"You take your oath only once:" Crimea, the Black Sea fleet, and national identity among Russian officers

Nationalities Papers

Volumn 28, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 289-316

  Simonsen, Sven Gunnar ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0004817533     PISSN: 00905992     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/713687467     Document Type: Article

References (109)

1. Russian ethnicity is as a rule here used to describe those with russkiy listed in their "point five" in official documents; the so-called "passport nationality." For a detailed discussion of the issue of nationality in the Soviet Union and Russia, see Sven Gunnar Simonsen, "Inheriting the Soviet Policy Toolbox. Russia's Dilemma Over Ascriptive Nationality," Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 51, No. 6, 1999, pp. 1069-1087.
2. Roman Szporluk, "Statehood and Nation Building in Post-Soviet Space," in R. Szporluk, ed., Nation, Identity and Ethnicity in Russia and the New States of Eurasia (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1994), p. 9.
3. Nationalism I will define here as a doctrine emphasizing the importance of the individual's belonging to a ethnic group, and of the promotion of the interests of this group-which is perceived by the "nationalist" to form a "nation." Such promotion may above all imply efforts to make the borders of a state coincide with those of a ethnic group, but may also take other expressions. The character of the nationalism may vary depending on, inter alia, its perception of other ethnic groups, and its territorial aspirations. When I refer to a "nation," I will do so in the understanding of the individual perception that I am dealing with at the moment, while not necessarily endorsing this assessment. This interpretation is not meant as the last word on the degree of "constructedness" of nations, or in this case, the "Russian nation;" rather, it is as deep into this discussion I consider it necessary to go in this specific context.
4. In reality, the city did not become directly subordinated to the RSFSR, but rather to the Union itself; the proper term for its status was gorod soyuznogo podchineniya.
5. The Fleet counted 21 submarines, 35 principal surface combatants and some 240 other surface ships; as well as other forces, including naval aviation (some 244 combat aircraft and 85 combat helicopters), naval infantry and coastal defense forces. Figures from The Military Balance 1993-1994 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1993), p. 103.
6. Among the classic works in this field, see Samuel P. Huntington, The Soldier and the State. The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations (London: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1957 [1985]), p. 79; and Amos Perlmutter, The Military and Politics in Modern Times. On Professionals, Praetorians, and Revolutionary Soldiers (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977), p. 2 .
7. Among the classic works in this field, see Samuel P. Huntington, The Soldier and the State. The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations (London: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1957 [1985]), p. 79; and Amos Perlmutter, The Military and Politics in Modern Times. On Professionals, Praetorians, and Revolutionary Soldiers (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977), p. 2 .
8. The cut-off date has been defined by two events: Leonid Kuchma replaced Leonid Kravchuk as president of Ukraine, elected on a platform promising closer ties with Russia (July 1994); and Russian federal forces invaded Chechnya (December 1994), concentrating Moscow's attention on the North Caucasus, and making it important for the Yeltsin regime not to appear as an instigator of separatism in general.
9. For a more detailed chronology up to this event, see Ustina Markus, "Black Sea Fleet Dispute Apparently Over," Transition, Vol. 1, No. 13, 1995, pp 30-34. The current state of Crimea and the BSF in Russian-Ukrainian relations was defined in May 1997. On 28 May, the prime ministers of the two countries signed three agreements related to the BSF issue: on the division of the fleet, on Russia's rights to bases in Crimea, and on debt settlement. The parties agreed that Russia's fleet would remain based in Sevastopol, leasing facilities there for 20 years. Then, on 31 May, Presidents Yeltsin and Kuchma signed a Treaty on Friendship, Cooperation and Partnership, declaring respect for the respective countries' territorial integrity. Both countries' federal assemblies have since ratified these agreements. For a brief outline of the agreements, see Vladimir Baranovsky, "Russia: Conflicts and Peaceful Settlement of Disputes," in SIPRl Yearbook 1998 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp 118-120. A thorough analysis is provided in James Sherr, "Russia-Ukraine Rapprochement? The Black Sea Fleet Accords," Survival, Vol. 39, No. 3, 1997, pp. 33-50.
10. For a more detailed chronology up to this event, see Ustina Markus, "Black Sea Fleet Dispute Apparently Over," Transition, Vol. 1, No. 13, 1995, pp 30-34. The current state of Crimea and the BSF in Russian-Ukrainian relations was defined in May 1997. On 28 May, the prime ministers of the two countries signed three agreements related to the BSF issue: on the division of the fleet, on Russia's rights to bases in Crimea, and on debt settlement. The parties agreed that Russia's fleet would remain based in Sevastopol, leasing facilities there for 20 years. Then, on 31 May, Presidents Yeltsin and Kuchma signed a Treaty on Friendship, Cooperation and Partnership, declaring respect for the respective countries' territorial integrity. Both countries' federal assemblies have since ratified these agreements. For a brief outline of the agreements, see Vladimir Baranovsky, "Russia: Conflicts and Peaceful Settlement of Disputes," in SIPRl Yearbook 1998 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp 118-120. A thorough analysis is provided in James Sherr, "Russia-Ukraine Rapprochement? The Black Sea Fleet Accords," Survival, Vol. 39, No. 3, 1997, pp. 33-50.
11. For a more detailed chronology up to this event, see Ustina Markus, "Black Sea Fleet Dispute Apparently Over," Transition, Vol. 1, No. 13, 1995, pp 30-34. The current state of Crimea and the BSF in Russian-Ukrainian relations was defined in May 1997. On 28 May, the prime ministers of the two countries signed three agreements related to the BSF issue: on the division of the fleet, on Russia's rights to bases in Crimea, and on debt settlement. The parties agreed that Russia's fleet would remain based in Sevastopol, leasing facilities there for 20 years. Then, on 31 May, Presidents Yeltsin and Kuchma signed a Treaty on Friendship, Cooperation and Partnership, declaring respect for the respective countries' territorial integrity. Both countries' federal assemblies have since ratified these agreements. For a brief outline of the agreements, see Vladimir Baranovsky, "Russia: Conflicts and Peaceful Settlement of Disputes," in SIPRl Yearbook 1998 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp 118-120. A thorough analysis is provided in James Sherr, "Russia-Ukraine Rapprochement? The Black Sea Fleet Accords," Survival, Vol. 39, No. 3, 1997, pp. 33-50.
12. This author's survey on the media coverage from this period indicate that Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin and Minister of Defense Pavel Grachev only to a very modest degree participated in the debates over Crimea and the BSF. As for Grachev, this contrasts strongly with his activities in relation to the Baltic states.
13. Vera Tolz, "Conflicting 'Homelands Myths' and Nation-State Building in Postcommunist Russia," Slavic Review, Vol. 57, No. 2, 1998, p. 283. Starovoitova and Tishkov both had left the Yeltsin team by the end of 1992.
14. Mark Galeotti, The Age of Anxiety. Security and Politics in Soviet and Post-Soviet Russia (New York: Longman, 1995), p. 153.
15. "Galina Starovoytova: Mistakes Are Costly," Krasnaya zvezda, 22 January 1992, FBIS-SOV-92-016.
16. Roman Solchanyk: "Ukrainian-Russian Confrontation over the Crimea," RFE/RL Research Report, 10 February 1992, IR920096.RIR, p. 26.
17. See, e.g., "Krym v fevrale 1954 goda," Moskovskie novosti, 2 February 1992. This article also features the brief decree from the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet on the transfer.
18. "Postanovlenie Verkhovnogo Soveta Rossiyskoy Federatsii. O pravovoy otsenke resheniy vysshikh organov gosudarstvennoy vlasti RSFSR po izmenniyu statusa Kryma, prinyatykh v 1954 gody." Reprinted in Chernomorskoy Flot, gorod Sevastopol i nekotorye problemy rossiysko-ukrainskikh otnosheniy. Khronika, dokumenty, analiz, mneniya (1991-1997 gg.) (Moscow: Nezavisimaya gazeta, 1997), p. 25.
19. Roman Solchanyk, "The Crimean Imbroglio: Kiev and Moscow," RFE/RL Research Report, 9 October 1992, p. 6.
20. Roman Solchanyk: "Ukrainian-Russian Confrontation over the Crimea," RFE/RL Research Report, 10 February 1992, p. 26.
21. For an examination of the role of key institutions in the formation of Russian foreign and security policy, see Stephen F. Larrabee and Theodore W. Karasik, Foreign and Security Policy Decisionmaking under Yeltsin (Santa Monica: National Defense Research Institute/ RAND, 1997).
22. Nasha Rossiya-Vestnik FNS, No. 21 (45), 1992.
23. Estimate made by Associated Press, quoted in Dagens Næringsliv, 3 December 1992.
24. Manifest Fronta Natsionalnogo Spaseniya (1992).
25. Viktor Alksnis, Vystoim i pobedim (Moscow: SSSR (sic)), 1993, p. 9.
26. Under Kruglov, the FNS has been described as displaying "little caution in dealing with sensitive ethnic and geopolitical issues and [Kruglov's] statements have been highly incendiary," Jane I. Dawson, "Ethnicity, Ideology and Geopolitics in Crimea," Communist and Post-Communist Studies, Vol. 30, No. 4, 1997, p. 433.
27. For an analysis of the military's vote, see James Sherr, "Russia's Elections-the Military Implications," Jane's Intelligence Review, February 1994, pp. 67-68.
28. RFE/RL Daily Brief, 12 August 1992.
29. RFE/RL Daily Brief, 12 July 1993.
30. Ibid.
31. For a convincing analysis of phases in the regime's foreign policy, see Neil Malcolm and Alex Pravda, "Introduction," in Neil Malcolm, Alex Pravda, Roy Allison and Margot Light, Internal Factors in Russian Foreign Policy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996). For a parallel analysis of policy phases related to the diaspora issue, see Neil J. Melvin, "The Russians: Diaspora and the End of Empire," in Charles King, and Neil J. Melvin, eds, Nations Abroad. Diaspora Politics and International Relations in the Former Soviet Union (Boulder: Westview Press, 1998).
32. For a convincing analysis of phases in the regime's foreign policy, see Neil Malcolm and Alex Pravda, "Introduction," in Neil Malcolm, Alex Pravda, Roy Allison and Margot Light, Internal Factors in Russian Foreign Policy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996). For a parallel analysis of policy phases related to the diaspora issue, see Neil J. Melvin, "The Russians: Diaspora and the End of Empire," in Charles King, and Neil J. Melvin, eds, Nations Abroad. Diaspora Politics and International Relations in the Former Soviet Union (Boulder: Westview Press, 1998).
33. A detailed discussion of the different definitions of Russianness that were employed is provided in Neil Melvin, Forging the New Russian Nation. Russian Foreign Policy and the Russian-Speaking Communities of the Former USSR (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, Russian and CIS Programme Discussion Paper 50, 1994), pp. 17-22. These terms are also discussed in S. G. Simonsen, "Raising 'the Russian Question': Ethnicity and Statehood-Russkie and Rossiya," Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1996, pp. 91-110.
34. A detailed discussion of the different definitions of Russianness that were employed is provided in Neil Melvin, Forging the New Russian Nation. Russian Foreign Policy and the Russian-Speaking Communities of the Former USSR (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, Russian and CIS Programme Discussion Paper 50, 1994), pp. 17-22. These terms are also discussed in S. G. Simonsen, "Raising 'the Russian Question': Ethnicity and Statehood-Russkie and Rossiya," Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1996, pp. 91-110.
35. As for other groups, the number of Crimean Tatars was 38, 000; of Belarusians 50, 000. Figures from Natsionalnyy sostav naseleniya SSSR (Moscow: Goskomstat SSSR, Finansy statistika, 1991), p. 82. Within a few years, the return of Tatars brought the number much higher; by 1992, it was estimated at 210, 000. Ian Bremmer, "Ethnic Issues in Crimea," RFE/RL Research Report. Vol. 2, No. 18, 1993, p. 25.
36. As for other groups, the number of Crimean Tatars was 38, 000; of Belarusians 50, 000. Figures from Natsionalnyy sostav naseleniya SSSR (Moscow: Goskomstat SSSR, Finansy statistika, 1991), p. 82. Within a few years, the return of Tatars brought the number much higher; by 1992, it was estimated at 210, 000. Ian Bremmer, "Ethnic Issues in Crimea," RFE/RL Research Report. Vol. 2, No. 18, 1993, p. 25.
37. The treaty involving Tajikistan has not been ratified by Russia. For an in-depth discussion of the issue of dual citizenship, see Igor Zevelev, "Russia and the Russian Diasporas," Post-Soviet Affairs, Vol. 12, No. 3, 1996, pp. 266-272.
38. "My vsegda otkryty dlya vsekh," Oppozitsiya, No.4, 1994.
39. For a discussion of this work, see John B. Dunlop, "Russia: Confronting a Loss of Empire," in Ian Bremmer and Ray Taras, eds, Nation and Politics in the Soviet Successor States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 58-60.
40. The best study of Russian military policy in the "near abroad" and the Russian military in general is Pavel Baev, The Russian Army in a Time of Troubles (London: Sage/PRIO, 1996).
41. See "Ofitserskoe sobranie nastaivaet na edinstsve vooruzhennykh sil," Izvestiya, 18 January 1992; and "Manevry vokrug ochen vooruzhennykh sil," Izvestiya, 20 January 1992.
42. See "Ofitserskoe sobranie nastaivaet na edinstsve vooruzhennykh sil," Izvestiya, 18 January 1992; and "Manevry vokrug ochen vooruzhennykh sil," Izvestiya, 20 January 1992.
43. Krasnaya Zvezda, as reported by Russian Press Digest, 14 February 1992
44. Nikolay Stolyarov, "Integratsiya tak zhe tsenna, kak i nezavisimost," Izvestiya, 16 January 1992. Stolyarov was an aide to the Commander in Chief of the CIS forces, and chairman of the personnel committee.
45. "Soviet Officers Start Political Movement; Aim Is to Preserve Military Unity, Benefits," Washington Post, 17 January 1992.
46. Vladimir Lopatin, "Zashchitit li krasnaya armiya belyy dom," Izvestiya, 13 February 1992.
47. The doctrine was published in a special issue of Voennaya Mysl in May 1992.
48. Charles J. Dick, "Initial Thoughts on Russia's Draft Military Doctrine," Journal of Slavic Military Studies, Vol. 5, No. 4, 1992, p. 553. See also James M Greene, "The Peacekeeping Doctrines of the CIS," Jane's Intelligence Review, Vol. 5, No. 4, 1993.
49. Charles J. Dick, "Initial Thoughts on Russia's Draft Military Doctrine," Journal of Slavic Military Studies, Vol. 5, No. 4, 1992, p. 553. See also James M Greene, "The Peacekeeping Doctrines of the CIS," Jane's Intelligence Review, Vol. 5, No. 4, 1993.
50. Dick, "The Military Doctrine of the Russian Federation," Jane's Intelligence Review, Vol. 6, No. 1, 1994. Dick speculated that differences between the 1992 draft and this doctrine could be explained by the fact that the General Staff had a heavy influence on the earlier one, whereas the latter was mainly the work of the MO.
51. Dick, ibid.
52. For a thorough examination of the relationship between Slavs and non-Slavs within the Soviet armed forces, see Ellen Jones, Red Army and Society. A Sociology of the Soviet Military (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1985), pp 180-209.
53. Vice-Admiral Kazimir Stalbo, "Prestuplenie veka; obekt i podelniki," Rossiyskaya gazeta, 24 June 1993. Another example of Rossiyskaya gazeta publishing articles at odds with goverment policy over Crimea is the Academy of Sciences member Georgiy Shakhazarov's flaming article "Mne stydno za Prezidenta" ("I Am Ashamed of the President"), published on 29 June 1993, as a response to Yeltsin's criticism of the Supreme Soviet.
54. "Sevastopol-gorod rossiyskiy," Pravda, 22 June 1993.
55. "Dlya chego perevozit chto-to iz Rossii v Rossiyu?" Nezavisimaya gazeta, 7 April 1992.
56. Itar-Tass, 5 October 1992, FBIS-SOV-92-194.
57. For a profile of Baltin, see Scott Parrish, "Admiral Eduard Baltin: Presiding Reluctantly over the Fleet's Division," Transition, Vol. 1, No. 13, 1995, p. 32.
58. See, e.g., "I snova predshtormovaya pogoda," Rossiya, 12-18 May 1993.
59. Interfax, 14 October 1993, FBIS-SOV-93-199
60. "Ethnic Turmoil Tears Apart Armed Forces," The Independent, 12 January 1992. At this point. Admiral Kasatonov stated that Ukrainians accounted for 19% of the officers and 30% of the seamen and petty officers of the BSF. "Troops Begin to Take the Oath on Ukrainian Territory," Izvestiya, 7 January 1992, FBIS-SOV-92-004.
61. "Ethnic Turmoil Tears Apart Armed Forces," The Independent, 12 January 1992. At this point. Admiral Kasatonov stated that Ukrainians accounted for 19% of the officers and 30% of the seamen and petty officers of the BSF. "Troops Begin to Take the Oath on Ukrainian Territory," Izvestiya, 7 January 1992, FBIS-SOV-92-004.
62. Two other positions that may also be identified above all with the policies of Vladimir Zhirinovskiy, the winner of the Duma election four months earlier, also scored particularly well in the military. The first was the elimination of the current ethno-territorial divisions of the state for one of a territorial-administrative system. Here, the officers were among the top categories, scoring 26%, compared with the average 14%. The position that Russia should be "cleansed" of aliens (inorodtsy) was supported more by officers than by any other group: 23% versus the 16% average. I. Klyamkin, V. Lapkin and V. Pantin, Politicheskiy kurs B. Eltsina: predvaritelnye itogi (Moscow: Fond "Obshchestvennoe mnenie," 1994), p. 70-71.
63. Among typical left-wing categories, support for this idea actually increased; for instance, pensioners support for this idea grew from 25% to 32%.
64. Ibid.
65. "Ukraine: The Crimean Question," The Economist, 11 January 1992.
66. Ingemar Oldberg, "Vad hande med Svarthavsflottan?" Internationella Studier, No. 1, 1996, p. 12. Establishing beyond doubt the details of the financing of the BSF is very difficult for several reasons; some sources claim Ukraine still made some contributions.
67. RFE/RL Daily Brief, 24 August 1994
68. See Markus Ustina," Ukraine: Stability amid Political Turnover," Transition, 15 February 1995, p. 70.
69. "Black Sea Fleet-An Insoluble Problem?" Moscow News, 15 January 1992.
70. "Agreements Say One Thing, but Another Is Actually Done," Krasnaya zvezda, 26 February 1992, FBIS-SOV-92-042.
71. "O chem zabyl mayor Astakhov," Izvestiya, 3 March 1992.
72. Peter J. S. Duncan, "Ukraine and the Ukrainians," in Graham Smith, ed., The Nationalities Question in the post-Soviet States, 2nd edn (London: Longman, 1996), p. 201.
73. Financial Times, 11 July 1993, as reported in SIPRl Yearbook 1993. World Armaments and Disarmament (London: SIPRI/Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 184.
74. TASS, 29 January 1993.
75. I. Klyamkin, V. Lapkin and V. Pantin, Politicheskiy kurs B. Eltsina: predvaritelnye itogi (Moscow: Fond "Obshchestvennoe mnenie," 1994), p. 70-71.
76. The post of JAF commander was abolished by the CIS defense ministers in August 1993.
77. "Igrat v politiku armiya ne namerena," Literaturnaya gazeta, 17 March 1993.
78. "I. Kapitanets: Kak skazal Eltsin, "Chernomorskiy flot byl, est i budet rossiyskim," Rossiyskie vesti, February 1992. Reprinted in Nesokrushimaya i legendarnaya. V ogne politicheskikh bataliv 1985-1993 gg. Rossiyskiy nezavisimyy institut sotsialnykh i natsionalnykh problem (Moscow: Terra, 1994), pp. 328-330.
79. "I. Kapitanets: Kak skazal Eltsin, "Chernomorskiy flot byl, est i budet rossiyskim," Rossiyskie vesti, February 1992. Reprinted in Nesokrushimaya i legendarnaya. V ogne politicheskikh bataliv 1985-1993 gg. Rossiyskiy nezavisimyy institut sotsialnykh i natsionalnykh problem (Moscow: Terra, 1994), pp. 328-330.
80. Moscow Russian Television Network, 16 March 1992, FBIS-SOV-92-052.
81. Mark Webber, The International Politics of Russia and the Successor States (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996), p. 185.
82. Creative intermediate positions were proposed on the way. By April, Shaposhnikov, as well as, e.g., Admiral Chernavin, spoke of Ukraine's obvious right to create its own navy. For that purpose, it should receive some 10-20% of the BSF, whereas the CIS should have the rest. See Ostankino TV, 23 April 1992, FBIS-SOV-92-080. In June, he suggested that the BSF might be divided up between all the CIS members, and that the other republics, less Ukraine, thereafter "delegate" their shares to Russia. See RFE/RL Daily Brief, 19 June 1992.
83. Mark Webber, The International Politics of Russia and the Successor States (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996), p. 185.
84. Dimitry Trenin, "Divide and Flourish?" New Times, September 1992.
85. RFE/RL Daily Brief, 10 January 1992.
86. "Glavkom dovolen rabotoy, provedennoy s prezidentami," Izvestiya, 24 March 1992.
87. "Igrat v politiku armiya ne namerena," Literaturnaya gazeta, 17 March 1993.
88. Ibid.
89. Radio Mayak, 6 January 1992, FBIS-SOV-92-004.
90. Radio Rossii, 7 April 1992, FBIS-SOV-92-068-S.
91. "Igrat v politiku armiya ne namerena," Literaturnaya gazeta, 17 March 1993.
92. "Black Sea Fleet Is All Russia's, Yeltsin Insists," Los Angeles Times, 10 January 1992.
93. "I. Kasatonov: Prisyagu na vernost Ukraine, kak i drugim respublikam byvshego suyuza, ya uzhe daval". Krasnaya zvezda, 4 March 1992. Reprinted in Nesokrushimaya i legendamay, op. cit., pp. 334-335.
94. "I. Kasatonov: Prisyagu na vernost Ukraine, kak i drugim respublikam byvshego suyuza, ya uzhe daval". Krasnaya zvezda, 4 March 1992. Reprinted in Nesokrushimaya i legendamay, op. cit., pp. 334-335.
95. See, e.g., Igor Shafarevich, "Oborona Sevastopolya prodolzhaetsya," Literaturnaya Rossiya, 4 June 1993.
96. Pål Kolstø, Nasjonsbygging. Russland og de nye slatene i øst (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1998), pp. 253-254.
97. "The Navy Serves the Whole Fatherland," Sovetskaya Rossiya, 9 January 1992, FBIS-SOV-92-006.
98. "I. Kapitanets: Kak skazal Eltsin, "Chernomorskiiy flot byl, est i budet rossiyskim," Rossiyskie vesti, 13 February 1992. Reprinted in Nesokrushimaya i legendarnaya, op. cit., pp. 328-330. Kapitanets retired in April 1992, and was replaced by Admiral Feliks Gromov. See RFE/RL Daily Brief, 3 April 1992.
99. "I. Kapitanets: Kak skazal Eltsin, "Chernomorskiiy flot byl, est i budet rossiyskim," Rossiyskie vesti, 13 February 1992. Reprinted in Nesokrushimaya i legendarnaya, op. cit., pp. 328-330. Kapitanets retired in April 1992, and was replaced by Admiral Feliks Gromov. See RFE/RL Daily Brief, 3 April 1992.
100. "I. Kapitanets: Kak skazal Eltsin, "Chernomorskiiy flot byl, est i budet rossiyskim," Rossiyskie vesti, 13 February 1992. Reprinted in Nesokrushimaya i legendarnaya, op. cit., pp. 328-330. Kapitanets retired in April 1992, and was replaced by Admiral Feliks Gromov. See RFE/RL Daily Brief, 3 April 1992.
101. Konstantin Pleshakov, "Krym: kuda nas tolkayut glupye natsionalisty," Novoe vremya, No. 31, 1993
102. Natalia Belitser and Oleg Bodruk, "Conflicting Loyalties in the Crimea," in Michael Waller, Bruno Coppieters and Alexei Malashenko, Conflicting Loyalties and the State in Post-Soviet Russia and Eurasia (London: Frank Cass, 1998), p 72.
103. Kremen, Vasily: "The East Slav Triangle," in Vladimir Baranovsky, ed., Russia and Europe. The Emerging Security Agenda (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 283.
104. "Chem budet Krym: yablokom razdora ili svyazyuyshchim zvenom?" Kommersant-Daily, 10 July 1993.
105. Vladimir Kovalenko, "Govaryat 'flot'-podrazumevayut Krym," Izvestiya, 29 May 1993.
106. Reported by Ukrayina segodnya, May 1994, quoted in Tor Bukkvoll, Ukraine and European Security (London: Chatham House Papers, 1997), p. 70.
107. RFE/RL Daily Brief, 25 October 1996.
108. Deborah Yarsike Hall and Theodore P. Gerber, "The Political Views of Russian Field Grade Officers," Post-Soviet Affairs, No. 2, Vol. 12, 1996, p. 168.
109. Vera Tolz, "Conflicting 'Homelands Myths' and Nation-State Building in Postcommunist Russia," Slavic Review, Vol. 57, No. 2, 1998, pp. 274-275.