Islam in Romania

Central Asian Survey

Volumn 15, Issue 3-4, 1996, Pages 349-368

  Lederer, Gyorgy ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0004625046     PISSN: 02634937     EISSN: None     Source Type: Trade Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/02634939608400956     Document Type: Article

References (87)

1. Romanya Demokrat Turk Musluman Birligi (Uniunea Democrata Turca Musulmana din Romania). It was legally registered on 9 February 1990. Situatia minoritatilor nationale din Romania, martie 1990, Bucharest, Consilul Provizoriu de Uniune Nationala, Comisia pentru Minoritati Nationale, 1990, p 111.
2. Historian, Associate Professor at the University of Bucharest since 1989, Gemil was born in Medgidia in 1943. Graduate of the University of Iasi (1965), Doctor of Historical Sciences (1976), he worked as an archivist, and then at the 'N. Iorga' Institute of History in Bucharest as a researcher. Karadeniz, 1990, 1, 1, p 4. His best-known works: Romanii si otomanii in secolele XIV-XVI, Bucharest, Editura Academiei Romane, 1991. and Relatiile Tarilor Romane cu Poarta Otomana in documente turcesti, 1601-1712, Bucharest, Directia Generala a Arhivelor Statului din Republica Socialista Romania, 1984.
3. Historian, Associate Professor at the University of Bucharest since 1989, Gemil was born in Medgidia in 1943. Graduate of the University of Iasi (1965), Doctor of Historical Sciences (1976), he worked as an archivist, and then at the 'N. Iorga' Institute of History in Bucharest as a researcher. Karadeniz, 1990, 1, 1, p 4. His best-known works: Romanii si otomanii in secolele XIV-XVI, Bucharest, Editura Academiei Romane, 1991. and Relatiile Tarilor Romane cu Poarta Otomana in documente turcesti, 1601-1712, Bucharest, Directia Generala a Arhivelor Statului din Republica Socialista Romania, 1984.
4. Historian, Associate Professor at the University of Bucharest since 1989, Gemil was born in Medgidia in 1943. Graduate of the University of Iasi (1965), Doctor of Historical Sciences (1976), he worked as an archivist, and then at the 'N. Iorga' Institute of History in Bucharest as a researcher. Karadeniz, 1990, 1, 1, p 4. His best-known works: Romanii si otomanii in secolele XIV-XVI, Bucharest, Editura Academiei Romane, 1991. and Relatiile Tarilor Romane cu Poarta Otomana in documente turcesti, 1601-1712, Bucharest, Directia Generala a Arhivelor Statului din Republica Socialista Romania, 1984.
5. Declaratie a Uniunii Democrate Turce Musulmane din Romania, Karadeniz, 1990, 1, 1, p 5. Apel al Uniunii Democratice Turce Musulmane din Romania, Karadeniz, 1990, 1, 1, p 7; Situatia minoritatilor ..., pp 114-116.
6. Declaratie a Uniunii Democrate Turce Musulmane din Romania, Karadeniz, 1990, 1, 1, p 5. Apel al Uniunii Democratice Turce Musulmane din Romania, Karadeniz, 1990, 1, 1, p 7; Situatia minoritatilor ..., pp 114-116.
7. Declaratie a Uniunii Democrate Turce Musulmane din Romania, Karadeniz, 1990, 1, 1, p 5. Apel al Uniunii Democratice Turce Musulmane din Romania, Karadeniz, 1990, 1, 1, p 7; Situatia minoritatilor ..., pp 114-116.
8. There were press reports about an agreement (the so-called 'Z-Z' plan) between Romania, Iran, Syria, Libya and the Palestine Liberation Organization that they would succour Ceausescu militarily in case of a revolt against him as well as about Arabs fighting alongside with the security police against the anti-Ceausescu army units and the demonstrators during the revolution of 20 December. The dictator is said to have visited Iran a few days earlier to arrange his flight if overthrown. There were numerous accounts on the armed intervention of airborne Arab 'terrorists' during the events and the presence of suspect foreign ships at the Romanian coasts. At his trial, Ceausescu himself was asked about 'foreign mercenaries shooting at the people'. The Soviets purportedly considered Romania to be under foreign aggression in those days and 'put pressure on the countries involved in the "Z-Z" plan, forcing them to renounce any intervention'. These allegations have not been proved beyond doubt. The reason for their official denial by Bucharest is said to have been the threat of reprisals against the many Romanians working in Arab countries. Libya's ambassador was the first to recognize the new power on 25 December. His country was later accused of having removed wounded and dead Arabs by plane, in the last days of 1989. This mysterious story was summed up in Adevarul 23.8.1990, Baricada 32 21.8.1990, Romania Libera 28.9.1990. In French see Nouvel Observateur 17-23.5.1990, in English N. Ratesh, Romania: The Entangled Revolution, New York, Praeger, 1991, pp 64-69. It was well-known that Palestinian and other Middle Eastern combatants received military training at the centres of the Romanian security forces at Banasea and elsewhere. All this had little to do with the overwhelming majority of the Arabs living in Romania and even less with Islam in the country, although the above events and rumours did not increase their already limited popularity.
9. There were press reports about an agreement (the so-called 'Z-Z' plan) between Romania, Iran, Syria, Libya and the Palestine Liberation Organization that they would succour Ceausescu militarily in case of a revolt against him as well as about Arabs fighting alongside with the security police against the anti-Ceausescu army units and the demonstrators during the revolution of 20 December. The dictator is said to have visited Iran a few days earlier to arrange his flight if overthrown. There were numerous accounts on the armed intervention of airborne Arab 'terrorists' during the events and the presence of suspect foreign ships at the Romanian coasts. At his trial, Ceausescu himself was asked about 'foreign mercenaries shooting at the people'. The Soviets purportedly considered Romania to be under foreign aggression in those days and 'put pressure on the countries involved in the "Z-Z" plan, forcing them to renounce any intervention'. These allegations have not been proved beyond doubt. The reason for their official denial by Bucharest is said to have been the threat of reprisals against the many Romanians working in Arab countries. Libya's ambassador was the first to recognize the new power on 25 December. His country was later accused of having removed wounded and dead Arabs by plane, in the last days of 1989. This mysterious story was summed up in Adevarul 23.8.1990, Baricada 32 21.8.1990, Romania Libera 28.9.1990. In French see Nouvel Observateur 17-23.5.1990, in English N. Ratesh, Romania: The Entangled Revolution, New York, Praeger, 1991, pp 64-69. It was well-known that Palestinian and other Middle Eastern combatants received military training at the centres of the Romanian security forces at Banasea and elsewhere. All this had little to do with the overwhelming majority of the Arabs living in Romania and even less with Islam in the country, although the above events and rumours did not increase their already limited popularity.
10. An interview with the Mufti in al-Tasawwuf al-Islami 36-37, 1982, another one in Revista Cultului Musulman October 1980, and his preface to R. Florescu, Prezente Musulmane in Romania/Muslims in Romania. Past and Present/Maalim islamiya fi Romanya, Bucharest, Meridiane, 1976, are good examples. The latter refers to the Mufti's visits to Morocco, Iraq, Lebanon, Egypt and Saudi Arabia in the early 1970s. He was later in Libya, Iran, and again in Saudi Arabia and Egypt, according to F. De Jong, The Turks and Tatars in Romania, Turcica, 1986, 18, p 181.
11. An interview with the Mufti in al-Tasawwuf al-Islami 36-37, 1982, another one in Revista Cultului Musulman October 1980, and his preface to R. Florescu, Prezente Musulmane in Romania/Muslims in Romania. Past and Present/Maalim islamiya fi Romanya, Bucharest, Meridiane, 1976, are good examples. The latter refers to the Mufti's visits to Morocco, Iraq, Lebanon, Egypt and Saudi Arabia in the early 1970s. He was later in Libya, Iran, and again in Saudi Arabia and Egypt, according to F. De Jong, The Turks and Tatars in Romania, Turcica, 1986, 18, p 181.
12. An interview with the Mufti in al-Tasawwuf al-Islami 36-37, 1982, another one in Revista Cultului Musulman October 1980, and his preface to R. Florescu, Prezente Musulmane in Romania/Muslims in Romania. Past and Present/Maalim islamiya fi Romanya, Bucharest, Meridiane, 1976, are good examples. The latter refers to the Mufti's visits to Morocco, Iraq, Lebanon, Egypt and Saudi Arabia in the early 1970s. He was later in Libya, Iran, and again in Saudi Arabia and Egypt, according to F. De Jong, The Turks and Tatars in Romania, Turcica, 1986, 18, p 181.
13. An interview with the Mufti in al-Tasawwuf al-Islami 36-37, 1982, another one in Revista Cultului Musulman October 1980, and his preface to R. Florescu, Prezente Musulmane in Romania/Muslims in Romania. Past and Present/Maalim islamiya fi Romanya, Bucharest, Meridiane, 1976, are good examples. The latter refers to the Mufti's visits to Morocco, Iraq, Lebanon, Egypt and Saudi Arabia in the early 1970s. He was later in Libya, Iran, and again in Saudi Arabia and Egypt, according to F. De Jong, The Turks and Tatars in Romania, Turcica, 1986, 18, p 181.
14. De Jong, p 180.
15. M. Ulkusal, Dobruca ve Turkler, Ankara, Turk Kulturunu Arastirma Enstitusu, 1966, p 133.
16. According to Professor Gemil, about 8,000 Crimean Tatars, most of them Soviet prisoners of war, were forced to wear German uniform; 4,000 of them escaped to Romania in 1944. They stayed in a forest near Constanta for a while, and most of them eventually managed to reach the West.
17. Situatia minoritatilor ..., p 2.
18. M. Berindei, Les minorités nationales en Roumanie, Roumanie: crise et repression 1977-1982, (L'Alternative, Supplement au nr. 29, 1983), p 62, M. Strudza, Is The Securitate Still Watching Romania's Moslems? Radio Free Europe, 16 April, 1991.
19. M. Berindei, Les minorités nationales en Roumanie, Roumanie: crise et repression 1977-1982, (L'Alternative, Supplement au nr. 29, 1983), p 62, M. Strudza, Is The Securitate Still Watching Romania's Moslems? Radio Free Europe, 16 April, 1991.
20. Despite H. W. Hartmann's figure (42,248) quoted by De Jong, p 171.
21. See on this Professor Gemil's books (note 2) and also Mehmet Ali Ekrem, Relatiile romano-turce intre cele doua razboaie mondiale, Bucharest, Editura Scientifica.
22. See on this Professor Gemil's books (note 2) and also Mehmet Ali Ekrem, Relatiile romano-turce intre cele doua razboaie mondiale, Bucharest, Editura Scientifica.
23. H. Inalcik, Dobrudja, Encyclopaedia of Islam, II, p 610.
24. Dervish Sari Saltuk is said to have moved to Babadag (his turbe is there) from Anatolia in the winter of 1263-64 with 10,000 Turkish families, the 'founders' of Turkish Dobrudja. His venerated personality and spiritual heritage have played an outstanding role in Balkan popular tradition. See Karadeniz, 1991, 2, 3, p 3, and also H. T. Norris, Islam in the Balkans ..., London, C. Hurst and Co., 1993, pp 146-155.
25. Dervish Sari Saltuk is said to have moved to Babadag (his turbe is there) from Anatolia in the winter of 1263-64 with 10,000 Turkish families, the 'founders' of Turkish Dobrudja. His venerated personality and spiritual heritage have played an outstanding role in Balkan popular tradition. See Karadeniz, 1991, 2, 3, p 3, and also H. T. Norris, Islam in the Balkans ..., London, C. Hurst and Co., 1993, pp 146-155.
26. Ulkusal, op cit.
27. De Jong, op cit. See also his 'History and present-day conditions of the Muslim community in Romania', Religion in Communist Dominated Areas, Vol 35, No. 3, Summer 1986. See also M. V. Yurtsever, Die Tataren und die Ottomanischen Turken in der Dobrudscha, Jahrbuch der Dobrudschadeutschen, 1976, p 25, and Grulich, Die Turken in Rumanien, Materiala Turcica, 1975.
28. De Jong, op cit. See also his 'History and present-day conditions of the Muslim community in Romania', Religion in Communist Dominated Areas, Vol 35, No. 3, Summer 1986. See also M. V. Yurtsever, Die Tataren und die Ottomanischen Turken in der Dobrudscha, Jahrbuch der Dobrudschadeutschen, 1976, p 25, and Grulich, Die Turken in Rumanien, Materiala Turcica, 1975.
29. De Jong, op cit. See also his 'History and present-day conditions of the Muslim community in Romania', Religion in Communist Dominated Areas, Vol 35, No. 3, Summer 1986. See also M. V. Yurtsever, Die Tataren und die Ottomanischen Turken in der Dobrudscha, Jahrbuch der Dobrudschadeutschen, 1976, p 25, and Grulich, Die Turken in Rumanien, Materiala Turcica, 1975.
30. De Jong, op cit. See also his 'History and present-day conditions of the Muslim community in Romania', Religion in Communist Dominated Areas, Vol 35, No. 3, Summer 1986. See also M. V. Yurtsever, Die Tataren und die Ottomanischen Turken in der Dobrudscha, Jahrbuch der Dobrudschadeutschen, 1976, p 25, and Grulich, Die Turken in Rumanien, Materiala Turcica, 1975.
31. R. P. Marcu, 'Some aspects of laicization of Moslem family in Dobrudja' (end of the 19th century-first decades of the 20th century), Revue des études Sud-Est européennes, 1965, 1-2, 192.
32. Quoted by Marcu, p 194. referring to G. Angelesco, Etude sur la Dobrogea au point de vue de l'organisation des pouvoirs publics, Paris, 1907, pp 98-101.
33. Quoted by Marcu, p 194. referring to G. Angelesco, Etude sur la Dobrogea au point de vue de l'organisation des pouvoirs publics, Paris, 1907, pp 98-101.
34. I. N. Roman quoted by Marcu, p 216.
35. Marcu, pp 226-227.
36. De Jong, The Turks ... , p 169.
37. G. Cioranescu, 'The present situation of Romania's Moslems', Radio Free Europe Research, 16 August, 1983, p 11.
38. De Jong, The Turks ... , p 172.
39. Ulkusal, pp 25-28.
40. The main Turkish periodicals are listed and commented by Ulkusal, pp 155-163. See also A. Popovic, L'Islam balkanique, Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz, 1986, pp 237-244 and Annex XV.
41. The main Turkish periodicals are listed and commented by Ulkusal, pp 155-163. See also A. Popovic, L'Islam balkanique, Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz, 1986, pp 237-244 and Annex XV.
42. Mecidiye Musulman Seminari - Seminarul Musulman din Medgidia. See Ulkusal, pp 111-115, Anuarul Seminarului musulman din Medgidia in the Library of the Romanian Academy of Sciences, A. Alecu, Istoricul seminarului musulman din Medgidia, Analele Dobrogei, 2, 1928, pp 181-187, and Popovic, pp 209-211, 233-235. A similar yet less important seminar was founded in Silistra in 1920.
43. Mecidiye Musulman Seminari - Seminarul Musulman din Medgidia. See Ulkusal, pp 111-115, Anuarul Seminarului musulman din Medgidia in the Library of the Romanian Academy of Sciences, A. Alecu, Istoricul seminarului musulman din Medgidia, Analele Dobrogei, 2, 1928, pp 181-187, and Popovic, pp 209-211, 233-235. A similar yet less important seminar was founded in Silistra in 1920.
44. Mecidiye Musulman Seminari - Seminarul Musulman din Medgidia. See Ulkusal, pp 111-115, Anuarul Seminarului musulman din Medgidia in the Library of the Romanian Academy of Sciences, A. Alecu, Istoricul seminarului musulman din Medgidia, Analele Dobrogei, 2, 1928, pp 181-187, and Popovic, pp 209-211, 233-235. A similar yet less important seminar was founded in Silistra in 1920.
45. Enciclopedia Romana, Vol 1, Bucharest, Imprimeria Nationala, 1938, pp 439-440.
46. These restorations are enumerated by Mufti Iacub Mehmet in his preface to Florescu, op cit, p 18: 'capital repairs' in the cases of the mosques of Mangalia ('Esmahan Sultan'), Medgidia, Tuzla, and the Hunkiar (or King Karol I) Mosque of Constanta (used at that time as a museum), while the Anadolkoy Mosque and the Bucharest mosque 'have been completely reconstructed'. See also De Jong, The Turks ... , p 180, notes 120-121.
47. These restorations are enumerated by Mufti Iacub Mehmet in his preface to Florescu, op cit, p 18: 'capital repairs' in the cases of the mosques of Mangalia ('Esmahan Sultan'), Medgidia, Tuzla, and the Hunkiar (or King Karol I) Mosque of Constanta (used at that time as a museum), while the Anadolkoy Mosque and the Bucharest mosque 'have been completely reconstructed'. See also De Jong, The Turks ... , p 180, notes 120-121.
48. According to an interview of Karadeniz, 1991, 2, 1, p 4 with Helen Diatcu of Publisher Kriterion, the main publications were Boztorgay (Tatar folklor, 1980, by Ahmet N. G. Ali, Mehmet Ablai, Nuri Vuap), Bulbul Sesi (Turkish folklore, Mehmet Ali Ekrem), Tepegoz (Turkish tales, 1985, Mehmet Ali Ekrem, Mehmet Ali Hilmiye), and two issues of the literary review Renkler appeared in 1987 and 1989. Nezvat M. Yusuf and Nermin Yusuf published their Nasrettin Hoca'ga Dair Masallar in Turkey in 1985. Enver Mahmut's Tatar Textbook (1975) and Sukran Vuap-Mocanu's Tatar Grammar (1985) were published in Bucharest.
49. Karadeniz, 1990, 1, 3, p 3.
50. Romanya Musluman Tatar Turklerinin Demokratik Birligi (Uniunea Democrata a Tatarilor Turco-Musulmani din Romania): Constanta, Revolutiei din Decembrie 1989 Street Nr. 6.
51. Romanya Turkler Demokratik Birligi (Uniunea Demokrata Turca din Romania): Constanta, Bd. Mamaia Nr. 165.
52. Recensamintul Populatiei din 21 Februarie 1956, Bucharest, Intreprinderea Poligrafica, 1959, p XXIV, Recensamintul Populatiei si Locuintelor din 15 Martie 1966, Bucharest, Intreprinderea Buletinul Oficial, 1969, p 153, Recensamintul Populatiei si Locuintelor din Romania din 5 Januarie 1977, Vol 1, Bucharest, Intreprinderea Buletinul Oficial, 1980. There are slightly different figures in Romania Libera, 21, 3, 1990.
53. Recensamintul Populatiei din 21 Februarie 1956, Bucharest, Intreprinderea Poligrafica, 1959, p XXIV, Recensamintul Populatiei si Locuintelor din 15 Martie 1966, Bucharest, Intreprinderea Buletinul Oficial, 1969, p 153, Recensamintul Populatiei si Locuintelor din Romania din 5 Januarie 1977, Vol 1, Bucharest, Intreprinderea Buletinul Oficial, 1980. There are slightly different figures in Romania Libera, 21, 3, 1990.
54. Recensamintul Populatiei din 21 Februarie 1956, Bucharest, Intreprinderea Poligrafica, 1959, p XXIV, Recensamintul Populatiei si Locuintelor din 15 Martie 1966, Bucharest, Intreprinderea Buletinul Oficial, 1969, p 153, Recensamintul Populatiei si Locuintelor din Romania din 5 Januarie 1977, Vol 1, Bucharest, Intreprinderea Buletinul Oficial, 1980. There are slightly different figures in Romania Libera, 21, 3, 1990.
55. Recensamintul Populatiei din 21 Februarie 1956, Bucharest, Intreprinderea Poligrafica, 1959, p XXIV, Recensamintul Populatiei si Locuintelor din 15 Martie 1966, Bucharest, Intreprinderea Buletinul Oficial, 1969, p 153, Recensamintul Populatiei si Locuintelor din Romania din 5 Januarie 1977, Vol 1, Bucharest, Intreprinderea Buletinul Oficial, 1980. There are slightly different figures in Romania Libera, 21, 3, 1990.
56. Karadeniz, 1990, 1, 4-5, p 8. Physician Ibrahim Themo (1865-1945) appears to have been the main personality of this Dobrudja Albanian community.
57. The text of the speech was printed in Romanian and Turkish in Karadeniz, 1991, 2, 1 pp 1 and 8.
58. Ismail Gaspirali (or Gaspraly or Gasprinsky) (1851-1914): Prominent Crimean Tatar thinker, linguist, historian and politician. His liberal pan-Turkism envisioned the unity of Turkic Muslim peoples from the Bosphorus to China. He founded a political party (Ittifaq al-muslimin) and edited a periodical (Terdjuman). He believed that of European nations, Russians were the closest to Islam.
59. Karadeniz, 1992, 3, 4, p 1, and 1992, 2, 3, p 3. See note 14.
60. Karadeniz, 1992, 3, 4, p 1, and 1992, 2, 3, p 3. See note 14.
61. Karadeniz, 1991, 2, 3, p 2 and 1992, 3, 4, p 1. Mehmet Niyazi (1878-1931): Tatar writer and poet born in Mangalia. He taught Turkish in a Constanta school until 1914, then in the seminar of Medgidia. He edited several Turkish periodicals and played an outstanding role in the community and intellectual life of Romanian Muslims. One of their cultural associations in the 1930s was named after him.
62. Karadeniz, 1991, 2, 3, p 2 and 1992, 3, 4, p 1. Mehmet Niyazi (1878-1931): Tatar writer and poet born in Mangalia. He taught Turkish in a Constanta school until 1914, then in the seminar of Medgidia. He edited several Turkish periodicals and played an outstanding role in the community and intellectual life of Romanian Muslims. One of their cultural associations in the 1930s was named after him.
63. Karadeniz, 1993, 3, 4, p 1 and 1994, 4, 1, p 7.
64. Karadeniz, 1993, 3, 4, p 1 and 1994, 4, 1, p 7.
65. Ulkusal, pp 142-145.
66. S. Mardin, Religious and Social Change in Modern Turkey: The Case of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, Albany, State University of New York, 1989, p 208.
67. Mardin, p 230.
68. T. Gemil, Asociatia din Romania a 'Junilor Turci', Anuarul Institutului de Istorie si arheologie 'A. D. Xenopol', Iasi, 1970, pp 173-195.
69. Cuvantul dlui Tahsin Gemil la Sedinta Camerelor reunite ale Parlamentului Romaniei, Karadeniz, 1994, 4, 1. Supliment in limba romana, p 1.
70. Ulkusal, pp 105-121.
71. Karadeniz, 1991, 2, 3, p 1.
72. Membrii Comisiilor UDTTMR, Karadeniz, 1994, 4, 1. Supliment in limba romana, p 4.
73. The big mosque of Medgidia is located in the centre of the city. Accessible through an adjacent hall of 6×15 metres, the main room's size is about 22×22 metres. It has 16 windows, a nice huge lustre received from Turkey, and U-shaped inside balcony directed toward the mihrab. The structure rests on 14 large pillars which are original ones. On Friday, the ezan can be heard from the minaret in the whole town. The mosques' three imams are paid by the state. There is a fourth one from Turkey who receives his salary from there.
74. G. Akmolla, Toleranta, Karadeniz, 1994, 4, 1. Supliment in limba romana, p 4. According to this article, there is a weekly Turkish programme of half an hour on the Constanta local radio. See also Karadeniz, 1994, 4, 2, p 1.
75. G. Akmolla, Toleranta, Karadeniz, 1994, 4, 1. Supliment in limba romana, p 4. According to this article, there is a weekly Turkish programme of half an hour on the Constanta local radio. See also Karadeniz, 1994, 4, 2, p 1.
76. Karadeniz, 1991, 2, 3, pp 1 and 2. See a similar editorial on the 70th anniversary of the Turkish Republic in Karadeniz, 1993, 3, 4, p 1.
77. Karadeniz, 1991, 2, 3, pp 1 and 2. See a similar editorial on the 70th anniversary of the Turkish Republic in Karadeniz, 1993, 3, 4, p 1.
78. Karadeniz, 1993, 3, 4, p 4.
79. See the text of this agreement in Karadeniz, 1991, 2, 1, p 3.
80. On the Constanta mosques, see T. Fryzel, 'Relikty muzulmanskiej przezlosci Konstancy', Przegled Orientalistyczny, 1971, 81, pp 66-68. Little has changed since then.
81. De Jong, The Turks ... , pp 185-186.
82. M. Shafir, Immigrants in Romania, RFE/RL Research Report, 24 June 1994.
83. The mosque of Bucharest has two main rooms of about 10×10 and 8×14 metres. Another long (6×20) structure of wood was erected a couple of years ago to accommodate the growing number of Muslims. Both buildings have smaller inside balconies for the women and are connected to each other by wire so that the voice of the imam could be heard.
84. About the literature on Adakale see Popovic pp 222-224, 249.
85. For example, Gh. Sarvar, Islam. Credinta si invataturi, Timisoara, Asociatia Studentilor Musulmani din Romania, 1994.
86. A few (non-Turkish and non-Tatar) Romanians of Unirea were reportedly converted to Islam by a local engineer who had worked in the Arab world.
87. Open Media Research Institute, 20 November 1995.