discussion is scattered through (and can be roughly followed using the index in) Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the prison notebooks, eds, Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey N. Smith (New York: International Publishers, 1971). See also Stephen Gill, ed., Gramsci, historical materialism and international relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Robert Cox, Approaches to world order (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), chs 6, 7.
42. Gramsci's own discussion is scattered through (and can be roughly followed using the index in) Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the prison notebooks, eds, Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey N. Smith (New York: International Publishers, 1971). See also Stephen Gill, ed., Gramsci, historical materialism and international relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Robert Cox, Approaches to world order (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), chs 6, 7.
43. See C. A. Bodelsen, Studies in mid-Victorian imperialism (Copenhagen: Gyldendalske Boghandel, 1924); J. R. Seeley, The expansion of England (London: Macmillan, 1883) is a classic expression of the new imperial ideology. By contrast, Ronald Hyan and Ged Martin (Reappraisals in British imperial history (London: Macmillan, 1975), ch. 5) stress continuities between the old imperialism and the new.
44. See C. A. Bodelsen, Studies in mid-Victorian imperialism (Copenhagen: Gyldendalske Boghandel, 1924); J. R. Seeley, The expansion of England (London: Macmillan, 1883) is a classic expression of the new imperial ideology. By contrast, Ronald Hyan and Ged Martin (Reappraisals in British imperial history (London: Macmillan, 1975), ch. 5) stress continuities between the old imperialism and the new.
45. See C. A. Bodelsen, Studies in mid-Victorian imperialism (Copenhagen: Gyldendalske Boghandel, 1924); J. R. Seeley, The expansion of England (London: Macmillan, 1883) is a classic expression of the new imperial ideology. By contrast, Ronald Hyan and Ged Martin (Reappraisals in British imperial history (London: Macmillan, 1975), ch. 5) stress continuities between the old imperialism and the new.
46. See Richard Koebner, Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1961).
47. See Mike Hawkins, Social Darwinism in European and American thought, 1860-1945: Nature as model and Nature as threat (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), ch. 8; H. W. Koch, 'Social Darwinism as a factor in the "New Imperialism"', in The origins of the First World War, 2nd edn (London: Macmillan, 1984).
48. See Mike Hawkins, Social Darwinism in European and American thought, 1860-1945: Nature as model and Nature as threat (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), ch. 8; H. W. Koch, 'Social Darwinism as a factor in the "New Imperialism"', in The origins of the First World War, 2nd edn (London: Macmillan, 1984).
49. C. H. Alexandrowicz stressed the importance of the rise of legal positivism in late nineteenth-century imperialism. See An introduaion to the history of the law of nations in the East Indies (Oxford: Clarendon, 1967), pp. 149-56, 235-7; 'New and original states', International Affairs 45, July 1969, pp. 466-71.
50. C. H. Alexandrowicz stressed the importance of the rise of legal positivism in late nineteenth-century imperialism. See An introduaion to the history of the law of nations in the East Indies (Oxford: Clarendon, 1967), pp. 149-56, 235-7; 'New and original states', International Affairs 45, July 1969, pp. 466-71.
51. Gong challenges a causal connection (Standard of 'civilization', pp. 9-10, 41-5, 239-40, 247) which even Alexandrowicz admits (Introduction, p. 156) is unclear. My argument is more limited, namely, that there is a clear correlation and a mutually reinforcing interaction between the rise of legal positivism, the classic standard of civilization, and the 'new imperialism' of the nineteenth century.
52. Gong challenges a causal connection (Standard of 'civilization', pp. 9-10, 41-5, 239-40, 247) which even Alexandrowicz admits (Introduction, p. 156) is unclear. My argument is more limited, namely, that there is a clear correlation and a mutually reinforcing interaction between the rise of legal positivism, the classic standard of civilization, and the 'new imperialism' of the nineteenth century.
53. This phrase is Stephen Krasner's. See his 'Westphalia and all that', in Judith Goldstein and Robert O. Keohane, eds, Ideas and foreign policy: beliefs, institutions, and political change (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993) for an argument that ideas are largely generated to justify material interests (although Krasner does allow that once ideas have entered politics, they may then exert a secondary impact). This realist logic is similar to his well-known account of international regimes as 'intervening variables'. See 'Structural causes and regime consequences: regimes as intervening variables', International Organization 36, Spring 1982, pp. 185-206.
54. This phrase is Stephen Krasner's. See his 'Westphalia and all that', in Judith Goldstein and Robert O. Keohane, eds, Ideas and foreign policy: beliefs, institutions, and political change (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993) for an argument that ideas are largely generated to justify material interests (although Krasner does allow that once ideas have entered politics, they may then exert a secondary impact). This realist logic is similar to his well-known account of international regimes as 'intervening variables'. See 'Structural causes and regime consequences: regimes as intervening variables', International Organization 36, Spring 1982, pp. 185-206.
55. Even arch-realist Georg Schwarzenberger presented the rules of war as 'the result of a tug-of-war between two major formative agencies: the necessities of war and the requirements of the standard of civilisation', International law, vol. II: The law of armed conflict, 3rd edn (London: Stevens & Sons, 1968), p. 4. Cf. pp. 10, 110-11.
56. In a lovely paradox, the sovereignty of barbarous states denied to their citizens the 'universal' rights enjoyed extraterritorially by aliens. Aliens, but not nationals, had international legal rights, because uncivilized behaviour was a legitimate international concern only when internationalized by the involvement of aliens. To treat one's own citizens barbarously was, strictly speaking, not a matter for (positive) international law.
57. Ellery C. Stowell, International law: a restatement of principles in conformity with actual practice (New York: Henry Holt, 1931), pp. 367-8 (and, more generally, Part iv, chs 2, 3). Cf. Oppenheim, International law, 3rd edn, vol. I, pp. 495-6, and Edwin DeWitt Dickinson, The equality of states in international law (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1920), ch. 6.
58. Ellery C. Stowell, International law: a restatement of principles in conformity with actual practice (New York: Henry Holt, 1931), pp. 367-8 (and, more generally, Part iv, chs 2, 3). Cf. Oppenheim, International law, 3rd edn, vol. I, pp. 495-6, and Edwin DeWitt Dickinson, The equality of states in international law (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1920), ch. 6.
59. Ellery C. Stowell, International law: a restatement of principles in conformity with actual practice (New York: Henry Holt, 1931), pp. 367-8 (and, more generally, Part iv, chs 2, 3). Cf. Oppenheim, International law, 3rd edn, vol. I, pp. 495-6, and Edwin DeWitt Dickinson, The equality of states in international law (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1920), ch. 6.
60. Charles Cheney Hyde, International law chiefly as interpreted and applied by the United States (Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Co. 1922), p. 462.
61. For example, in the 1901 Protocol following the Boxer rebellion, the Western powers acted against continuing Chinese symbolic resistance by regulating the place of diplomatic meetings, the mode of transport used by ambassadors, the doors by which they entered and exited, the receipt of official letters (the Emperor was required to take them directly into his own hands), and even details of official banquets held in the Imperial Palace. James L. Hevia, 'Making China "perfectly equal"' Journal of Historical Sociology 3, December 1990, pp. 370-400 nicely captures some of the complexities of these competing (and changing) systems of ideas and power.
62. For example, on the first Japanese diplomatic mission abroad, in 1871-72, the Japanese envoys abandoned their national ceremonial dress after a single official meeting. This was less than 20 years after Perry's first voyage to Japan. By contrast, China did not send its first resident minister to Europe until 1876, a full third of a century after the Opium Wars. See Hsu, China's entrance, part 3; J. D. Frodsham, The first Chinese embassy to the West: the journals of Kuo Sung-t'ao, Liu Hsi-hung and Chang Te-yi (Oxford: Clarendon, 1974).
63. For example, on the first Japanese diplomatic mission abroad, in 1871-72, the Japanese envoys abandoned their national ceremonial dress after a single official meeting. This was less than 20 years after Perry's first voyage to Japan. By contrast, China did not send its first resident minister to Europe until 1876, a full third of a century after the Opium Wars. See Hsu, China's entrance, part 3; J. D. Frodsham, The first Chinese embassy to the West: the journals of Kuo Sung-t'ao, Liu Hsi-hung and Chang Te-yi (Oxford: Clarendon, 1974).
64. The following is based primarily on F. C. Jones, Extraterritoriality in Japan and the diplomatic relations resulting in its abolition, 1853-1899 (New Haven, CT:Yale University Press, 1931); Gong, Standard of 'civilisation', ch. 6; Hidemi Suganami, 'Japan's entry into international society', in Bull and Watson, eds, Expansion of international society.
65. The following is based primarily on F. C. Jones, Extraterritoriality in Japan and the diplomatic relations resulting in its abolition, 1853-1899 (New Haven, CT:Yale University Press, 1931); Gong, Standard of 'civilisation', ch. 6; Hidemi Suganami, 'Japan's entry into international society', in Bull and Watson, eds, Expansion of international society.
66. The following is based primarily on F. C. Jones, Extraterritoriality in Japan and the diplomatic relations resulting in its abolition, 1853-1899 (New Haven, CT:Yale University Press, 1931); Gong, Standard of 'civilisation', ch. 6; Hidemi Suganami, 'Japan's entry into international society', in Bull and Watson, eds, Expansion of international society.
67. Conversely, the lack of effective reforms was regularly advanced by advocates of continued extraterritoriality in China. See e.g. Hosea Ballou Morse, The international relations of the Chinese Empire (London: Longman, Green & Co., 1910), vol. II, p. 415; Stowell, International law, pp. 719-20.
68. Conversely, the lack of effective reforms was regularly advanced by advocates of continued extraterritoriality in China. See e.g. Hosea Ballou Morse, The international relations of the Chinese Empire (London: Longman, Green & Co., 1910), vol. II, p. 415; Stowell, International law, pp. 719-20.
69. See Gong, Standard of 'civilisation', ch. 8.
70. Lugard, The dual mandate, p. 606.
71. For example, Lugard contended that 'there is no colour bar in British Africa, and the educated native enjoys the fullest liberty', yet claimed to know of no 'educated African youths who are by character and temperament suited to posts in which they may rise to positions of high administrative responsibility': The dual mandate, pp. 86, 88.
72. Lorimer, The institutes of law: a treatise of the principles of jurisprudence as determined by Nature, 2nd edn (Edinburgh and London: William Blackwood & Sons, 1880), pp. 310-11. In light of the discussion of legal positivism above, it is interesting to note that this exception is rooted in natural law jurisprudence.
73. See e.g. Alfred Zimmern, The third British Empire, 2nd edn (London: Oxford University Press, 1927);
74. M. F. Lindley, The acquisition and government of backward territory in international law (London: Longman, Green & Co., 1926), esp. ch. 36.
75. See Lucy P. Mair, The protection of minorities: the working and scope of the minorities treaties under the League of Nations (London: Christophers, 1928); C. A. Macartney, National states and national minorities (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1934) and 'League of Nations' protection of minority rights', in Evan Luard, ed., The international protection of human rights (New York: Praeger, 1967).
76. See Lucy P. Mair, The protection of minorities: the working and scope of the minorities treaties under the League of Nations (London: Christophers, 1928); C. A. Macartney, National states and national minorities (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1934) and 'League of Nations' protection of minority rights', in Evan Luard, ed., The international protection of human rights (New York: Praeger, 1967).
77. See Lucy P. Mair, The protection of minorities: the working and scope of the minorities treaties under the League of Nations (London: Christophers, 1928); C. A. Macartney, National states and national minorities (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1934) and 'League of Nations' protection of minority rights', in Evan Luard, ed., The international protection of human rights (New York: Praeger, 1967).
78. Rupert Emerson, From empire to nation: the rise to self-assertion of Asian and African peoples (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1960) is a classic account that emphasizes 'the turning of the weapons - the ideas, the instruments, the institutions - of the West against itself (p. 17).
79. This was particularly true in Britain. See e.g. Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher with Alice Denny, Africa and the Victorians: the official mind of imperialism (London: Macmillan, 1961); C. E. Carrington, The British overseas: exploits of a nation of shopkeepers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1950), esp. chs 11, 12, 15; Charles Pelham Groves, 'Missionary and humanitarian aspects of imperialism from 1870 to 1914', in L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan, eds, Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960, vol. 1: The history and politics of colonialism, 1870-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969); Wallace G. Mills, 'Victorian imperialism as religion - civil or otherwise', in Robert D. Long, ed., The man on the spot: essays on British Empire history (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1995); L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan, The rulers of British Africa, 1870-1914 (Stanford, CN: Stanford University Press, 1978). For a brief general assessment of Western imperialism that captures some of the higher aspirations and progressive achievements while giving primary emphasis to the devastation it caused, see V. G. Kiernan, 'Europe and the world: the imperial record', in Moorhead Wright, ed., Rights and obligations in North-South relations (New York: St Martin's Press, 1986).
80. This was particularly true in Britain. See e.g. Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher with Alice Denny, Africa and the Victorians: the official mind of imperialism (London: Macmillan, 1961); C. E. Carrington, The British overseas: exploits of a nation of shopkeepers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1950), esp. chs 11, 12, 15; Charles Pelham Groves, 'Missionary and humanitarian aspects of imperialism from 1870 to 1914', in L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan, eds, Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960, vol. 1: The history and politics of colonialism, 1870-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969); Wallace G. Mills, 'Victorian imperialism as religion - civil or otherwise', in Robert D. Long, ed., The man on the spot: essays on British Empire history (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1995); L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan, The rulers of British Africa, 1870-1914 (Stanford, CN: Stanford University Press, 1978). For a brief general assessment of Western imperialism that captures some of the higher aspirations and progressive achievements while giving primary emphasis to the devastation it caused, see V. G. Kiernan, 'Europe and the world: the imperial record', in Moorhead Wright, ed., Rights and obligations in North-South relations (New York: St Martin's Press, 1986).
81. This was particularly true in Britain. See e.g. Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher with Alice Denny, Africa and the Victorians: the official mind of imperialism (London: Macmillan, 1961); C. E. Carrington, The British overseas: exploits of a nation of shopkeepers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1950), esp. chs 11, 12, 15; Charles Pelham Groves, 'Missionary and humanitarian aspects of imperialism from 1870 to 1914', in L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan, eds, Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960, vol. 1: The history and politics of colonialism, 1870-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969); Wallace G. Mills, 'Victorian imperialism as religion - civil or otherwise', in Robert D. Long, ed., The man on the spot: essays on British Empire history (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1995); L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan, The rulers of British Africa, 1870-1914 (Stanford, CN: Stanford University Press, 1978). For a brief general assessment of Western imperialism that captures some of the higher aspirations and progressive achievements while giving primary emphasis to the devastation it caused, see V. G. Kiernan, 'Europe and the world: the imperial record', in Moorhead Wright, ed., Rights and obligations in North-South relations (New York: St Martin's Press, 1986).
82. This was particularly true in Britain. See e.g. Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher with Alice Denny, Africa and the Victorians: the official mind of imperialism (London: Macmillan, 1961); C. E. Carrington, The British overseas: exploits of a nation of shopkeepers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1950), esp. chs 11, 12, 15; Charles Pelham Groves, 'Missionary and humanitarian aspects of imperialism from 1870 to 1914', in L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan, eds, Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960, vol. 1: The history and politics of colonialism, 1870-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969); Wallace G. Mills, 'Victorian imperialism as religion - civil or otherwise', in Robert D. Long, ed., The man on the spot: essays on British Empire history (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1995); L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan, The rulers of British Africa, 1870-1914 (Stanford, CN: Stanford University Press, 1978). For a brief general assessment of Western imperialism that captures some of the higher aspirations and progressive achievements while giving primary emphasis to the devastation it caused, see V. G. Kiernan, 'Europe and the world: the imperial record', in Moorhead Wright, ed., Rights and obligations in North-South relations (New York: St Martin's Press, 1986).
83. This was particularly true in Britain. See e.g. Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher with Alice Denny, Africa and the Victorians: the official mind of imperialism (London: Macmillan, 1961); C. E. Carrington, The British overseas: exploits of a nation of shopkeepers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1950), esp. chs 11, 12, 15; Charles Pelham Groves, 'Missionary and humanitarian aspects of imperialism from 1870 to 1914', in L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan, eds, Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960, vol. 1: The history and politics of colonialism, 1870-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969); Wallace G. Mills, 'Victorian imperialism as religion - civil or otherwise', in Robert D. Long, ed., The man on the spot: essays on British Empire history (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1995); L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan, The rulers of British Africa, 1870-1914 (Stanford, CN: Stanford University Press, 1978). For a brief general assessment of Western imperialism that captures some of the higher aspirations and progressive achievements while giving primary emphasis to the devastation it caused, see V. G. Kiernan, 'Europe and the world: the imperial record', in Moorhead Wright, ed., Rights and obligations in North-South relations (New York: St Martin's Press, 1986).
84. This was particularly true in Britain. See e.g. Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher with Alice Denny, Africa and the Victorians: the official mind of imperialism (London: Macmillan, 1961); C. E. Carrington, The British overseas: exploits of a nation of shopkeepers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1950), esp. chs 11, 12, 15; Charles Pelham Groves, 'Missionary and humanitarian aspects of imperialism from 1870 to 1914', in L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan, eds, Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960, vol. 1: The history and politics of colonialism, 1870-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969); Wallace G. Mills, 'Victorian imperialism as religion - civil or otherwise', in Robert D. Long, ed., The man on the spot: essays on British Empire history (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1995); L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan, The rulers of British Africa, 1870-1914 (Stanford, CN: Stanford University Press, 1978). For a brief general assessment of Western imperialism that captures some of the higher aspirations and progressive achievements while giving primary emphasis to the devastation it caused, see V. G. Kiernan, 'Europe and the world: the imperial record', in Moorhead Wright, ed., Rights and obligations in North-South relations (New York: St Martin's Press, 1986).
85. See e.g. Albert Memmi, The colonizer and the colonized (New York: Orion Press, 1965) and Dominated man: notes towards a portrait (New York: Orion Press, 1968); Franz Fanon, Black skins, white masks (New York: Grove Press, 1967).
86. See e.g. Albert Memmi, The colonizer and the colonized (New York: Orion Press, 1965) and Dominated man: notes towards a portrait (New York: Orion Press, 1968); Franz Fanon, Black skins, white masks (New York: Grove Press, 1967).
87. See e.g. Albert Memmi, The colonizer and the colonized (New York: Orion Press, 1965) and Dominated man: notes towards a portrait (New York: Orion Press, 1968); Franz Fanon, Black skins, white masks (New York: Grove Press, 1967).
88. See Robert H. Jackson, 'The weight of ideas in decolonization: normative change in international relations', in Goldstein and Keohane, eds, Ideas and foreign policy and Quasi-states: sovereignty, international relations, and the Third World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Neta C. Crawford, 'Decolonization as an international norm: the evolution of practices, arguments, and beliefs', in Laura W. Reed and Carl Kaysen, eds, Emerging norms of justified intervention (Cambridge, MA: American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1993). In contrast to the immense literature on imperialism, Stephen Howe, Anti-colonialism in British politics: the left and the end of empire, 1916-1964 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1993) provides one of the few detailed studies of Western anti-colonial attitudes and activities that seeks to address basic theoretical issues. See also R. Robinson, 'The moral disarmament of African empire, 1919-1947', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 8, 1979, pp. 86-104.
89. See Robert H. Jackson, 'The weight of ideas in decolonization: normative change in international relations', in Goldstein and Keohane, eds, Ideas and foreign policy and Quasi-states: sovereignty, international relations, and the Third World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Neta C. Crawford, 'Decolonization as an international norm: the evolution of practices, arguments, and beliefs', in Laura W. Reed and Carl Kaysen, eds, Emerging norms of justified intervention (Cambridge, MA: American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1993). In contrast to the immense literature on imperialism, Stephen Howe, Anti-colonialism in British politics: the left and the end of empire, 1916-1964 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1993) provides one of the few detailed studies of Western anti-colonial attitudes and activities that seeks to address basic theoretical issues. See also R. Robinson, 'The moral disarmament of African empire, 1919-1947', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 8, 1979, pp. 86-104.
90. See Robert H. Jackson, 'The weight of ideas in decolonization: normative change in international relations', in Goldstein and Keohane, eds, Ideas and foreign policy and Quasi-states: sovereignty, international relations, and the Third World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Neta C. Crawford, 'Decolonization as an international norm: the evolution of practices, arguments, and beliefs', in Laura W. Reed and Carl Kaysen, eds, Emerging norms of justified intervention (Cambridge, MA: American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1993). In contrast to the immense literature on imperialism, Stephen Howe, Anti-colonialism in British politics: the left and the end of empire, 1916-1964 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1993) provides one of the few detailed studies of Western anti-colonial attitudes and activities that seeks to address basic theoretical issues. See also R. Robinson, 'The moral disarmament of African empire, 1919-1947', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 8, 1979, pp. 86-104.
91. See Robert H. Jackson, 'The weight of ideas in decolonization: normative change in international relations', in Goldstein and Keohane, eds, Ideas and foreign policy and Quasi-states: sovereignty, international relations, and the Third World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Neta C. Crawford, 'Decolonization as an international norm: the evolution of practices, arguments, and beliefs', in Laura W. Reed and Carl Kaysen, eds, Emerging norms of justified intervention (Cambridge, MA: American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1993). In contrast to the immense literature on imperialism, Stephen Howe, Anti-colonialism in British politics: the left and the end of empire, 1916-1964 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1993) provides one of the few detailed studies of Western anti-colonial attitudes and activities that seeks to address basic theoretical issues. See also R. Robinson, 'The moral disarmament of African empire, 1919-1947', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 8, 1979, pp. 86-104.
92. See Michla Pomerance, Self-determination in law and practice: the new doctrine in the United Nations (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1982).
93. Ideological standards for recognition - as championed by the United States in its relations with Cuba, China, and Cambodia, or as expressed in the Johnson and Brezhnev Doctrines - did have a central normative element, but they were primarily of bloc or regional (not global) significance.
94. Vincent's Nonintervention and international order (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1974) is a classic study of the theory and practice of non-intervention.
95. Schwarzenberger, International law, p. 207.
96. Oppenheim, Papers of John Westlake, p. 103.
97. Kathryn Sikkink, 'The power of principled ideas: human rights norms in the United States and western Europe', in Goldstein and Keohane, eds, Ideas and foreign policy, emphasizes European acceptance and American rejection of regional and international monitoring.
98. Between 1960 and 1995 the Court handed down 439 decisions, 320 of which found at least one violation. Like the rest of the European system, the level of activity has increased substantially in the 1990s. In 1995 alone, decisions were handed down on 46 cases (30 of which found violations). See Council of Europe, Yearbook of the European Convention on Human Rights, 1995, vol. 38 (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1997), p. 219.
99. Space precludes addressing issues of human rights cultural relativism. For my (not very sympathetic) views see Universal human rights, chs 3-8. I would note, however, that the classic standard of civilization provides a striking example of the logic of strong cultural relativism. More attractive versions of strong relativism typically rely on an implicit appeal to values such as toleration, respect for diversity, or equality, which it would seem hard to justify in relativist terms.
100. For an overview of the substance of these norms, which include extensive sets of both civil and political and economic, social, and cultural rights, see Jack Donnelly and Rhoda E. Howard, 'Assessing national human rights performance: a theoretical framework', Human Rights Quarterly 10, May 1988, pp. 214-48; Rhoda E. Howard and Jack Donnelly, 'Human dignity, human rights and political regimes', American Political Science Review 80, September 1986, pp. 801-17.
101. For an overview of the substance of these norms, which include extensive sets of both civil and political and economic, social, and cultural rights, see Jack Donnelly and Rhoda E. Howard, 'Assessing national human rights performance: a theoretical framework', Human Rights Quarterly 10, May 1988, pp. 214-48; Rhoda E. Howard and Jack Donnelly, 'Human dignity, human rights and political regimes', American Political Science Review 80, September 1986, pp. 801-17.
102. My argument here is political. On the legal sources, status, and force of international human rights norms, see Theodor Meron, Human rights and humanitarian norms as customary law (Oxford: Clarendon, 1989), ch. 2; Bruno Simma and Philip Alston, 'The sources of human rights law: custom, jus cogens, and general principles', Australian Year Book of International Law 12, 1992, pp. 82-108; and (for a sceptical view) J. S. Watson, 'Legal theory, efficacy and validity in the development of human rights norms in international law', University of Illinois Law Forum 3, 1979, pp. 609-41.
103. My argument here is political. On the legal sources, status, and force of international human rights norms, see Theodor Meron, Human rights and humanitarian norms as customary law (Oxford: Clarendon, 1989), ch. 2; Bruno Simma and Philip Alston, 'The sources of human rights law: custom, jus cogens, and general principles', Australian Year Book of International Law 12, 1992, pp. 82-108; and (for a sceptical view) J. S. Watson, 'Legal theory, efficacy and validity in the development of human rights norms in international law', University of Illinois Law Forum 3, 1979, pp. 609-41.
104. My argument here is political. On the legal sources, status, and force of international human rights norms, see Theodor Meron, Human rights and humanitarian norms as customary law (Oxford: Clarendon, 1989), ch. 2; Bruno Simma and Philip Alston, 'The sources of human rights law: custom, jus cogens, and general principles', Australian Year Book of International Law 12, 1992, pp. 82-108; and (for a sceptical view) J. S. Watson, 'Legal theory, efficacy and validity in the development of human rights norms in international law', University of Illinois Law Forum 3, 1979, pp. 609-41.
105. See e.g. David Rieff, Slaughterhouse: Bosnia and the failure of the West (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995); Thomas Cushman and Stjepan G. Mestrovic, eds, This time we knew: Western responses to genocide in Bosnia (New York: New York University Press, 1996); Alex De Waal and Rakiya Omaar, 'The genocide in Rwanda and the international response', Current History, April 1995, pp. 156-61.
106. See e.g. David Rieff, Slaughterhouse: Bosnia and the failure of the West (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995); Thomas Cushman and Stjepan G. Mestrovic, eds, This time we knew: Western responses to genocide in Bosnia (New York: New York University Press, 1996); Alex De Waal and Rakiya Omaar, 'The genocide in Rwanda and the international response', Current History, April 1995, pp. 156-61.
107. See e.g. David Rieff, Slaughterhouse: Bosnia and the failure of the West (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995); Thomas Cushman and Stjepan G. Mestrovic, eds, This time we knew: Western responses to genocide in Bosnia (New York: New York University Press, 1996); Alex De Waal and Rakiya Omaar, 'The genocide in Rwanda and the international response', Current History, April 1995, pp. 156-61.
108. For a thorough overview and a generally balanced analysis, see Jamie Frederic Metzl, Western responses to human rights abuses in Cambodia, 1975-1980 (London, New York: Macmillan and St Martin's Press, 1996).
109. Thomas M. Franck, Fairness in international law and institutions (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995), p. 139.
110. See Donnelly, Universal human rights, chs 1-5.
111. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Article 10, para. 3.