A desert squall: Anglo-American planning for military intervention in Iraq, July 1958-August 1959

Middle Eastern Studies

Volumn 35, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 1-18

  Blackwell, Stephen ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0005069923     PISSN: 00263206     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00263209908701276     Document Type: Article

References (116)

1. The available literature on the Suez Crisis is vast and constantly expanding. For background on the broader aspects of the Anglo-American relationship in the Middle East during the 1950's see W. Scott Lucas, Divided We Stand: Britain, the US and the Suez Crisis (London, 1991); Ritchie Ovendale, Britain, the United States and the Transfer of Power in the Middle East, 1945-62 (London, 1996); Nigel John Ashton, Eisenhower, Macmillan and the Problem of Nasser: Anglo-American Relations and Arab Nationalism, 1955-59 (London, 1996); Peter L. Hahn, The United States, Great Britain and Egypt, 1945-1956: Strategy and Diplomacy in the Early Cold War (Chapel Hill, 1991); Tore Tingvold Petersen, 'Anglo-American Rivalry in the Middle East: The Struggle for the Buraimi Oasis, 1952-1957', International History Review, Vol.XIV, No.1 (Feb. 1992), pp.71-91.
2. The available literature on the Suez Crisis is vast and constantly expanding. For background on the broader aspects of the Anglo-American relationship in the Middle East during the 1950's see W. Scott Lucas, Divided We Stand: Britain, the US and the Suez Crisis (London, 1991); Ritchie Ovendale, Britain, the United States and the Transfer of Power in the Middle East, 1945-62 (London, 1996); Nigel John Ashton, Eisenhower, Macmillan and the Problem of Nasser: Anglo-American Relations and Arab Nationalism, 1955-59 (London, 1996); Peter L. Hahn, The United States, Great Britain and Egypt, 1945-1956: Strategy and Diplomacy in the Early Cold War (Chapel Hill, 1991); Tore Tingvold Petersen, 'Anglo-American Rivalry in the Middle East: The Struggle for the Buraimi Oasis, 1952-1957', International History Review, Vol.XIV, No.1 (Feb. 1992), pp.71-91.
3. The available literature on the Suez Crisis is vast and constantly expanding. For background on the broader aspects of the Anglo-American relationship in the Middle East during the 1950's see W. Scott Lucas, Divided We Stand: Britain, the US and the Suez Crisis (London, 1991); Ritchie Ovendale, Britain, the United States and the Transfer of Power in the Middle East, 1945-62 (London, 1996); Nigel John Ashton, Eisenhower, Macmillan and the Problem of Nasser: Anglo-American Relations and Arab Nationalism, 1955-59 (London, 1996); Peter L. Hahn, The United States, Great Britain and Egypt, 1945-1956: Strategy and Diplomacy in the Early Cold War (Chapel Hill, 1991); Tore Tingvold Petersen, 'Anglo-American Rivalry in the Middle East: The Struggle for the Buraimi Oasis, 1952-1957', International History Review, Vol.XIV, No.1 (Feb. 1992), pp.71-91.
4. The available literature on the Suez Crisis is vast and constantly expanding. For background on the broader aspects of the Anglo-American relationship in the Middle East during the 1950's see W. Scott Lucas, Divided We Stand: Britain, the US and the Suez Crisis (London, 1991); Ritchie Ovendale, Britain, the United States and the Transfer of Power in the Middle East, 1945-62 (London, 1996); Nigel John Ashton, Eisenhower, Macmillan and the Problem of Nasser: Anglo-American Relations and Arab Nationalism, 1955-59 (London, 1996); Peter L. Hahn, The United States, Great Britain and Egypt, 1945-1956: Strategy and Diplomacy in the Early Cold War (Chapel Hill, 1991); Tore Tingvold Petersen, 'Anglo-American Rivalry in the Middle East: The Struggle for the Buraimi Oasis, 1952-1957', International History Review, Vol.XIV, No.1 (Feb. 1992), pp.71-91.
5. The available literature on the Suez Crisis is vast and constantly expanding. For background on the broader aspects of the Anglo-American relationship in the Middle East during the 1950's see W. Scott Lucas, Divided We Stand: Britain, the US and the Suez Crisis (London, 1991); Ritchie Ovendale, Britain, the United States and the Transfer of Power in the Middle East, 1945-62 (London, 1996); Nigel John Ashton, Eisenhower, Macmillan and the Problem of Nasser: Anglo-American Relations and Arab Nationalism, 1955-59 (London, 1996); Peter L. Hahn, The United States, Great Britain and Egypt, 1945-1956: Strategy and Diplomacy in the Early Cold War (Chapel Hill, 1991); Tore Tingvold Petersen, 'Anglo-American Rivalry in the Middle East: The Struggle for the Buraimi Oasis, 1952-1957', International History Review, Vol.XIV, No.1 (Feb. 1992), pp.71-91.
6. Ritchie Ovendale, 'Great Britain and the Anglo-American Invasion of Jordan and Lebanon in 1958', International History Review, Vol.XVI, No.2 (May 1994), pp.284-303; Nigel John Ashton, 'A Great New Venture? - Anglo-American Cooperation in the Middle East and the Response to the Iraqi Revolution, July 1958', Diplomacy and Statecraft, Vol.4, No.1 (March 1993), pp.59-89.
7. Ritchie Ovendale, 'Great Britain and the Anglo-American Invasion of Jordan and Lebanon in 1958', International History Review, Vol.XVI, No.2 (May 1994), pp.284-303; Nigel John Ashton, 'A Great New Venture? - Anglo-American Cooperation in the Middle East and the Response to the Iraqi Revolution, July 1958', Diplomacy and Statecraft, Vol.4, No.1 (March 1993), pp.59-89.
8. Harold Macmillan, Riding the Storm: Memoirs 1956-1959 (London, 1971), pp.505-6.
9. For the relationship between the Cold War and Middle Eastern politics during this period see Yezid Sayigh and Avi Shlaim (eds.) The Cold War and the Middle East (Oxford, 1997) and Fawaz A. Gerges, The Superpowers and the Middle East: Regional and International Politics, 1955-67 (Boulder CO, 1994).
10. For the relationship between the Cold War and Middle Eastern politics during this period see Yezid Sayigh and Avi Shlaim (eds.) The Cold War and the Middle East (Oxford, 1997) and Fawaz A. Gerges, The Superpowers and the Middle East: Regional and International Politics, 1955-67 (Boulder CO, 1994).
11. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1957 (Washington DC, 1958), pp.6-16.
12. David W. Lesch, Syria and the United States: Eisenhower's Cold War in the Middle East (Boulder Co., 1992), pp. 104-214; Douglas Little, 'Cold War and Covert Action: the United States and Syria, 1945-58', Middle East Journal, Vol.XLIV (Winter 1990), pp.51-75.
13. David W. Lesch, Syria and the United States: Eisenhower's Cold War in the Middle East (Boulder Co., 1992), pp. 104-214; Douglas Little, 'Cold War and Covert Action: the United States and Syria, 1945-58', Middle East Journal, Vol.XLIV (Winter 1990), pp.51-75.
14. Alistair Horne, Macmillan 1957-1986: The Official Biography, Volume Two (London, 1989), pp.56-7.
15. Public Records Office, London, PREM 11/2521, Letter from Morris to Hayter, 11 October; Top Secret Enclosure, Anglo-American Middle East Working Group Report (Paper XVIII).
16. PREM 11/2521, No. 2333, Caccia to Lloyd, 9 November 1957.
17. Ashton, Eisenhower, Macmillan and the Problem of Nasser, p.154.
18. Foreign Relations of the United States 1958-60 (henceforth cited as FRUS), Vol.XI, No. 60, Special National Intelligence Estimate, 5 June 1958, pp.93-8.
19. Horne, Macmillan, 1957-86, p.94.
20. Wm. Roger Louis, 'The British and the Origins of the Iraqi Revolution', from Robert A. Fernea and Wm. Roger Louis, The Iraqi Revolution of 1958: The Old Social Classes Revisited (London, 1991), pp.31-61.
21. Macmillan, Riding the Storm, p.511.
22. Dwight D. Eisenhower, The White House Years: Waging Peace, 1956-1961 (London, 1966), p.269.
23. FRUS 1958, Vol.XII, No.30, Memorandum of a Conference, 23 July 1958, pp.98-100.
24. Frederick W. Axelgard, 'United States Policy toward Iraq, 1946-1958', PhD Dissertation, Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy (Tufts University, 1988), p.241.
25. Michael Carver, Out of Step: Memoirs of a Field Marshall (London, 1989), pp.280-2.
26. Public Records Office, London, CAB 131/20, D(58)37th Meeting, 15 July 1958. For an account of the British intervention in Jordan see Lawrence Tal, 'Britain and the Jordan Crisis of 1958', Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.31, No.1 (Jan. 1995), pp.39-57.
27. Public Records Office, London, FO 371/133823, V1078/12, 'Turkey and Iraq', Record of a Conversation between Dulles and Lloyd, 18 July 1958.
28. PREM 11/2368, Nos. 4792 and 4794, Macmillan to Lloyd, 18 July 1958.
29. PREM 11/2368, No.1955, Macmillan to Lloyd, 18 July 1958.
30. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XI, No.193, Macmillan to Eisenhower, 18 July 1958, p.329.
31. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.130, Rountree to Dulles, 23 July 1958, pp.331-3.
32. Ovendale, Transfer of Power, p.193.
33. Macmillan, Riding the Storm, p.528.
34. Hanna Batatu, The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq (Princeton, 1978), pp.709-807; Majid Khadduri, Republican Iraq (London, 1969), pp.20-32.
35. Hanna Batatu, The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq (Princeton, 1978), pp.709-807; Majid Khadduri, Republican Iraq (London, 1969), pp.20-32.
36. PREM 11/2368, 'The Revolution in Iraq', Hoyar-Millar to Macmillan, 19 July 1958.
37. FO 371/133067, EQ1012/2, 'Leading Personalities in Iraq in 1958', Report by Crawford, 15 December 1958; Sam Falle, My Lucky Life (Book Guild, Sussex, 1996), pp.123-4.
38. FO 371/133067, EQ1012/2, 'Leading Personalities in Iraq in 1958', Report by Crawford, 15 December 1958; Sam Falle, My Lucky Life (Book Guild, Sussex, 1996), pp.123-4.
39. FO 371/133120, EQ1531/36, 'Iraq Petroleum Company', Minute by Combs, 24 October 1958.
40. Batatu, The Old Social Classes, pp.847-65; Falle, My Lucky Life, pp.153-4.
41. Batatu, The Old Social Classes, pp.847-65; Falle, My Lucky Life, pp.153-4.
42. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.138, Gallman to State Department, 14 October 1958, pp.344-6.
43. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No. 144, Cumming to Dulles, 25 November 1958, pp.353-4.
44. PREM 11/2735, No.8516, Lloyd to Caccia, 30 November 1958.
45. PREM 11/2735, No.3247, Hood to Lloyd, 1 December 1958.
46. PREM 11/2735, No.8516, op cit.
47. FO 371/133120, EQ1531/47, 'Iraq Petroleum Company', Minute by Stevens, 8 December 1958.
48. Uriel Dann, Iraq Under Qassem (New York, 1969) pp.127-35.
49. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.145, State Department to Gallman, 4 December 1958, pp.355-6.
50. FO 371/132922, EB10393/31, No.3781, Lloyd to Burrows, 10 December 1958.
51. Humphrey Trevelyan, who replaced Michael Wright as British Ambassador to Iraq in January 1959, does not deal directly with the Rashid Ali coup attempt in his memoirs but does acknowledge that many Iraqis subsequently believed that the British were working with the communists to support Qasim against Nasser. See Humphrey Trevelyan, The Middle Last in Revolution (London, 1970), p.139 and Ashton, Eisenhower, Macmillan and the Problem of Nasser, p.196.
52. Humphrey Trevelyan, who replaced Michael Wright as British Ambassador to Iraq in January 1959, does not deal directly with the Rashid Ali coup attempt in his memoirs but does acknowledge that many Iraqis subsequently believed that the British were working with the communists to support Qasim against Nasser. See Humphrey Trevelyan, The Middle Last in Revolution (London, 1970), p.139 and Ashton, Eisenhower, Macmillan and the Problem of Nasser, p.196.
53. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.147, Gallman to Dulles, 11 December 1958, pp.357-58.
54. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII. No.150, Rountree to Dulles, 16 December 1958, pp.361-63.
55. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.151, Discussion at the 391st Meeting of the NSC, 18 December 1958, pp.363-4.
56. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.51, 'US Policy toward the Near East (NSC 5820/1)', NSC Report, 4 November 1958, pp.187-99; Ashton, Eisenhower, Macmillan and the Problem of Nasser, p.195.
57. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.51, 'US Policy toward the Near East (NSC 5820/1)', NSC Report, 4 November 1958, pp.187-99; Ashton, Eisenhower, Macmillan and the Problem of Nasser, p.195.
58. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XIII, No.229, Rountree to Dulles, 15 December 1958, pp.505-09. Nasser said that the British had 'played [the] Communist game' by tipping off Baghdad about the Rashid Ali Coup.
59. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XIII, No.230, Memorandum of a Conference, 23 December 1958, pp.509-11; FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.154, Rountree to Dillon, 22 December 1958, pp.368-71; ibid. No.155, Discussion at 392nd Meeting of the NSC, 23 December 1958, pp.372-4.
60. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XIII, No.230, Memorandum of a Conference, 23 December 1958, pp.509-11; FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.154, Rountree to Dillon, 22 December 1958, pp.368-71; ibid. No.155, Discussion at 392nd Meeting of the NSC, 23 December 1958, pp.372-4.
61. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XIII, No.230, Memorandum of a Conference, 23 December 1958, pp.509-11; FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.154, Rountree to Dillon, 22 December 1958, pp.368-71; ibid. No.155, Discussion at 392nd Meeting of the NSC, 23 December 1958, pp.372-4.
62. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.157, 393rd Meeting of the NSC, 15 January 1959, pp.375-7.
63. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.161, Special National Intelligence Estimate, 17 February 1959, pp.381-8.
64. PREM 11/2735, No.2128, Trevelyan to Foreign Office, 27 December 1958; ibid, Letter from Trevelyan to Stevens, 1 January 1959.
65. CAB 131/21, D(59)1st Meeting, 23 January 1959.
66. Public Records Office, London, AIR 8/1959, COS(59)36, 'Military Intervention in Iraq', COS Memorandum, 10 February 1959.
67. Ibid.; AIR 8/1959, Minutes of a Meeting between Sandys and the COS, 11 February 1959; DEFE 32/6, COS(59)50, Confidential Annex, 11 August 1959.
68. CAB 131/21, D(59)4th Meeting, 17 February 1959.
69. FO 371/140956, EQ1071/13, 'Military implications of possible Anglo-American intervention in Iraq', Note by the Foreign Office, [undated] February 1959.
70. Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, Abilene, Kansas, USA (henceforth cited as DDEL), Telegram from Dulles to Eisenhower, 27 July 1958, Ann Whitman File, Dulles-Herter Series, Box 10.
71. Public Records Office, London, DEFE 11/216, JPS187/23/9/58, 'Meeting of United Kingdom Element, US/UK Planning Group, with Dickson on 22 September 1958', Annex; ibid., Dickson to COS Committee, 2 October 1958; DEFE 4/115, JP(59)Note 1, 'United Kingdom/United States Planning Studies on the Middle East', Note by the Directors of Plans, Annex, 2 January 1959;
72. Public Records Office, London, DEFE 11/216, JPS187/23/9/58, 'Meeting of United Kingdom Element, US/UK Planning Group, with Dickson on 22 September 1958', Annex; ibid., Dickson to COS Committee, 2 October 1958; DEFE 4/115, JP(59)Note 1, 'United Kingdom/United States Planning Studies on the Middle East', Note by the Directors of Plans, Annex, 2 January 1959;
73. Public Records Office, London, DEFE 11/216, JPS187/23/9/58, 'Meeting of United Kingdom Element, US/UK Planning Group, with Dickson on 22 September 1958', Annex; ibid., Dickson to COS Committee, 2 October 1958; DEFE 4/115, JP(59)Note 1, 'United Kingdom/United States Planning Studies on the Middle East', Note by the Directors of Plans, Annex, 2 January 1959;
74. ibid., COS(59)3, 8 January 1959.
75. DEFE 5/89, COS(59)40, 'US/UK Planning on the Middle East', COS Memorandum, 16 February 1959; CAB 134/2230, ME(M)(59)4th Meeting, 11 March 1959.
76. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.62, Memorandum of a Conversation, 22 March 1959, pp.217-18; DDEL, Ann Whitman File, International Series, Box 24, 'Anglo-American Talks: March 1959', agreed minute.
77. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.62, Memorandum of a Conversation, 22 March 1959, pp.217-18; DDEL, Ann Whitman File, International Series, Box 24, 'Anglo-American Talks: March 1959', agreed minute.
78. Dann, Iraq Under Qassem, pp. 164-77; Batatu, The Old Social Classes, pp.866-89.
79. Dann, Iraq Under Qassem, pp. 164-77; Batatu, The Old Social Classes, pp.866-89.
80. Andrew Rathmell, Secret War in the Middle East: The Covert Struggle for Syria, 1949-1961 (London, 1995), pp. 154-6.
81. 'The Times', 23 March 1959.
82. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.63, Editorial Note, pp.218-19.
83. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.166, Jernegan to Dulles, 26 March 1959, pp.395-98; ibid., No. 167, Jernegan to Dulles, 28 March 1959, pp.399-400.
84. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.166, Jernegan to Dulles, 26 March 1959, pp.395-98; ibid., No. 167, Jernegan to Dulles, 28 March 1959, pp.399-400.
85. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.169, Paper by Gray for the NSC, 1 April 1959, pp.401-2.
86. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.170, Discussion at the 401st Meeting of the NSC, 2 April 1959, pp.402-6.
87. DDEL, White House Office; NSC Staff, Special Staff File Series, Box 4, 'The Situation in Iraq-Comments and Questions', 16 April 1959.
88. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.176, Discussion at the 402nd Meeting of the NSC, 17 April 1959, pp.423-37.
89. CAB 131/21, D(59)8th Meeting, 'Arms for Iraq', Memorandum by Lloyd, 11 February 1959.
90. PREM 11/2735, No.1049, Lloyd to Burrows, 26 March 1959.
91. PREM 11/2735, No.1739, Hoyar-Millar to Caccia, 31 March 1959.
92. FO 371/143701, ZP19/3, 'Planning For the Persian Gulf', Minute by Wilding, 3 June 1959.
93. PREM 11/2735, de Zulueta to Macmillan, 1 April 1959.
94. PREM 11/2735, No.337, Trevelyan to Lloyd, 11 April 1959.
95. CAB 128/33, CC(59)24, 20 April 1959; Trevelyan, The Middle East in Revolution, p.153.
96. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.173, 'Situation in Iraq', Paper by Rockwell, 15 April 1959, pp.414-22.
97. PREM 11/4173, Lloyd to Caccia, 14 April 1959; Ashton, Eisenhower, Macmillan and the Problem of Nasser, pp.203-4.
98. CAB 128/33, CC(59)28, 5 May 1959.
99. CAB 131/21, D(59)5th Meeting, 12 May 1959.
100. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.356, Memorandum from Rountree and Smith to Dillon, 30 June 1959, pp.788-9.
101. PREM 11/4317, No.1248, Caccia to Lloyd, 22 May 1959.
102. PREM 11/4317, No.605, Trevelyan to Lloyd, 21 May 1959.
103. PREM 11/4317, de Zulueta to Macmillan, 17 June 1959.
104. CAB 131/21, D(59)9th Meeting, 23 July 1959; DEFE 11/216, 'Discussions with US-JCS: US/UK Planning - Middle East', Minute from House to Mountbatten, 14 August 1959.
105. PREM 11/4317, No.752, Trevelyan to Lloyd, 13 June 1959.
106. Batatu, The Old Social Classes, pp.912-25; Falle, My Lucky Life, p.155.
107. Batatu, The Old Social Classes, pp.912-25; Falle, My Lucky Life, p.155.
108. PREM 11/2753, Record of a Conversation between Lloyd and Herter, 28 August 1959.
109. FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.71, National Intelligence Estimate, 25 August 1959, pp.230-2.
110. FO 371/150850, V1015/1, Draft letter by Stevens, [undated] January 1960.
111. Ovendale, Transfer of Power, pp.242-3.
112. DDEL, 'US Policy Towards the Near East', NSC Planning Board Briefing Note. 1 June 1960, White House Office Series, Office of the Special Assistant for NSC Affairs, NSC Series (Briefing Notes), Box 13; FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.89, 'US Policy Toward the Near East (NSC 6011)', NSC Report, 19 July 1960, pp.262-73.
113. DDEL, 'US Policy Towards the Near East', NSC Planning Board Briefing Note. 1 June 1960, White House Office Series, Office of the Special Assistant for NSC Affairs, NSC Series (Briefing Notes), Box 13; FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.89, 'US Policy Toward the Near East (NSC 6011)', NSC Report, 19 July 1960, pp.262-73.
114. DDEL, 'US Policy Towards the Near East', NSC Planning Board Briefing Note. 1 June 1960, White House Office Series, Office of the Special Assistant for NSC Affairs, NSC Series (Briefing Notes), Box 13; FRUS 1958-60, Vol.XII, No.89, 'US Policy Toward the Near East (NSC 6011)', NSC Report, 19 July 1960, pp.262-73.
115. Harold Macmillan, Pointing the Way: Memoirs, 1959-1961 (London, 1973), p.386. See also Ovendale, Transfer of Power, pp.217-41.
116. Harold Macmillan, Pointing the Way: Memoirs, 1959-1961 (London, 1973), p.386. See also Ovendale, Transfer of Power, pp.217-41.