The informal sector paradigm: Analytical contributions and developmental role

Regional Development Dialogue

Volumn 17, Issue 1, 1996, Pages

  Nurulamin, A T M ^a  

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References (142)

1. 1/ A paradigm is a model or pattern, as the dictionary defines it. "It is a practical example which perfectly illustrates an abstract principle. Its hallmark is the complete correspondence between the abstract and the applied, between theory and praxis" as succinctly put by Michael J. Piore in his article, "Labour Market Segmentation: To What Paradigm Does It Belong?"American Economic Review 73 (1:1981):249-53. It seems that much of the uneasiness with the term "informal sector" (IS) as reflected in Harper's and Rempel's articles in this RDD issue, will subside if the IS is seen principally as an analytical tool and/or a developmental paradigm rather than in the strict sense that economists and planners understand it in their usage of the word "sector".
2. 2/ This is the third time that this journal is focusing on the IS with appropriate thematic variation in scope and contents. The Autumn 1984 issue of RDD brought a group of scholars who were already known for their contributions to the IS literature in addition to their reputation in respective fields of specialization. It was a timely issue that provided an excellent opportunity for reviewing the first generation of IS studies. The contents of the second issue (Winter 1988) were not explicitly centred on the IS but sought to encompass the wider issues of urban living and planning that had arisen from the rapid growth of the sector. In this issue (Spring 1996) the journal has also brought together a group of scholars whose work on the urban economy, government, and regional development planning with particular reference to the poor in third-world cities, are certainly worth sharing and disseminating. The issue has been even more ambitious in the sense that it has aimed to draw lessons from the vast body of literature which has accumulated during the more than two decades of intense debate and discussion which has centred on the IS. To realize this goal, noted scholars have been invited to share their thoughts on the IS from their respective areas of academic and professional strength. The results of this initiative are presented in this issue of RDD.
3. 3/ From being merely an area of exploratory research, the IS quickly found its place in standard readers on economic development for undergraduate and graduate students. For example, see Gerald M. Meir, ed. Leading Issues in Economic Development (London: Oxford University Press, 1977) which already included the IS topic as essential reading. It has also become an integral part of the academic discourse in a number of universities. Two examples are in the Department of Urban Studies and Planning, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and in the Human Settlements Development Program, Asian Institute of Technology (AIT). Short training courses are frequently organized on various aspects of the IS by the International Labour Office (ILO), national governments, and various development agencies. Many developing countries' national development plans now include planning goals that involve the IS.
4. 4/ See Colin Leys, "Interpreting African Underdevelopment: Reflections on the ILO Report on Unemployment, Incomes and Equality in Kenya," African Affairs 72 (1973):419-29.
5. 5/ ILO, Employment, Incomes and Equality: A Strategy for Increasing Productive Employment in Kenya (Geneva: 1972). Perhaps this is the most widely cited ILO work of all - it has had considerable influence in the development field.
6. 6/ For an early study in English that reflected such an interpretation of the IS by a Latin American scholar, see Anibal O. Quijano, "Marginal Pole of the Economy and the Marginalized Labour Force," Economy and Society 3 (November 1974):392-428;
7. see also E. Senghaas-Knoblock, "Informal Sector and Peripheral Capitalism: A Critique of a Prevailing Concept of Development," Manpower and Unemployment Research (1977):3-24 which contains a good summary of Quijano's identification of IS growth in the context of structural dependence in the Latin American economies. Lisa R. Peattie's article in this RDD issue informs readers of Marxian and dependency theory influence in the Latin American IS literature. For another recent source of Latin American IS literature see
8. Cathy A. Rakowski, "Convergence in the Informal Sector Debate: A Focus on Latin America, 1984-92," World Development 22 (4:1994):501-16.
9. 7/ It is interesting to note that de Soto made a big change of this type in the Latin American literature. To him the "marginals" became the "informals". See Hemando de Soto, The Other Path: The Invisible Revolution in the Third World (New York: Harper and Row. 1990).
10. 8/ Hans Singer, "Changing Thought on Economic Development with Special Reference to the Arthur Lewis Model" (Paper presented at the Study Seminar on Rural-Urban Migration, Institute of Development Studies (IDS), University of Sussex, 28 November to 22 December 1977) is an exceptionally perceptive paper that has chronicled this development.
11. Another early paper that places the IS in the world-economy context for the Latin American case is that of Alejandro Portes, "The Informal Sector and the World Economy: Notes on the Structure of Subsidized Labour," Institute of Development Studies Bulletin 9 (June 1978).
12. 9/ Singer, "Changing Thought on Economic Development."
13. See also A. T. M. Nurul Amin, "An Analysis of Labour Force and Industrial Organization of the Informal Sector in Dacca" (Ph.D. diss., University of Manitoba, 1982) who elaborates on the IS as an analytical tool and as a developmental paradigm.
14. Arthur W. Lewis, "Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour," Manchester School of Economics and Social Studies 22 (May 1954): 139-91.
15. 11/ See Martin Godfrey, Global Unemployment: The New Challenge to Economic Theory (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1986), pp. 115-65, which provides an excellent account of the IS from the perspective of labour surplus in developing countries. Chapter two highlights the problems of a labour surplus, hence the IS.
16. The article by W. E. Cole and R. D. Sanders, "Internal Migration and Urban Employment in the Third World," American Economic Review 75 (3:1985):481-94, may be seen as a resurgence in the optimism of the labour surplus modeled in the context of the IS and in the tradition of the Lewis model of economic development.
17. 12/ See Michael P. Todaro, "A Model of Labour Migration and Urban Unemployment in Less Developed Countries," American Economic Review 59 (1969):138-48.
18. See also Dipak Mazumdar, "Analysis of the Dual Labour Markets in LDCs" in Subiah Kannapan, ed., Studies of Urban Labour Market Behaviour in Developing Areas (Geneva: International Institute for Labour Studies, 1977), pp. 13-33;
19. and Cole and Sanders, "Internal Migration and Urban Unemployment" which are good examples among others, of such modeling of the IS urban labour market.
20. 13/ Dudley Seers, Towards Full Employment: A Programme for Colombia (Geneva: ILO, 1970).
21. 14/ IDS, University of Sussex, Science and Technology for Development - Proposals for the Second Development Decade (New York: United Nations, 1970).
22. 15/ Hollis B. Chenery et al., Redistribution with Growth (London: Oxford University Press, 1974).
23. 16/ ILO, Employment, Growth and Basic Needs (New York: Praeger, 1977).
24. 17/ Mahbub ul Haq, The Poverty Curtain: Choices for the Third World (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976);
25. and Singer, "Changing Thought on Economic Development."
26. 18/ Indeed this scenario in development thought and strategies inspired this author to undertake his doctoral dissertation, some eighteen years ago, in the area of the IS. Amin, "An Analysis of Labour Force and Industri al Organization," pp. 1-7, contains further elaboration of this historical reference to the emergence of the IS concept and the interest centring on it.
27. 19/ Some evidence on China is contained in Chen Yafang, "The Informal Sector in the Urban Economy of Guangzhou City: The Internal Dynamism, External Environment and Growth Potential" (Master's thesis, AIT, 1992). Also, see Amin's article and Khundker's comment on McGee's article in this RDD issue. Several papers presented at the International Seminar on the Impact of Economic Transformation on the Development of Human Resources, Employment and the Informal Sector in Vietnam and Southeast Asia, 15-17. November 1993, contain information on the IS's vanguard role in facilitating the transition to a market economy in Viet Nam.
28. 20/ De Soto, The Other Path.
29. 21/ See Pasuk Phongpaichit, "Nu, Nit, Noi and Thailand's Informal Sector in Rapid Growth" in Chira Hongladarom and Shiegeru Itoga, eds., Human Resources Development Strategies in Thailand (Tokyo: Institute of Developing Economies, 1991) which contains evidence on the increase of subcontracting and piece-rate work throughout Thailand.
30. See also Jonathan Dawson and Banji Oyeyinka, "Structural Adjustment and the Urban Informal Sector in Nigeria" (WEP Working Paper) (Geneva: ILO, 1993) which contains evidence on the increase in demand for IS products and services in general and subcontracting in particular.
31. 22/ See Kyoko Kusakabe, "Women in the Informal Sector Under Increasing Exposure to Market Forces" (Special study research) (Bangkok: AIT, 1996) which contains a good review of the limited literature and evidence on this area.
32. 23/ For some interesting instances of paradoxical trends and patterns in the contemporary world political economy, see W. Sengenberger, "Local Development and International Economic Cooperation," International Labour Review 132 (3:1993):3-19.
33. 24/ See World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future (London: Oxford University Press, 1987).
34. 25/ International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), World Development Report, 1992: Development and the Environment (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
35. 26/ United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN/ESCAP), State of Urbanization in Asia and the Pacific, 1993 (Bangkok, 1993), see ch. 5.
36. 27/ See IBRD, World Development Report, 1990: Poverty (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).
37. 28/ The World Summit for Social Development, held in the Hague in 1995, reflected the global resolve to overcome poverty and improve the quality of life.
38. 29/ See A. T. M. Nurul Amin, "Economics of Rural-Urban Relations Re-examined in the Light of Growing Environmental Concerns," Regional Development Studies (RDS) 1 (Winter 1994/95):22-51, which reflects on some of these issues.
39. 30/ For the links between environment and development see IBRD, World Development Report, 1992.
40. 31/ See John D. Montgomery, "The Informal Service Sector as an Administrative Resource" in Dennis A. Rondinelli and G. Shabbir Checma, eds., Urban Services in Developing Countries: Public and Private Roles in Development (London: Macmillan, 1988), pp. 89-111.
41. 32/ A. S. Bhalla, ed., Environment, Employment and Development (Geneva: ILO, 1992). This is a timely and significant book.
42. 33/ ILO, World Employment, 1995: An ILO Report (Geneva, 1995), pp. 87-93.
43. 34/ IBRD, World Development Report, 1995: Workers in an Integrating World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 106-7.
44. 35/ Clifford Geertz, Peddlers and Princes: Social Change and Economic Modernization in Two Indonesian Towns (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1963).
45. 36/ Charmes's and Rempel's articles in this RDD issue contain data on the size of IS employment in different cities and countries. Amin, "Economics of Rural-Urban Relations" contains data for several Asian cities that show an increase in the size of IS employment between the 1970s and 1980s. A similar trend is observed in data provided by Charmes for Africa and Latin America.
46. 37/ In addition to Rempel's article in this issue of RDD, see Amin, "An Analysis of Labour Force and Industrial Organization."
47. 38/ See Cole and Sanders, "Internal Migration and Urban Employment," for an example of Lewisian optimism in the new context of duality in the centre of third-world cities.
48. 39/ For labour market segmentation see, among others, Dipak Mazumdar, "Segmented Labour Markets in LDCs," American Economic Review 73 (2:1983):254-9.
49. For land and housing market segmentations, see Geoffrey Payne, "Informal Housing and Land Subdivisions in Third World Cities (A Review of the Literature)" (Oxford: CENDEP, Oxford Polytechnic, 1989).
50. 40/ It seems that no work has so far been done on this idea although some book titles, e.g., John Allen and Chris Hamnett, eds., Housing and Labour Markets: Building the Connections (London: Unwin Hyman, 1991)
51. and Mulkh Raj, Employment, Income and Housing (New Delhi: ESS Publications, 1987) stimulate work in this direction.
52. 41/ Some of these ideas were earlier presented in a consultancy report for ILO/Asian Regional Team for Employment Promotion (ARTEP), "A Policy Agenda for the Informal Sector in Thailand" (Discussion Paper THA/20) (Bangkok: Department of Labour, 1991), p. 6.
53. Amin, "An Analysis of Labour Force and Industrial Organization" contains evidence on some of these roles.
54. have just come across a title by Orlandina de Oliveira and Bryan Roberts, "The Many Roles of the Informal Sector in Development: Evidence from Urban Labour Market Research, 1940-89" due to be published in Cathy A. Rakowski, ed., Contrapunto: The Informal Sector Debate in Latin America (Albany: State University of New York Press, forthcoming)
55. cited in Rakowski, "Convergence and Divergence". I look forward to seeing this paper on the numerous roles of the IS in development.
56. 42/ Harry W. Richardson, "The Costs of Urbanization in Developing Countries," Economic Development and Cultural Change 30 (3:1987):625-48.
57. 43/ De Soto, The Other Path.
58. 44/ A. H. M. Maqsood Sinha and A. T. M. Nurul Amin, "Dhaka's Waste Recycling Economy: Focus on Informal Sector Labour Groups and Industrial Districts," RDD 16 (Autumn 1995):173-95.
59. 45/ See Rob Gallagher, The Rickshaws of Bangladesh (Dhaka: University Press, 1992).
60. 46/ See Leys, "Interpreting African Underdevelopment";
61. K. Kowarick, "Capitalism and Urban Marginality in Brazil" in R. Bromley and C. Gerry, eds., Casual Work and Poverty in Third World Cities (New York: Wiley, 1979), p. 70;
62. and H. Allen, "The Informal Urban Industrial Sector and Growth: Some Thoughts on a Modern Mythology" (Discussion Paper; no. 259) (Nairobi: Institute for Development Studies, University of Nairobi, 1977), p. 6.
63. 47/ For example, ASEAN labour cooperation projects include one called, "ASEAN Regional Project on Informal Sector Development" that seeks to promote self-employment and development of the IS. This is described in a news report on the eleventh Labour Ministers' Meeting, 22-26 April 1996, Bangkok
64. (see Bangkok Post. 26 April 1996).
65. 48/ One of the recent studies is that of Carlos Maldonando and S. V. Sethuraman, Technological Capability in the Informal Seclor:Metal Manufacturing in Developing Countries (Geneva: ILO, 1992). This report contains results of seven city studies in this respect.
66. 49/ See RDD 16 (Autumn 1995) which has the topical theme, "Local Economic Development" and contains several articles and an editorial introduction by C. M. Rogerson that refer to literature on industrial districts and evidence on informal industrial districts formation in some Asian cities.
67. 50/ See Sinha and Amin, "Dhaka's Waste Recycling Economy."
68. 51/ Bhalla, ed., Environment, Employment and Development.
69. 52/ Montgomery, "The Informal Service Sector."
70. 53/ Biplab Dasgupta, "Calcutta's Informal Sector," Bulletin: Institute of Development Studies 5 (October 1973):53-75. Its pioneering contribution includes an estimate of the size of the IS, based on a thorough scrutiny of occupational data in Calcutta which gave 45.8 per cent as the lower limit and 58 per cent as the upper limit as the total earnings of IS workers in the city (see p. 67).
71. 54/ A. N. Bose, "The Informal Sector in the Calcutta Metropolitan Economy" (World Employment Programme Research Working Paper; no. 5) (Geneva: ILO, 1974).
72. 55/ Stuart Sinclair, "The 'Informal' Sector" (Montreal: Centre for Developing Area Studies, McGill University, 1978).
73. 56/ The small number of entries of Latin American studies must be due to the fact that not many are published in English. See Martim O. Smolka's comment on the article by Bishwapriya Sanyal in this RDD issue which alerts us to the fact that a language barrier can create serious gaps in knowledge and information on the IS.
74. 57/ See World Development 6 (9/10:1978). Also published in a volume edited by Ray Bromley.
75. 58/ C. M. Rogerson, The First Decade of Informal Sector Studies: Review and Synthesis (Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand, 1985).
76. 59/ See Louis Emmerij's "Preface" in Harold Lubell, The Informal Sector in the 1980s and 1990s (Paris: Development Centre, OECD, 1991).
77. 60/ David Turnham, Bernard Salomé, and Antoine Schwarz, eds., The Informal Sector Revisited (Paris: Development Centre, OECD, 1990).
78. 61/ ILO/Programma Regional del Empleo para América Latina y el Caribe (PREALC), Retrospectiva del sector informal urbano en América Latina: una bibliografia anotada (Geneva: ILO, 1991) (in Spanish).
79. 62/ ILO, The Urban Informal Sector in Africa in Retrospect and Prospect: An Annotated Bibliography (Geneva. 1991).
80. 63/ The Urban Informal Sector in Africa in Retrospect and Prospect: An Annotated BibliographyIbid., p. 69.
81. 64/ ILO, The Urban Informal Sector in Asia: An Annotated Bibliography (Geneva, 1992).
82. 65/ The Urban Informal Sector in Asia: An Annotated BibliographyIbid., p. 147.
83. 66/ L. A. S. Ranjith Perera and A. T. M. Nurul Amin, The Two Decades of Informal Sector Studies (Bangkok: Human Settlements Development Program, ATT, 1993).
84. 67/ L. A. S. Ranjith Perera and A. T. M. Nurul Amin, The Second Decade of Informal Sector Studies: An Annotated Bibliography (Bangkok: Human Settlements Development Program, AIT, 1993).
85. 68/ Some researchers (see Peattie and Gilbert in this RDD issue) lament the quality of IS publications for their lack of investigative rigour. It does not seem to be a fair comment. Although limited in number, our bibliography contains a section on theoretical modeling literature that was included to familiarize readers with the publications that have been attempted to model the IS in a rigorous fashion, in some instances mathematically. See Perera and Amin, The Second Decade, pp. 2-3 and pp. 17-22.
86. 69/ Richard Sandbrook and Jack Arn, "The Labouring Poor and Urban Class Formation: The Case of Greater Accra" (Montreal: Centre for Developing Area Studies, McGill University, 1977), p. 71.
87. 70/ Keith Mundy, "London Yesterday, Bangkok Today," Bangkok Post, 17 June 1990.
88. 71/ Henry Mayhew, London Labour and the London Poor (London: Kimbes, 1852).
89. 72/ Greetz, Peddlers and Princes.
90. 73/ Note that Lewis, an economist who later won the Nobel Prize in economics, called it a sector without being fastidious or uneasy as some economists and planners seem to feel in calling it thus. See Rempel's and Harper's articles in this RDD issue. Instead of IS, they respectively use "informal activity" and "informal businesses". In fact, Rempel preferred nonformal to informal but consented to the change to informal.
91. 74/ Lewis, "Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour," p. 402 in Amar N. Agarwala and S. P. Singh, The Economics of Underdevelopment (London: Oxford University Press, 1958).
92. 75/ Greetz, Peddlers and Princes.
93. 76/ L. G. Reynolds, "Economic Development with Surplus Labour: Some Complications," Oxford Economic Paper 21 (1:1969):91.
94. 77/ Peter C. W. Gutkind, "The Energy of Despair: Social Organization of the Unemployed in Two African Cities: Lagos and Nairobi: A Preliminary Account," Civilization 17(1967):186-214 and 380-405.
95. 78/ Henry Rempel, "The Informal Sector" (Nairobi: Institute for Development Studies, University of Nairobi, 1974) (Unpublished paper).
96. 79/ Keith Hart, "Informal Income Earning Opportunities and Urban Employment in Ghana" (Paper presented at the Conference on Urban Unemployment in Africa, Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, 12-16 September 1971).
97. This paper was not published until 1973. It was published under the same title in the Journal of Modern African Studies 11(1:1973):61-9
98. and in Richard Jolly et al., eds., Third World Employment (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1973), pp. 66-70.
99. 80/ John Friedmann and Flora Sullivan, "The Absorption of Labour in the Urban Economy: The Case of Developing Countries" (Los Angeles: School of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of California, 1972) (Unpublished paper).
100. 81/ John Friedmann and Flora Sullivan, "The Absorption of Labour in the Urban Economy: The Case of Developing Countries" (Los Angeles: School of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of California, 1972) (Unpublished paper)Ibid., p. 5.
101. 82/ John Weeks, "Does Employment Matter?" Manpower and Unemployment Research 4 (1:1971):67-70.
102. 83/ Louis Emmerij, "A New Look at Some Strategies for Increasing Productive Employment in Africa," International Labour Review 110 (3:1974): 119-218.
103. 84/ H. Joshi and V. Joshi, SurplusLabourandtheCity: A Study of Bombay (London: Oxford University Press, 1976).
104. See also Barbara Harriss, "Quasi-Formal Employment Structures and Behaviour in the Unorganized Urban Economy, and the Reserve: Some Evidence from South India," World Development 6 (9-10:1978): 1077-86.
105. 85/ Guy Standing, "Urban Workers and Patterns of Employment" in Subbiah Kannappan, ed.. Studies of Urban Labour Market Behaviour in Developing Countries (Geneva: International Institute for Labour Studies, 1977), pp. 35-48.
106. 86/ See Dipak Mazumdar, "Analysis of the Dual Labour Markets in LDCs" in Kannappan, Studies of Urban Labour Market Behaviour, pp. 14-33. Mazumdar considers that institutional "protection" distinguishes the FS ("protected sector") from the IS ("unprotected sector").
107. 87/ Originally contained in M. Santos, "Economic Development and Urbanization in Underdeveloped Economics: The Two Flow System of the Urban Economy and Their Spatial Implications" (Toronto: University of Toronto, 1972) (Unpublished paper).
108. Later published as The Shared Space: The Two Circuits of the Urban Economy in Underdeveloped Countries (London: Methuen, 1979).
109. 88/ For example, Caroline O. N. Moser, "Informal Sector or Petty Commodity Production: Dualism or Dependence in Urban Development?" World Development 6 (9-10:1978):1041-64.
110. 89/ Ray Bromley and Chris Gerry, eds.. Casual Work and Poverty in the Third World Cities (Chichestcr: Wiley, 1979).
111. 90/ Madhu Sarin, "Urban Planning, Petty Trading and Squatter Settlements in Chandigarh, India" in Bromley and Gerry, eds.. Casual Work and Poverty, pp. 133-60.
112. 91/ Adi Sasono and Achmad Rofi'ie, "People's Economy" (Jakarta: Indonesia Secretariat, South-East Asian Forum for Development Alternatives, 1988).
113. 92/ Alejandro Portes, Manuel Castells, and Lauren A. Benton, eds.. The Informal Economy: Studies in Advanced and Less Developed Countries (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989).
114. 93/ R. A. Hackenbcrg, "New Patterns of Urbanization in Southeast Asia: An Assessment," Population and Development Review 6 (3:1980):391-420.
115. 94/ Cole and Sanders, "Internal Migration and Urban Employment."
116. 95/ Cole and Sanders, "Internal Migration and Urban Employment."Ibid.
117. 96/ See Hans-Dieter Evers and Rudiger Korff, "Subsistence Production in Bangkok," Development 4 (1986):50-5.
118. Also Rudiger Korff, Bangkok: Urban System and Everyday Life (Saarbrücken and Fort Lauderdale: Verlag Breitchbach Publishers, 1986).
119. 97/ It has gained a further boost from the recent ILO Conference of Labour Statisticians which has adopted a resolution on definition and data collection methods on the IS. See Charmes's article for details.
120. 98/ I have found it useful to introduce the IS to beginners in a lecture on the topic by displaying a list of some twenty alternative names and their corresponding authors in chronological order to enable them to understand what it is all about.
121. 99/ Michael Lipton, "Family, Fungibility and Formality: Rural Advantage of Informal Non-farm Enterprise versus the Urban-Formal Slate" in Samir Amin, ed.. Human Resources, Employment and Development. Volume 5: Developing Countries (Proceedings of the Sixth World Congress of the International Economic Association, 1980), p. 189.
122. 100/ See Montgomery, "The Informal Service Sector."
123. 101/ See among many others, P. B. Ghate, "Informal Credit Markets in Asian Developing Countries," Asian Development Review 6(1:1983):64-85.
124. Hari Srinivas, "The Viability of Urban Informal Credit to Finance Low-Income Housing: A Case Study of Three Squatter Settlements in Bangalore City, India" (Master's thesis, AIT, 1991) is an interesting study that demonstrates linkages between ICM and informal settlements and contains a useful bibliography of ICM literature.
125. 102/ Apart from evidence contained in several articles in this issue of ROD, this is confirmed by the 1995 ILO report on global employment situation. See ILO, World Employment, 1995 (Geneva, 1995), p. 12.
126. 103/ Apart from the articles by Harper, Romanes and Chifos, and Sanyal in this RDD issue, several papers in Third World Planning Review, Vol. 15, May 1993 ("Urban Productivity and Urban Management") and RDD, Autumn 1995 ("Local Economic Development") contain supporting evidence.
127. 104/ S.V. Sethuraman, "Employment Planning in the Urban Informal Sector" in Nagamine Haruo, ed., Urban Informal Sector Employment: A Cross-National Comparative Study (Nagoya: Research Institute for Regional Planning and Development, 1993), pp. 169-82.
128. 105/ Fred Fluitman, ed., Training for Work in the Informal Sector (Geneva: ILO, 1989).
129. 106/ ILO, The Dilemma of the Informal Sector (Geneva: ILO, 1991) is essential reading for all interested in the topic.
130. 107/ Apart from the need for regulatory reforms and changes in bureaucratic attitudes, a city should be viewed primarily as a "home for enterprise". See Malcolm Harper, "The City as a Home for Enterprise: Has Anything Changed for the Informal Sector?" Habitat International 16 (2:1992):143-8.
131. 108/ L. A. S. Ranjith Perera, Accommodating Informal Sector Enterprises in the Urban Built-Environment (Bangkok: Human Settlements Development Program, 1994), pp. 15-42.
132. 109/ See Sudaryono Sastrosasmita and A. T. M. Nurul Amin, "Housing Needs of Informal Sector Workers: The Case of Yogyakarta, Indonesia," Habitat International 14 (4:1990):75-88 which contains a good illustration of variation in the needs of IS enterprises and participants according to their migratory, income, and work status.
133. 110/ See Harper's article in this RDD issue and ILO, World Employment, 1995, p. 93.
134. 111/ In my B angkok and Jakarta studies, unlike the Dhaka one, the need for location and premises was of higher priority to the respondents than credit. A. T. M. Nurul Amin, "Technology Adaptation in Bangkok's Informal Sector" (WEP Working Paper) (Geneva: ILO, 1989);
135. A. T. M. Nurul Amin, 'The Informal Sector in Indonesia: Through the Economic Recession and Recovery" (Working Paper) (New Delhi : ILO/ARTEP 1993);
136. and Amin, "An Analysis of the Labour Force" contain relevant data.
137. 112/ ILO, The Dilemma of the Informal Sector, p. 63.
138. 113/ Terry G. McGee, "Revolutionary Change and the Third World City: A Theory of Urban Involution" in his The Urbanization Process in the Third World (London: Bell, 1971), p. 81.
139. Originally published (co-authored with Warwick Armstrong) in Civilisation 18 (3:1968).
140. 114/ Originally published (co-authored with Warwick Armstrong) in CivilisationIbid.
141. 115/ Lewis, "Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour."
142. 116/ Bill Warren, Imperialism: Pioneer of Capitalism (London: Verso, 1980).