Patterns of nation building and political integration in a bifurcated postcommunist state: Ethnic aspects of parliamentary elections in Latvia

East European Politics and Societies

Volumn 11, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 366-391

  Kolstø, Pål ^a   Tsilevich, Boris ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0005786532     PISSN: 08883254     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0888325497011002008     Document Type: Article

References (40)

1. The exception is Russia, proclaimed a "multinational state" by the 1993 constitution.
2. Boris Tsilevich, Vremia zhestkikh reshenii (Riga: Insight, 1993), 229-32.
3. See, for example, interview with Einars Cilinskis in SM-Segodnia, 28 November 1992.
4. V. Birkavs, "Vlast' i obshchestvo: problema legitimatsii v kontekste perekhodnogo perioda," Diena. 11 March 1993.
5. For an excellent discussion of these concepts as applied to the Baltic situation, see Rogers Brubaker, "Citizenship struggles in the Soviet Successor states," International Migration Review 26:2: 269-91.
6. In Lithuania the ethnic composition of the electorate is more or less the same as in Latvia: the minority group makes up approximately 20 percent of the voters. Political life nevertheless has developed differently because in Lithuania the minorities comprise the same percentage among the voters as among the population at large. Only a minor discrepancy exists between the political nation and the demographic nation. A certain discrepancy nevertheless exists also in Lithuania because some minorities have chosen to take Russian rather than Lithuanian citizenship.
7. Data are taken from Diena, Supplement, 15 February 1995; and Demographic Year-book of Latvia, Riga, 1995: National and Ethnic Groups in Latvia (Riga: Ministry of Justice, 1996). Amendments to the Citizenship law in March 1995 granted citizenship to all persons of Latvian ethnic origin. This increased the Latvian share of the citizenry even further.
8. Data are taken from Diena, Supplement, 15 February 1995; and Demographic Year-book of Latvia, Riga, 1995: National and Ethnic Groups in Latvia (Riga: Ministry of Justice, 1996). Amendments to the Citizenship law in March 1995 granted citizenship to all persons of Latvian ethnic origin. This increased the Latvian share of the citizenry even further.
9. Data are taken from Diena, Supplement, 15 February 1995; and Demographic Year-book of Latvia, Riga, 1995: National and Ethnic Groups in Latvia (Riga: Ministry of Justice, 1996). Amendments to the Citizenship law in March 1995 granted citizenship to all persons of Latvian ethnic origin. This increased the Latvian share of the citizenry even further.
10. Opalski, Tsilevich, and Dutkiewicz, Ethnic Conflict.
11. Nils Muižnieks, "Etniskā stratifikācija Latvijā: padomju laikā un tagad," in Elmār Vēbers and Rasma Kārkliņa, eds., Nacionālā politika Baltijas Valstīs (Rīga: Zinātne, 1995), 114-21.
12. See Steen, Recirculation.
13. SM-Segodnia, 29 September 1995.
14. These figures are calculated from demographic data published in Latvijas Vēstnesis, 22 March 1995 and 23 March 1995.
15. All election data are from Latvijas Republikas 6. Saeimas vēl̄ešanas (Rīga: Central Electoral Commission, 1995).
16. In Lithuania, however, the issue of state restoration was linked only formally to the treatment of the citizenship problem. When the citizenship law was adopted in 1989 all permanent residents of this country were given the chance to take Lithuanian citizenship.
17. See Paul Kolsto, Russians in the Former Soviet Republic (London: C. Hurst, 1995).
18. Estoniia, 23 November 1993.
19. Vello Pettai, "The Games of Echnopolitics in Latvia," Post-Soviet Affairs 12:1 (January-March 1996): 40-50.
20. Natsional'nyj sostav naseleniia SSSR (Moscow: Finansy i statistika, 1991).
21. Neil Melvin, Russians beyond Russia. The Politics of National Identity (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1995).
22. Nelli Kuznetsova, "Chto mozhet predstavitel'naia assambleia?" Estoniia, 16 February 1993.
23. Central Asia Quarterly Labyrinth 1:2 (Spring 1994): 3-4.
24. Bhavna Dave, "A New Parliament Consolidates Presidential Authority," Transition 2:6 (22 March 1996): 33-37.
25. Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977).
26. A. B. Galiev et al., eds., Mezhnatsional'nye Otnosheniia v Kazakhstane: Etnicheskii aspekt kadrovoi politiki (Almaty: Institut razvitiia Kazakhstana, 1994).
27. O. I. Brusina, " 'Russkii vopros' i gosudarstvennost' v Kazakhstane," in Etnicheskii faktor v sovremennom sotsial'no-politicheskom razvitii Kazakhstana, Issledovaniia po prikladnoi i neotlozhnoi etnologii, no. 94 (Moscow: Institut etnologii i antropologii, 1996).
28. "CSCE gives thumbs down for Kazakh elections." Central Asia Quarterly Labyrinth 1:2 (Spring 1994);
29. and Kazakhstanskaia pravda, 11 January 1996.
30. Robert Kaiser and Jeff Chinn, "Russian-Kazakh Relations in Kazakhstan," Post-Soviet Geography 36:5 (1995): 257-273, esp. 269-70.
31. Pål Kolstø, "Nation-building in the former Soviet Union," Journal of Democracy 7:1 (January 1996): 116-32.
32. It is true that while the Russians make up only 36 percent of the population at large, their share of the potential voters is somewhat larger because the number of youngsters and children under voting age is much higher in the Kazakh group.
33. Kazakhstanskaia pravda, 25 January 1996.
34. See, for example, a letter of fourteen intellectuals to President Ulmanis, Diena, 7 February 1996, which triggered a broad public debate.
35. See, for example, Ian Bremmer and Cory Welt, "The trouble with democracy in Kazakhstan," Central Asian Survey 15:2 (1996): 179-99.
36. See, for example, Yoav Peled, "Ethnic democracy and the legal construction of citizenship: Arab Citizens of the Jewish state," American Political Science Review 86:2 (June 1992): 432-43.
37. Sammy Smooha, "Minority Status in an Ethnic Democracy: the Status of the Arab Minority in Israel," Ethnic and Racial Studies 13:3 (July 1990): 389-413, esp. 389.
38. G. Smith, A. Aasland, and R. Mole, "Statehood, Ethnie Relations and Citizenship," in Graham Smith, ed., The Baltic States: The National Self-Determination of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994), 181-205, on 201; and Vello Pettai, "Emerging Ethnic Democracy in Estonia and Latvia," a reworked version of a paper presented at the 15th Association for the Advancement of Baltic Studies Conference, 8-11 June 1994; Graham Smith, "The Ethnic Democracy Thesis and the Citizenship Question in Estonia and Lativa," Nationalities Papers 24:2 (1996): 199-216.
39. G. Smith, A. Aasland, and R. Mole, "Statehood, Ethnie Relations and Citizenship," in Graham Smith, ed., The Baltic States: The National Self-Determination of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994), 181-205, on 201; and Vello Pettai, "Emerging Ethnic Democracy in Estonia and Latvia," a reworked version of a paper presented at the 15th Association for the Advancement of Baltic Studies Conference, 8-11 June 1994; Graham Smith, "The Ethnic Democracy Thesis and the Citizenship Question in Estonia and Lativa," Nationalities Papers 24:2 (1996): 199-216.
40. G. Smith, A. Aasland, and R. Mole, "Statehood, Ethnie Relations and Citizenship," in Graham Smith, ed., The Baltic States: The National Self-Determination of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994), 181-205, on 201; and Vello Pettai, "Emerging Ethnic Democracy in Estonia and Latvia," a reworked version of a paper presented at the 15th Association for the Advancement of Baltic Studies Conference, 8-11 June 1994; Graham Smith, "The Ethnic Democracy Thesis and the Citizenship Question in Estonia and Lativa," Nationalities Papers 24:2 (1996): 199-216.