Fishing rights, ecology and conservation along Southern Lake Malawi, 1920-1964

African Affairs

Volumn 95, Issue 380, 1996, Pages 351-377

  Chirwa, Wiseman Chijere ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MALAWI   (Malawi)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0005832693     PISSN: 00019909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a007738     Document Type: Article

References (127)

1. For details on this see W. C. Chirwa, '"Thebe Is Power": Rural labour, migrancy and fishing in Malawi, 1890s-1985', Unpub. PhD thesis, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, (1992) chs. 1 and 4.
2. See K. J. McCracken, 'Peasants, Planters and the Colonial State: the case of Malawi, 1905-1940', Journal of Eastern African Research and Development, 12 (1982), p. 21; and 'Planters, Peasants and the Colonial State: the impact of the Native Tobacco Board in the Central Province of Malawi', in Journal of Southern African Studies, 9, 2 (1983), p. 192.
3. See K. J. McCracken, 'Peasants, Planters and the Colonial State: the case of Malawi, 1905-1940', Journal of Eastern African Research and Development, 12 (1982), p. 21; and 'Planters, Peasants and the Colonial State: the impact of the Native Tobacco Board in the Central Province of Malawi', in Journal of Southern African Studies, 9, 2 (1983), p. 192.
4. See J. M. MacKenzie, 'The Natural World and the Popular Consciousness in Southern Africa: The European Appropriation of Nature', in P. Kaarsholm (ed.), Cultural Struggle and Development in Southern Africa (James Currey, London, 1991), pp. 13-32; W. Beinart, 'Empire, Hunting and Ecological Change in Southern Africa: a review article', Past and Present, 128 (1990), pp. 162-186; and the contributions to the special issue of Journal of Southern African Studies, 15 (1989).
5. See J. M. MacKenzie, 'The Natural World and the Popular Consciousness in Southern Africa: The European Appropriation of Nature', in P. Kaarsholm (ed.), Cultural Struggle and Development in Southern Africa (James Currey, London, 1991), pp. 13-32; W. Beinart, 'Empire, Hunting and Ecological Change in Southern Africa: a review article', Past and Present, 128 (1990), pp. 162-186; and the contributions to the special issue of Journal of Southern African Studies, 15 (1989).
6. See J. M. MacKenzie, 'The Natural World and the Popular Consciousness in Southern Africa: The European Appropriation of Nature', in P. Kaarsholm (ed.), Cultural Struggle and Development in Southern Africa (James Currey, London, 1991), pp. 13-32; W. Beinart, 'Empire, Hunting and Ecological Change in Southern Africa: a review article', Past and Present, 128 (1990), pp. 162-186; and the contributions to the special issue of Journal of Southern African Studies, 15 (1989).
7. See, W. Beinart, 'Soil Erosion, Conservationism and Ideas about Development: A Southern African exploration', Journal of Southern African Studies, 11 (1984), pp. 52-83; P. Richards, 'Conservation in Africa: a review article', Journal of Southern African Studies, 15 (1989).
8. See, W. Beinart, 'Soil Erosion, Conservationism and Ideas about Development: A Southern African exploration', Journal of Southern African Studies, 11 (1984), pp. 52-83; P. Richards, 'Conservation in Africa: a review article', Journal of Southern African Studies, 15 (1989).
9. See Beinart, 'Empire Hunting and Ecological Change', pp. 162, 177-178.
10. See A. E. Ferguson, B. Derman and R. M. Mkandawire, 'The New Development Rhetoric and Lake Malawi', Africa, 63, 1 (1993), pp. 1-18; also Derman and Ferguson, 'Human Rights, Environment and Development: the dispossession of fishing communities on Lake Malawi, in Human Ecology, 23, 2 (1995), pp. 125-142.
11. See A. E. Ferguson, B. Derman and R. M. Mkandawire, 'The New Development Rhetoric and Lake Malawi', Africa, 63, 1 (1993), pp. 1-18; also Derman and Ferguson, 'Human Rights, Environment and Development: the dispossession of fishing communities on Lake Malawi, in Human Ecology, 23, 2 (1995), pp. 125-142.
12. K. J. McCracken, 'Fishing and the Colonial Economy: the case of Malawi, Journal of African History, 28 (1987), p. 421; Chirwa, 'Theba is Power', pp. 175-186.
13. K. J. McCracken, 'Fishing and the Colonial Economy: the case of Malawi, Journal of African History, 28 (1987), p. 421; Chirwa, 'Theba is Power', pp. 175-186.
14. Foreign Office, Nyasaland: A Handbook Prepared Under the Direction of the Historical Section of the Foreign Office (HMSO, London, 1920), pp. 61-62.
15. S. S. Murray, A Handbook of Nyasaland (HMSO, London, 1922), p. 110; McCracken, 'Fishing and the Colonial Economy', p. 420.
16. S. S. Murray, A Handbook of Nyasaland (HMSO, London, 1922), p. 110; McCracken, 'Fishing and the Colonial Economy', p. 420.
17. Malawi National Archives (MNA). S1/428/27. Draft Report of a Labour Survey, 1927.
18. MNA. NS1/10/1. Report by the Committee to Consider the Fisheries Report, 1944.
19. MNA. S1/437I/30. I. B. Moir, District Commissioner, Fort Johnston, to Senior Provincial Commissioner, 1 April 1930; Minutes by the Attorney General, 11 January 1930.
20. MNA. S1/437I/30. Game Warden to Chief Secretary, 26 April 1930.
21. MNA. S1/437I/30. Senior Provincial Commissioner to Chief Secretary, 3 December 1932; District Commissioner, Fort Johnston, to Senior Provincial Commissioner, 14 November 1932.
22. MNA. S1/437I/30. District Commissioner, Fort Johnston, to Provincial Commissioner, 16 March 1931; McCracken, 'Fishing and the Colonial Economy', p. 421. The Bar is where the Shire River flows out of the lake.
23. McCracken, 'Fishing and the Colonial Economy', p. 421; MNA. S1/437I/30. Minutes of a Baraza Meeting, Fort Johnston, 17 February 1933; District Commissioner to Provincial Commissioner, Southern Province, 17 February 1933.
24. McCracken, 'Fishing and the Colonial Economy', p. 421; MNA. S1/437I/30. Minutes of a Baraza Meeting, Fort Johnston, 17 February 1933; District Commissioner to Provincial Commissioner, Southern Province, 17 February 1933.
25. MNA. NS1/10/1. Report by the Committee to Consider the Fishing Report, 1944.
26. McCracken, 'Fishing and the Colonial Economy', p. 423.
27. MNA. NS1/10/1. Report by the Committee to Consider the Fisheries Report, 1944. See also McCracken, 'Fishing and the Colonial Economy', pp. 421-422.
28. MNA. NS1/10/1. Report by the Committee to Consider the Fisheries Report, 1944. See also McCracken, 'Fishing and the Colonial Economy', pp. 421-422.
29. See MNA. COM-9/3/1. Chris Yiannakis' Fishing Account, 1956.
30. MNA. NS1/10/1. Report by the Committee to Consider the Fisheries Report, 1944. The list included: Nicholas and Chris Yiannakis, H. M. Rodrigues, Abdullan Mussah, Nicholas Trataris, Ibrahim Osman, W. P. Taylor, Jussab Suleman, S. Drop, a certain Read, Henry Aschcroft, a certain Karim, De Niello, O. Wilt and A. Rajab.
31. See MNA. S1/43/II/30. Extracts from the Executive Council Meeting, 1 August 1946.
32. See M. C. Musambachime, 'The Role of Kasenga (Eastern Shaba) in the Development of Mweru-Luapula Fishery' African Studies Review, 38, 1 (1995), pp. 54-63; and by the same author, 'Development of the Fishing Industry in Mweru-Luapula, 1920-1964', Sango, 2, 1 (1983), pp. 19-26.
33. See M. C. Musambachime, 'The Role of Kasenga (Eastern Shaba) in the Development of Mweru-Luapula Fishery' African Studies Review, 38, 1 (1995), pp. 54-63; and by the same author, 'Development of the Fishing Industry in Mweru-Luapula, 1920-1964', Sango, 2, 1 (1983), pp. 19-26.
34. This term is made by combining mnyamata (singular), boy or youth, or anyamata (plural) with 'gain' to mean 'middleman' or retail trader. See also E. C. Mandala, Work and Control in a Peasant Economy: a history of the Lower Shire Valley in Malawi. 1859-1960 (University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1990), pp. 253-254, 379.
35. MNA. S1/437I/30. J. Abraham, Senior Provincial Commissioner, to Chief Secretary, 29 May 1937.
36. MNA. NS1/10/1. Cecil Baker, 'Notes for the Consideration and Guidance on the Issue of Fishing Permits', 16 October 1942.
37. MNA. S1/437I/30. Resolution of the Blantyre Native Welfare Association, 3 December 1932. See also minutes by the Governor, Harold B. Kittermaster, 22 March 1937.
38. MNA. S1/437I/30. Denson Chitenje to Bwana [District Commissioner, Provincial Commissioner, or Chief Secretary?], 7 November 1932.
39. MNA. S1/437I/30. District Commissioner, Fort Johnston, to Chief Secretary, 14 February 1930.
40. MNA. PAM/823, and COM-9/4/1. Report of the Inquiry into the Fishing Industry (Government Printer, Zomba, 1956), p. 5.
41. MNA. NSF4/1/7. South Nyasa District Annual Report, 1930.
42. Nyasaland Protectorate, Report of the Population Census (Government Printer, Zomba, 1931), p. 28; Colonial Office, An Economic Survey of the Colonial Empire (HMSO, London, 1932), p. 48.
43. Nyasaland Protectorate, Report of the Population Census (Government Printer, Zomba, 1931), p. 28; Colonial Office, An Economic Survey of the Colonial Empire (HMSO, London, 1932), p. 48.
44. MNA. NSF/4/1/4. South Nyasa District Annual Report, 1933; Nyasaland Protectorate, Report of the Population Census, 1931, pp. 27-28. See also MNA. NSF4/1/5. South Nyasa District Annual Report, 1939 and NSF4/1/7. South Nyasa District Annual Report, 1945.
45. MNA. NSF/4/1/4. South Nyasa District Annual Report, 1933; Nyasaland Protectorate, Report of the Population Census, 1931, pp. 27-28. See also MNA. NSF4/1/5. South Nyasa District Annual Report, 1939 and NSF4/1/7. South Nyasa District Annual Report, 1945.
46. MNA. NSF/4/1/4. South Nyasa District Annual Report, 1933; Nyasaland Protectorate, Report of the Population Census, 1931, pp. 27-28. See also MNA. NSF4/1/5. South Nyasa District Annual Report, 1939 and NSF4/1/7. South Nyasa District Annual Report, 1945.
47. MNA. NSF/4/1/4. South Nyasa District Annual Report, 1933; Nyasaland Protectorate, Report of the Population Census, 1931, pp. 27-28. See also MNA. NSF4/1/5. South Nyasa District Annual Report, 1939 and NSF4/1/7. South Nyasa District Annual Report, 1945.
48. MNA. NS3/1/8. Provincial Commissioner, Southern Province Annual Report, 1939; K. J. McCracken, 'Fishing and the Colonial Economy', p. 422.
49. MNA. NS3/1/8. Provincial Commissioner, Southern Province Annual Report, 1939; K. J. McCracken, 'Fishing and the Colonial Economy', p. 422.
50. MNA. PAM/702. Native Welfare Committee, Nutrition Review of the Natives of Nyasaland (Government Printer, Zomba, 1936), p. 7.
51. MNA. S1/437I/30. Extract from the Dowa District Annual Report, 1937.
52. MNA. NSF4/1/5. South Nyasa (Fort Johnston) District Annual Report, 1938. The 1933 Annual Report recorded 2,480 'professional' fishermen and 674 fish processors. MNA. NSF4/1/4. South Nyasa District Annual Report, 1933. See also McCracken, 'Fishing and the Colonial Economy', p. 423.
53. MNA. NSF4/1/5. South Nyasa (Fort Johnston) District Annual Report, 1938. The 1933 Annual Report recorded 2,480 'professional' fishermen and 674 fish processors. MNA. NSF4/1/4. South Nyasa District Annual Report, 1933. See also McCracken, 'Fishing and the Colonial Economy', p. 423.
54. MNA. NSF4/1/5. South Nyasa (Fort Johnston) District Annual Report, 1938. The 1933 Annual Report recorded 2,480 'professional' fishermen and 674 fish processors. MNA. NSF4/1/4. South Nyasa District Annual Report, 1933. See also McCracken, 'Fishing and the Colonial Economy', p. 423.
55. MNA. NSF4/1/5. South Nyasa (Fort Johnston) District Annual Report, 1938. The 1933 Annual Report recorded 2,480 'professional' fishermen and 674 fish processors. MNA. NSF4/1/4. South Nyasa District Annual Report, 1933. See also McCracken, 'Fishing and the Colonial Economy', p. 423.
56. Nyasaland Protectorate (Report of the Population Census), 1931, p. 28.
57. MNA. S1/1132/30. Secretary of State for the Colonies to Governor, Nyasaland, 6 August 1930.
58. MNA. PAM/702. Nutritional Review of the Natives: A review of the further studies and researches on the subject which appears desirable.
59. MNA. S1/1470/25. Provincial Commissioner, Northern Province, to Chief Secretary, 23 January 1926.
60. MNA. S1/437I/30. R. Rankie to Lt. Col. L. M. Amery, Secretary of State for the Colonies, 10 February 1926.
61. MNA. NS1/10/1. Interim Report on the Fish and Fisheries of Lake Nyasa: 'Lake Levels, 1933-1943'. The minimum and maximum heights were: 17 feet 9 inches and 20 feet 6 inches in 1933; 19 feet 7 inches and 21 feet and 6 inches in 1934; 20 feet and 9 inches and 23 feet and 3 inches in 1935. Thereafter they began to rise: 22 feet 11 inches and 25 feet and 4 inches in 1936, 23 feet and 8 inches and 26 feet and 7 inches in 1937, and 22 feet 10 inches and 26 feet in 1936. For comparison see McCracken, 'Fishing and the Colonial Economy', p. 417.
62. MNA. NS1/10/1. Interim Report on the Fish and Fisheries of Lake Nyasa: 'Lake Levels, 1933-1943'. The minimum and maximum heights were: 17 feet 9 inches and 20 feet 6 inches in 1933; 19 feet 7 inches and 21 feet and 6 inches in 1934; 20 feet and 9 inches and 23 feet and 3 inches in 1935. Thereafter they began to rise: 22 feet 11 inches and 25 feet and 4 inches in 1936, 23 feet and 8 inches and 26 feet and 7 inches in 1937, and 22 feet 10 inches and 26 feet in 1936. For comparison see McCracken, 'Fishing and the Colonial Economy', p. 417.
63. MNA. NS1/10/1. Interim Report on the Fish and Fisheries of Lake Nyasa.
64. MNA. S1/437I/30. R. C. Wood, Game Warden, to Chief Secretary, 26 April 1930; see also Governor to Chief Secretary, 6 May 1930 in the same file.
65. MNA. S1/437I/30. Wood to Chief Secretary, 26 April 1930.
66. This account comes from S. Brooks, 'Save the Game: Conservationist Discourse in Early 20th century Natal', unpublished paper, Economic History Conference, University of Durban, Pietermaritzburg (1992); and by the same author, 'Playing the Game: The Struggle for Wildlife Protection in Zululand, 1910-1930', unpub. MA thesis, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario (1992).
67. This account comes from S. Brooks, 'Save the Game: Conservationist Discourse in Early 20th century Natal', unpublished paper, Economic History Conference, University of Durban, Pietermaritzburg (1992); and by the same author, 'Playing the Game: The Struggle for Wildlife Protection in Zululand, 1910-1930', unpub. MA thesis, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario (1992).
68. See R. W. Kettlewell, Agricultural Change in Nyasaland, 1945-1960 (Food Research Institute, Stanford, 1965); and by the same author, 'Nyasaland: where and whence?', African Affairs, 63 (1963), pp.258-265.
69. See R. W. Kettlewell, Agricultural Change in Nyasaland, 1945-1960 (Food Research Institute, Stanford, 1965); and by the same author, 'Nyasaland: where and whence?', African Affairs, 63 (1963), pp.258-265.
70. MNA. NS1/10/1 and S27/1/10/25. Fishing Rules Government Notice no. 13/1931.
71. MNA. NSF 4/1/7. South Nyasa District Annual Report, 1933. In November 1932, 1,814 canoes were recorded in the district, and 6,837 canoe trees were available. Canoes were being 'replaced' or made at the rate of about 800 a year.
72. MNA. NNC 3/1/4. West Nyasa District Annual Report, 1934; NSF 4/1/7. South Nyasa District Annual Report, 1933.
73. MNA. NNC 3/1/4. West Nyasa District Annual Report, 1934; NSF 4/1/7. South Nyasa District Annual Report, 1933.
74. MNA. NSF 4/1/7. South Nyasa District Annual Report, 1933.
75. MNA. COM-9/3/1. Mwenyebabu, Tepa-tepa Village, Nkhota-kota, to Commission of Enquiry, Lilongwe, 21-22 August 1956.
76. MNA. NNC 3/1/5. West Nyasa District Annual Report, 1935.
77. MNA. S11/3/1/89. West Nyasa District Annual Report, 1943.
78. MNA. S37/1/10.25. Senior Provincial Commissioner to Chief Secretary, 14 October 1935; S37/1/10/26. Report of the Lakeshore Development Committee, 1945.
79. MNA. S37/1/10/25. Cecil Baker, District Commissioner, Fort Johnston, to Senior Provincial Commissioner, Southern Province, 13 February 1942.
80. MNA. NS1/10/1. Baker, 'Notes for the Consideration and Guidance in the Issue of Fishing Permits', 16 October 1942.
81. MNA. S37/1/10/25. K. L. Hall, Chief Secretary, to Senior Provincial Commissioner, 14 October 1943.
82. MNA. S37/1/10/24. Interim Report of the Committee on the Development of the Lakeshore of Lake Nyasa, 1945, Acting Chief Secretary, 'Government General Notice', 25 January 1945.
83. MNA. S1/37/1/10/24. Interim Report of the Lakeshore Development Committee, 1944, Acting Chief Secretary, 'Government General Notice', 25 January 1945.
84. MNA. S37/1/10/26. Borley to Alcock, 2 February 1945.
85. See MNA. PCC1/18/17. Lakeshore Development: Salima District Survey.
86. MNA. S1/385/23. Pearce to the Marques of Landsdowne, 7 July 1930; Public Records Office (PRO) CO 525/160. Secretary of State to Harold Kittermaster, 26 April 1936. For details see B. Pachai, Land and Politics in Malawi, 1875-1975 (Limestone Press, Kingston, 1978); by the same author, 'Land Policies in Malawi: an examination of the colonial legacy', Journal of African History, 14, 4 (1973), pp. 681-698; and C. Ng'ong'ola, 'The Political Economy of Land in Nyasaland (Malawi)', African Social Research, University of Zambia (December, 1983), pp. 493-514.
87. MNA. S1/385/23. Pearce to the Marques of Landsdowne, 7 July 1930; Public Records Office (PRO) CO 525/160. Secretary of State to Harold Kittermaster, 26 April 1936. For details see B. Pachai, Land and Politics in Malawi, 1875-1975 (Limestone Press, Kingston, 1978); by the same author, 'Land Policies in Malawi: an examination of the colonial legacy', Journal of African History, 14, 4 (1973), pp. 681-698; and C. Ng'ong'ola, 'The Political Economy of Land in Nyasaland (Malawi)', African Social Research, University of Zambia (December, 1983), pp. 493-514.
88. MNA. S1/385/23. Pearce to the Marques of Landsdowne, 7 July 1930; Public Records Office (PRO) CO 525/160. Secretary of State to Harold Kittermaster, 26 April 1936. For details see B. Pachai, Land and Politics in Malawi, 1875-1975 (Limestone Press, Kingston, 1978); by the same author, 'Land Policies in Malawi: an examination of the colonial legacy', Journal of African History, 14, 4 (1973), pp. 681-698; and C. Ng'ong'ola, 'The Political Economy of Land in Nyasaland (Malawi)', African Social Research, University of Zambia (December, 1983), pp. 493-514.
89. See MNA. S37/1/10/25. Cecil Baker, District Commissioner, Fort Johnston, to Senior Provincial Commissioner, 13 February 1942.
90. MNA. S37/1/10/24. Chief Secretary, Government General Notice, 25 January 1945. Interim Report of the Committee on the Development of the Lakeshore of Lake Nyasa, 1945.
91. MNA. S37/1/10/24. Interim Report, 1945.
92. See H. H. Johnston, British Central Africa (London, 1889), pp. 168-169.
93. See R. H. Palmer, 'White Farmers in Nyasaland During and After the Depression African Affairs, 84, 335 (1985), pp. 211-245.
94. MNA. NSD2/1/3. Chiradzulu District Annual Report, 1935; S37/1/10/43. K. C. Hall, Chief Secretary, to Managers of Estates, 1 August 1935; M. Kincaid-Smith to Chief Secretary, 2 August 1935; W. Tait-Bowie to Chief Secretary, 6 August 1935; J. Nicoll to Chief Secretary, 9 August 1935.
95. MNA. PCC/1/18/16. Chief Secretary to Lands Officer: Duties of the Fisheries Officer, 12 January 1946. See also A. J. P. Mzumara, 'The Fisheries Department of Malawi: organization, policy and management', Journal of Social Science, University of Malawi, 7 (1978/79), pp. 108-114.
96. Mzumara, 'The Fisheries Department of Malawi', p. 108.
97. Colonial Office, Nyasaland Protectorate Annual Report (HMSO, London, 1953), p. 76.
98. Colonial Office, Nyasaland Protectorate Annual Report, 1954, pp. 6 and 83.
99. Colonial Office, Nyasaland Protectorate Annual Report, 1954 pp. 6 and 75-76; and 1955, pp. 78-79. The term 'commercial fishermen' does not make much sense. African fishermen and fish-traders were already commercial by this time, but colonial officials referred to them as 'subsistent' or 'part-time'.
100. MNA. COM-9/3/1. Evidence by Henry Masauko Chipembere to the Commission of Enquiry into Fish Marketing and Supplies, Fort Johnston, 8-9 June 1956.
101. MNA. PCC1/18/16. Correspondence between W. H. Jollyman, the Fisheries Officer, and the Chief Secretary.
102. For detailed accounts see the correspondence between W. H. Jollyman and the Fisheries Officer, and the latter with the Provincial Commissioner and the Chief Secretary in MNA. PCC1/18/16. The hunter, Jollyman, was a tobacco farmer and analytical chemist.
103. MNA. PCN 1/17/7. Fishing: General Policy, Rules etc, 1947-1951.
104. MNA. PCN 1/17/7. Fishing Rules and Licensing (Fisheries Commercial Fishing Rules, 1950).
105. MNA. PCN 1/17/4. District Commissioner, Karonga (North Nyasa District) to Acting Provincial Commissioner, 14 December 1951.
106. MNA. PCN 1/17/4. Acting Provincial Commissioner (Northern Province) to Chief Secretary, 25 August 1951.
107. MNA. PCC 1/15/8. Acting Provincial Commissioner to District Commissioners: Dowa, Nkhota-kota, and Dedza, 29 January 1952.
108. MNA. PCN 1/17/3. Acting Director, Game Fish, and Tsetse Control, 23 November 1953.
109. MNA. PCN 1/17/4. District Commissioner, Nkhata Bay, to Provincial Commissioner (North), 16 February 1957; Director, Game, Fish and Tsetse Control, to Provincial Commissioners, 29 July 1956.
110. MNA. NS1/10/1. Interim Report on the Fish and Fisheries of Lake Nyasa, 1945; COM-9/3/1. Commissioner for Co-operative Development to Attorney General, 4 October 1956.
111. MNA. PCN 1/17/8. Fishing Investigations and Proposal for Fishing Co-operatives - Likoma Island; Annual Report of the Department of Game, Fish and Tsetse Control, 1958 (Government Printer, Zomba, 1959), pp. 5-6.
112. Nyasaland Protectorate, Annual Report of the Department of Game, 1958, p. 5.
113. MNA. NS1/10/1. Interim Report on the Fish and Fisheries of Lake Nyasa: Memorandum on Co-operatives by the District Commissioner, Fort Johnston.
114. MNA. PCN 1/17/8. Acting Chief Secretary to the Chairman of Co-operatives, 18 July 1958.
115. MNA. COM-9/1/1. Wellington Kanyama Chiume, Member of Legislative Council, Nkhata Bay, to Secretary, Commission of Enquiry into the Fishing Industry. See also the evidence by Henry Masauko Chipembere, Member of Legislative Council, Fort Johnston, in the same file.
116. MNA. COM-9/1/1. Resolution passed at a Constituency Meeting at Malindi, Fort Johnston, 17 July 1956.
117. Henry Masauko Chipembere in MNA. 2.4.2F/137. Natural Resources Board Correspondence, 1951-1954, as cited by D. Njaidi, 'Towards an Exploration of Game Control and Land Conservation in Colonial Mangochi, 1891-1964', unpublished History Seminar paper, Chancellor College, University of Malawi (1994), p. 29.
118. I am grateful to the late Martin Kanyuka for providing me with this information.
119. See MNA. COM-9/1/1 to COM-9/4/2. Fish Commission, 1956.
120. MNA. COM-9/1/1. Koloneliyo Zekeyo Kamnkhwala, Transvaal, South Africa, to Commission of Enquiry into Fish Marketing and Supplies, 25 May 1956, translated.
121. See MNA. PCN1/17/5. Chief Secretary to Chairman of Co-operative Societies, 18 July 1958.
122. The use of dhows in fish trading is also mentioned in Malawi Government/H. L. F. Renson, Fish Marketing in Malawi (Ministry of Agriculture, Zomba, 1969), pp. 12-13.
123. Colonial Office, Nyasaland Protectorate Annual Report, 1960, p. 85.
124. MNA. PCN1/17/4. Director, Game, Fisheries, and Tsetse Control, to Provincial Commissioners, 30 February 1959; Colonial Office, Nyasaland Protectorate Annual Report, 1959, p. 81; and 1960, p. 85.
125. Malawi Government/Renson, Fish Marketing, p. 5.
126. See Derman and Ferguson, 'Human Rights, Development and Environment', pp. 125-142; Ferguson, Derman and Mkandawire, 'The New Development Rhetoric', pp. 1-18.
127. See Derman and Ferguson, 'Human Rights, Development and Environment', pp. 125-142; Ferguson, Derman and Mkandawire, 'The New Development Rhetoric', pp. 1-18.