Facilitating joint implementation under the framework convention on climate change: Toward a greenhouse gas emission reduction protocol

Environmental and Planning Law Journal

Volumn 14, Issue 5, 1997, Pages 356-367

  Brown, Chester ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0005469587     PISSN: 0813300X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (211)

1. Framework Convention on Climate Change, opened for signature 13 June 1992 (1992) 31 ILM 849) (entered into force 21 March 1994) ("Climate Change Convention" or "the Convention"). As of 6 June 1996, there were 159 ratifications of the Framework Convention on Climate Change.
2. 3): Daniel Bodansky, "The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: a commentary" (1992) 18 Yale Journal of International Law 451 at 455. Other less common GHGs are hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) nitrogen oxides in general (NOx) carbon monoxide (CO) and volatile organic compounds (VOC): International Energy Association (IEA) and Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Energy and Environmental Technologies to Respond to Global Climate Change Concerns (1994), p 28.
3. The atmosphere has been defined alternatively as "the resource constituted of the global mass of air surrounding the Earth, " and as "all or part of the collection of gases which lie within the limits of the troposphere and stratosphere as defined by the World Meteorological Organisation standards": see, eg, Ottawa Meeting of Legal and Policy Experts on the Protection of the Atmosphere, "Protection of the atmosphere" (1989) 19 Environmental Policy and Law 78.
4. Conference of the Parties to the Climate Change Convention, "The Berlin Mandate" (1995) 7 Journal of Environmental Law 321 at 321.
5. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
6. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986) 25 ILM 1370.
7. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 1992 IPCC Supplement (1992), p 11. Humankind's addition to the natural greenhouse effect is also known as the "enhanced" greenhouse effect: John Taylor, "The greenhouse effect: an historical perspective on achieving atmospheric stabilisation, " paper presented at Ecopolitics Conference, Australian National University, Canberra (27 September 1996).
8. Carbon dioxide is universally accepted as the largest contributor to global warming, however estimates range from it being responsible for between 55 per cent and 80 per cent of GHG concentrations or global warming potential associated with the accumulation of all GHGs in the atmosphere. This is due to the long life of GHGs and the delayed effect of global warming: "The lag time between emissions of the gases and their lull impact is in the order of decades to centuries, " US Office ofTechnology Assessment, Changing by Degrees: Steps to Reduce Greenhouse Gases (1991), p 3
9. IPCC, Policymakers' Summary of the Scientific Assessment of Climate Change (1990).
10. Bjom Larsen and Anwar Shah, "Global tradeable carbon permits, participation incentives and transfers" (1994) 46 Oxford Economic Papers 841.
11. Jeremy Leggett, "Global warming: the scientific evidence and its implications" (1992) 2 Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems 1 at 50.
12. IPCC, "Scientific Summary 1995" (1996) 8 Journal of Environmental Law 211.
13. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986) 25 ILM 1370.
14. W Sanderson, "Memo told of BHP bid to discredit Inspector, " Courier Mail, 21 June 1997, p 9.
15. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
16. D Leigh McAllister, "The Climate Change Convention: a signal of emerging international awareness" (1992) 4 Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy 484 at 491.
17. For further discussion of the effects of the sea level rise, and the position of the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS), see Roger Blakely, "Global warming: a Pacific perspective" (1992) 2 Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems 173.
18. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
19. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
20. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
21. Michael Oppenheimer and Robert H Boyle, Dead Heat: The Race Against the Greenhouse Effect (Basic Books, 1990), p 34.
22. Elizabeth P Barrett-Brown, Scott A Hajost and John H Sterne Jr, "A forum for action on global warming: The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change" (1992) 4 Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy 103 at 104-105.
23. Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, opened for signature 22 March 1985, (1987) 26 ILM 1516 (entered into force 22 September 1988).
24. Further conferences which advocated international action on climate change included the Hague Conference, March 1989, "Declaration Adopted at the Hague" (1990) 5 American University Journal of International Law and Policy 567; a Paris Summit, G-7 Economic Summit of 16 July 1989, "Economic Declaration from the Paris Economic Summit" (1989) 28 ILM 1292 at 1297-8; the Noordwijk Ministerial Conference on Atmospheric Pollution and Climate Change: Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment of the Netherlands, Noordwijk Conference Report (1989).
25. "Noordwijk Declaration on Atmospheric Pollution and Climate Change of 7 November 1989" (1990) 5 American University Journal of International Law and Policy 592; the Bergen Ministerial Conference on Sustainable Development: Ministerial Declaration on Sustainable Development in the Economic Commission for Europe Region, 16 May 1990, in UN GAOR Preparatory Committee for the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Action for a Common Future: Report of the Economic Commission for Europe on the Bergen Conference (1990), para 14.
26. The Second World Climate Conference (SWCC), Second World Climate Conference Ministerial Declaration of November 1990, in Jill Jäger and Howard Ferguson (eds), Climate Change: Science, Impacts and Policy-Proceedings of the Second World Climate Conference (Cambridge University Press, 1990), p 535.
27. General Assembly Res 53, UN GAOR, 43rd Sess, Supp No 49, 133-4. UN Doc A/43/49 (1988).
28. Gary E Marchant, "Freezing carbon dioxide emissions: an offset policy for slowing global warming" (1992) 22 Environmental Law 623 at 625.
29. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
30. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
31. IPCC, Climate Change: the IPCC Scientific Assessment (1990).
32. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
33. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
34. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
35. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986) 25 ILM 1370.
36. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986) 25 ILM 1370.
37. It is estimated that 75 per cent of global GHG emissions emanate from the industrialised world. The United States alone is responsible for 25 per cent of the global total: World Resources Institute, World Resources (1992), p 210.
38. United States Department of Energy, Limiting Net Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the United States (1991), p 9.
39. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
40. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
41. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986) 25 ILM 1370.
42. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
43. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986) 25 ILM 1370.
44. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986) 25 ILM 1370.
45. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986) 25 ILM 1370.
46. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986) 25 ILM 1370.
47. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986) 25 ILM 1370.
48. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986) 25 ILM 1370.
49. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986) 25 ILM 1370.
50. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986) 25 ILM 1370.
51. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
52. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
53. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986) 25 ILM 1370.
54. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
55. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
56. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986) 25 ILM 1370.
57. This assumes that the parties have also ratified the Convention and that the Convention has entered into force, although entry into force may not be necessary for obligations to arise for a state: Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, opened for signature 23 May 1969, 1155 UNTS 331, Art 18 (entered into force 27 January 1980). For judicial consideration of the domestic rights and obligations arising under international treaties, see generally Minister for Immigration v Teoh (1995) 183 CLR 273 and the corresponding case note: Kristen Walker and Penelope Mathew, "Case note: Minister for Immigration v Ah Hin Teoh" (1995) 20 MULR 236.
58. They may thus be termed "soft law": see generally Pierre-Marie Dupuy, "Soft law and the international law of the environment" (1991) 12 Michigan Journal of International Law 420.
59. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
60. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
61. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
62. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
63. W Sanderson, "Memo told of BHP bid to discredit Inspector, " Courier Mail, 21 June 1997, p 9.
64. This negotiating committee is known as the Ad hoc Group on the Berlin Mandate (AGBM).
65. Alison Bos, "Current developments in the joint implementation pilot phase: conceptual and institutional challenges, " paper presented at Ecopolitics Conference, Australian National University, Canberra (28 September 1996).
66. The Second Conference of the Parties (COP-2) was held in Geneva in July 1996.
67. Commonwealth Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Australian AU Pilot Initiative: Draft Guidelines (1994), p 4.
68. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
69. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
70. As suggested by the Netherlands, Intervention by the Netherlands on behalf on the European Community and its Member States: the Structure and Implementation of the Convention (19 September 1991).
71. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
72. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
73. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
74. David Hodas, "The Climate Change Convention and evolving legal models of sustainable development" (1995)
75. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
76. For example, the US and US industry generally favour joint implementation because of the significant possibility for reducing GHG emissions in the developing world on a more cost-effective basis than can be done in the US: United States Initiative on Joint Implementation (USUI), "Why joint implementation?, " in USUI, First Report to Secretariat of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (1994), P3.
77. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
78. Commonwealth Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Report Of Foreign Countries' Interest In And Arrangements For AIJ (1996), p 1.
79. Editorial Comment, "Planned and ongoing JI (pilot) projects" (1996) 2 Joint Implementation Quarterly 14.
80. Committee on the Environment, "Report of the Committee on the Environment" (1994) 15 Energy Law Journal 175 at 185-186.
81. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
82. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
83. Editorial Comment, "Electric utilities promote AU" (1996)
84. Joint Implementation Quarterly 4.
85. See, eg, Editorial Comment, "Geothermal energy development in Nicaragua" (1996) 2 Joint Implementation Quarterly 13.
86. Editorial Comment, "JI micro hydropower project Bhutan" (1995) 1 Joint Implementation Quarterly 10.
87. Editorial Comment, "Decin: model for JI fuel switch project" (1995) 1 Joint Implementation Quarterly 9.
88. Editorial Comment, "Cleaner buses and energy efficiency" (1995) 1 Joint Implementation Quarterly 11.
89. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
90. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
91. Comment, "Seven projects accepted for inclusion in US Initiative on Joint Implementation" (1994) 18 International Environmental Reports (BNA) 99 (Current Reports, 9 February 1995).
92. For the guidelines on US Initiatives on Joint Implementation, see US Department of State, "US Initiatives on Joint Implementation (USUI)" (1993) 58 Federal Regulations 66,057
93. also Energy Policy Act 1992 (US), s 1605(b) which enshrines the USUI guidelines in legislation.
94. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
95. See generally Robert W Hahn and Gordon L Hester, "Marketable permits: lessons for theory and practice" (1988) 16 Ecology Law Quarterly 361.
96. Thomas C Schelling, Incentives for Environmental Protection (MIT Press, 1983).
97. Tom Tietenberg, Emissions Trading: An Exercise in Reforming Pollution Policy (John Hopkins University Press, 1985).
98. John Dales, Pollution, Property and Prices (University of Toronto Press, 1968).
99. For the shortcomings of direct regulation, see Daniel Dudek and John Palmisano, "Emissions trading: why is this thoroughbred hobbled?" (1988) 13 Columbia Journal of Environmental Law 217 at 220.
100. Richard B Stewart, "Environmental regulation and international competitiveness" (1993) 102 Yale Law Journal 2039 at 2093.
101. Bruce A Ackerman and Richard B Stewart, "Reforming environmental law: the democratic case for market incentives" (1988) 13 Columbia Journal of Environmental Law 171 at 171-178.
102. see generally, R Coase, "The problem of social cost" (1960) 3 Journal of Law and Economics 1.
103. R Posner, Economic Analysis of Law (Little and Brown, 2nd ed, 1977), pp 44-46.
104. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
105. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
106. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
107. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
108. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
109. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
110. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
111. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
112. Christopher D Stone, "Beyond Rio: 'insuring' against global warming" (1992) 86 American Journal of International Law 445 at 460.
113. W Sanderson, "Memo told of BHP bid to discredit Inspector, " Courier Mail, 21 June 1997, p 9.
114. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
115. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
116. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
117. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
118. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
119. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
120. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
121. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
122. See, eg, John Palmisano, "Air permit trading paradigms for greenhouse gases: why allowances won't work and credits will, " discussion draft on file with author (1996).
123. Michael Grubb, "The greenhouse effect: negotiating changes" (1990)
124. International Affairs 67.
125. Joshua Epstein and Raj Gupta, Controlling the Greenhouse Effect: Five Global Regimes Compared (Brookings Institution, 1990).
126. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Convention on Climate Change: Economic Aspects of Negotiations (1992), pp 60-62.
127. Rob Swart, "Greenhouse gas emissions trading: defining the commodity, " in OECD, Climate Change: Designing a Tradeable Permit System (1992), p 137.
128. William R Cline, The Economics of Global Warming (Institute for International Economics, 1992).
129. Michael Grubb and James K Sebenius, "Participation, allocation and adaptability in international tradeable permit systems for greenhouse gas control, " in OECD, Climate Change: Designing a Tradeable Permit System (1992), p 169.
130. Ernst Mohr, "Tradeable emissions permits for controlling greenhouse gases and complementary policies, " in OECD, Climate Change: Designing a Tradeable Permit System (1992), p 207.
131. Daniel Dudek and Tom Tietenberg, "Monitoring and enforcing greenhouse gas trading, " in OECD, Climate Change: Designing a Tradeable Permit System (1992), p 229.
132. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
133. Jean-Charles Hourcade and Richard Baron, "Tradeable permits, " in OECD, International Economic Instruments and Climate Change (1993), p 39.
134. The example focused on here is that established under the Clean Air Act 1963.
135. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
136. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
137. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
138. Hahn and Hester, "Marketable permits: lessons for theory and practice, " at 371.
139. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
140. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
141. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
142. A 385 square mile tract of land planted with moderately growing trees can absorb all the carbon dioxide emitted by a large coal-fired power plant over its lifetime: see, eg, Gregg Marland, US Department of Energy, The Prospect of Solving the CO, Problem Through Global Reforestation (1988).
143. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
144. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
145. Environment Protection Agency (EPA), Emissions Trading Policy Stâtement: General Principles for Creation, Banking, and Use of Emission Reduction Credits (1986).
146. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
147. Robert W Hahn and Gordon L Hester, "Where Did All The Markets Go? An Analysis Of EPA's Emissions Trading Program" (1989) 6 Yale Journal on Regulation 109 at 157.
148. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
149. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
150. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
151. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986) 25 ILM 1370.
152. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
153. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986) 25 ILM 1370.
154. W Sanderson, "Memo told of BHP bid to discredit Inspector, " Courier Mail, 21 June 1997, p 9.
155. Alan S Manne and Richard G Richels, Global Carbon Dioxide Emission Reductions: The Impacts of Rising Energy Costs (1990), p 16 of the original manuscript.
156. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
157. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
158. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
159. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
160. Methods of allocation are discussed below: see notes 106
161. and accompanying text.
162. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
163. Suzanne C Massey, "Global warming: international environmental agreements-the 1992 UNCED most likely will not culminate in a successfully preventive global warming treaty without the US' support" (1992) 22 Georgia Journal of International Comparative Law 175 at 189-190.
164. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
165. see generally Richard B Stewart, "Controlling environmental risks through economic incentives" (1988) 13 Columbia Journal of Environmental Law 153 at 159-160.
166. Four different types of marketable permits systems have been in operation to date. These are emissions trading under the Clean Air Act; rights to add lead to petroleum under a US EPA scheme which operated from 1985-1987; water pollutant discharge rights into the Fox River, Wisconsin USA.
167. phosphorous discharge rights at Dillon Reservoir, Colorado USA. Emissions trading under the Clean Air Act is the only comparable example.
168. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
169. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
170. The establishment of an international joint implementation secretariat is advocated below: see notes 122-127 and accompanying text.
171. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
172. Adam L Aronson, "From cooperator's loss to cooperative gain: negotiating greenhouse gas abatement" (1993) Yale Law Journal 2143 at 2164.
173. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
174. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
175. European Union, Report of the Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Consumer Protection on Economic and Fiscal Instruments of Environmental Policy, European Parliament Session Doc A 3-0130/91 (13 May 1991).
176. Susan Holley, "Global warming: construction and enforcement of an international accord" (1991) 10 Stanford Environmental Law Journal 44 at 84.
177. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
178. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
179. see also Paul O'Sullivan, "Global environment issues, international law and Australia's interests, " paper presented at University of Melbourne Law School (18 April 1996), pp 10-12.
180. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
181. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986) 25 ILM 1370.
182. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
183. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986) 25 ILM 1370.
184. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986) 25 ILM 1370.
185. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
186. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986) 25 ILM 1370.
187. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
188. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
189. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
190. Edith Brown-Weiss, "Environmentally sustainable competitiveness: a comment" (1993) 102 Yale Law Journal 2123 at 2139.
191. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
192. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
193. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
194. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
195. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986) 25 ILM 1370.
196. Laura Horn, "The Greenhouse Effect and International Law" (1989) 7 EPU 294 at 296.
197. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
198. Professor Ansgar Vogel, Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Protection and Nuclear Safety of Germany, Statement at International Negotiating Committee Meeting No 4 (12 December 1991).
199. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
200. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
201. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
202. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
203. Fourteen states objected in whole and two states (including Australia) objected in part to the Declaration: John Taylor and Fayen Wong, "The greenhouse effect: an historical perspective on achieving atmospheric stabilisation, " paper presented at Ecopolitics Conference, Australian National University, Canberra (27 September 1996).
204. Ernst Richard von Weizsäcker, "Regulatory reform and the environment: the cause for environmental taxes, " in Giandomenico Majone (ed), Deregulation or reregulation? Regulatory reform in Europe and the United States (St Martin's Press, 1990) 198 at 201-206.
205. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
206. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
207. IPCC, Climate Change 1994: Radiative Forcing of Climate Change and An Evaluation of the IPCC 1992 Emission Scenario (1995), pp 12-14,19-24.
208. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
209. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
210. A Dale and M Lane "Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure for Participatory and Political SIA" (1994) 7 Society and Natural Resources 253-268.
211. John Gribbin, Hothouse Earth: The Greenhouse Effect and Gaia (Bantam Press, 1990), pp 13-14.