Democratization in Africa after 1989: Comparative and theoretical perspectives

Comparative Politics

Volumn 29, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 363-382

  Joseph, Richard ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0004491883     PISSN: 00104159     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/422126     Document Type: Article

References (105)

1. Barrington Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966).
2. Samuel Huntington, "Will More Countries Become Democratic?," Political Science Quarterly, 99 (Summer 1994), 216, 218.
3. Robert Dahl, Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971), p. 208.
4. Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), p. 2.
5. Michael A. Bratton, "Beyond the State: Civil Society and Associational Life in Africa," World Politics, 51 (1989), 430.
6. Crawford Young, "Democratization in Africa: The Contradictions of a Political Imperative," in Jennifer A. Widner, ed., Economic Change and Political Liberalization in Sub-Saharan Africa (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), p. 235.
7. Dankwart A. Rustow, "Transitions to Democracy: Toward a Dynamic Model," Comparative Politics, 2 (April 1970), 345.
8. Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), p. 39. See also Myron Weiner, "Empirical Democratic Theory and the Transition from Authoritarianism to Democracy," PS: Political Science & Politics, 20 (Fall 1987), 862-63.
9. Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), p. 39. See also Myron Weiner, "Empirical Democratic Theory and the Transition from Authoritarianism to Democracy," PS: Political Science & Politics, 20 (Fall 1987), 862-63.
10. J. Peter Euben, "Democracy Ancient and Modern," PS, 26 (September 1993), 478. Cf. Giovanni Sartori, The Theory of Democracy Revisited, Part One (New Jersey: Chatham House, 1987), p. 22.
11. J. Peter Euben, "Democracy Ancient and Modern," PS, 26 (September 1993), 478. Cf. Giovanni Sartori, The Theory of Democracy Revisited, Part One (New Jersey: Chatham House, 1987), p. 22.
12. Huntington, The Third Wave, p. 109.
13. Ibid., p. 7.
14. John Dunn, ed., Democracy: The Unfinished Journey 508 BC to AD 1993 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 260.
15. Cf. Nancy Bermeo, "Rethinking Regime Change," Comparative Politics, 22 (April 1990), 374, note 1. This minimalist definition significantly lowers the threshold for authoritarian regimes to democratize.
16. Bhikhu Parekh, "The Cultural Particularity of Liberal Democracy," in David Held, ed., Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993), p. 157.
17. Ibid., p. 178.
18. Sartori, p. 8.
19. See Robert Dahl, Democracy and Its Critics (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989).
20. Joshua Cohen, "Deliberation and Democratic Legitimacy," in Alan Hamlin and Philip Pettit, eds., The Good Polity: Normative Analysis of the State (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989), p. 17. Also, David Miller, "Deliberative Democracy and Social Choice," in David Held, ed., pp. 74-91.
21. Joshua Cohen, "Deliberation and Democratic Legitimacy," in Alan Hamlin and Philip Pettit, eds., The Good Polity: Normative Analysis of the State (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989), p. 17. Also, David Miller, "Deliberative Democracy and Social Choice," in David Held, ed., pp. 74-91.
22. Parekh, p. 157.
23. W. Arthur Lewis, Politics in West Africa (New York: Oxford University Press, 1965).
24. Cohen, p. 21. Philippe Schmitter and Terry Lynn Karl, "What Democracy Is . . . and Is Not," Journal of Democracy, 2 (Summer 1991), 78-9, add cooperation to Schumpeter's model.
25. Cohen, p. 21. Philippe Schmitter and Terry Lynn Karl, "What Democracy Is . . . and Is Not," Journal of Democracy, 2 (Summer 1991), 78-9, add cooperation to Schumpeter's model.
26. Miller, p. 88; Julius Nyerere, Ujamaa: Essays on Socialism (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), and Freedom and Unity: Uhuru na Umoja (London: Oxford University Press, 1966).
27. Miller, p. 88; Julius Nyerere, Ujamaa: Essays on Socialism (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), and Freedom and Unity: Uhuru na Umoja (London: Oxford University Press, 1966).
28. Miller, p. 88; Julius Nyerere, Ujamaa: Essays on Socialism (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), and Freedom and Unity: Uhuru na Umoja (London: Oxford University Press, 1966).
29. Peter Ekeh, "Colonialism and the Two Publics in Africa: A Theoretical Statement," Comparative Studies in Society and History, 17 (1975). Also, Richard Sklar, "The African Frontier for Political Science," in Robert H. Bates, V. Y. Mudimbe, and Jean O'Barr, eds., Africa and the Disciplines: The Contributions of Research in Africa to the Social Sciences and Humanities (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), pp. 83-110.
30. Peter Ekeh, "Colonialism and the Two Publics in Africa: A Theoretical Statement," Comparative Studies in Society and History, 17 (1975). Also, Richard Sklar, "The African Frontier for Political Science," in Robert H. Bates, V. Y. Mudimbe, and Jean O'Barr, eds., Africa and the Disciplines: The Contributions of Research in Africa to the Social Sciences and Humanities (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), pp. 83-110.
31. See Richard Joseph, Democracy and Prebendal Politics in Nigeria: The Rise and Fall of the Second Republic (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
32. Peter Ekeh, "The Concept of Second Liberation and the Prospects of Democracy in Africa: A Nigerian Context," paper given at the Conference on Dilemmas of Democracy in Nigeria, University of Wisconsin, November 10-12, 1995, p. 25.
33. Parekh, p. 169.
34. See Harvey Glickman, ed., Ethnic Conflict and Democratization in Africa (Atlanta: African Studies Association Press, 1995).
35. Rustow, p. 358.
36. Joel Barkan, "Can Established Democracies Nurture Democracy Abroad? Lessons from Africa," paper presented at the Nobel Symposium, Uppsala University, Sweden, August 1994, p. 3.
37. Michael Bratton, "International versus Domestic Pressures for Democratization in Africa," MSU Working Papers on Political Reform in Africa No. 12 (November 15, 1994), p. 10.
38. See Samuel Decalo, Coups and Army Rule in Africa (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976); Henry Bienen, Armies and Parties in Africa (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1978); and John W. Harbeson, ed., The Military in African Politics (New York: Praeger, 1987).
39. See Samuel Decalo, Coups and Army Rule in Africa (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976); Henry Bienen, Armies and Parties in Africa (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1978); and John W. Harbeson, ed., The Military in African Politics (New York: Praeger, 1987).
40. See Samuel Decalo, Coups and Army Rule in Africa (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976); Henry Bienen, Armies and Parties in Africa (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1978); and John W. Harbeson, ed., The Military in African Politics (New York: Praeger, 1987).
41. See Linda Beck, "Advancing Beyond Semi-Democracy in Senegal," in Richard Joseph, ed., The Democratic Challenge in Africa (Atlanta: The Carter Center, 1994); and Christian Coulon, "Senegal: The Development and Fragility of Semidemocracy," in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds., Politics in Developing Countries: Comparing Experiences with Democracy (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1995).
42. See Linda Beck, "Advancing Beyond Semi-Democracy in Senegal," in Richard Joseph, ed., The Democratic Challenge in Africa (Atlanta: The Carter Center, 1994); and Christian Coulon, "Senegal: The Development and Fragility of Semidemocracy," in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds., Politics in Developing Countries: Comparing Experiences with Democracy (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1995).
43. See Africa Demos (Atlanta: The Carter Center, 1990-96); Richard Joseph, "Africa: The Rebirth of Political Freedom," Journal of Democracy, 2 (Fall 1991), 11-24; and Ernest Nwokedi, Politics of Democratization: Changing Authoritarian Regimes in Sub-Saharan Africa (Hamburg: Lit Verlag, 1995).
44. See Africa Demos (Atlanta: The Carter Center, 1990-96); Richard Joseph, "Africa: The Rebirth of Political Freedom," Journal of Democracy, 2 (Fall 1991), 11-24; and Ernest Nwokedi, Politics of Democratization: Changing Authoritarian Regimes in Sub-Saharan Africa (Hamburg: Lit Verlag, 1995).
45. See Africa Demos (Atlanta: The Carter Center, 1990-96); Richard Joseph, "Africa: The Rebirth of Political Freedom," Journal of Democracy, 2 (Fall 1991), 11-24; and Ernest Nwokedi, Politics of Democratization: Changing Authoritarian Regimes in Sub-Saharan Africa (Hamburg: Lit Verlag, 1995).
46. Although an elected government come to power in Sierra Leone after defeating the incumbent, a coup and countercoup intervened between the elections in 1967 and the restoration of civilian rule in 1968. See Fred M. Hayward, "Sierra Leone: State Consolidation, Fragmentation and Decay," in Conor Cruise O'Brien et al., eds., Contemporary West African States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), p. 166.
47. Samuel Huntington, "Democracy's Third Wave," Journal of Democracy, 2 (Spring 1991), 30-31.
48. Laurence Whitehead, "The Alternatives to 'Liberal Democracy': A Latin American Perspective," in Held, ed., p. 314.
49. Ibid.
50. Nicolas van de Walle, "Neopatrimonalism and Democracy in Africa, with an Illustration from Cameroon" in Widner, ed., p. 135.
51. See Thomas M. Callaghy and John Ravenhill, eds., Hemmed In: Responses to Africa's Economic Decline (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).
52. Richard Westebbe, "Structural Adjustment, Rent-Seeking, and Liberalization in Benin," in Widner, ed., pp. 80-100. Also, Kathryn Nwajiaku, "The National Conferences in Benin and Togo Revisited," Journal of Modern African Studies, 32 (1994).
53. Richard Westebbe, "Structural Adjustment, Rent-Seeking, and Liberalization in Benin," in Widner, ed., pp. 80-100. Also, Kathryn Nwajiaku, "The National Conferences in Benin and Togo Revisited," Journal of Modern African Studies, 32 (1994).
54. Mwesiga Baregu, "The Rise and Fall of the One-Party State in Tanzania," in Widner, ed., pp. 158-81.
55. Larry Diamond, "Promoting Democracy in the 1990s: Actors and Instruments, Issues and Imperatives," Report to the Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict (December 1995), pp. 56-57.
56. See Nwokedi, pp. 179-213.
57. Dahl, Polyarchy, pp. 212-13.
58. Laurence Whitehead, "International Aspects of Democratization," in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), p. 37.
59. Huntington, "Will More Countries Become Democratic?," p. 218; and Dahl, Polyarchy, p. 214. Despite these demurrals, Huntington provided detailed advice to authorities in South Africa and Ethiopia on political reform strategies.
60. Huntington, "Will More Countries Become Democratic?," p. 218; and Dahl, Polyarchy, p. 214. Despite these demurrals, Huntington provided detailed advice to authorities in South Africa and Ethiopia on political reform strategies.
61. Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens, and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 7.
62. Di Palma, p. 12.
63. Ibid., p. 18.
64. Leaders of French-speaking countries welcomed and democratic activists condemned Jacques Chirac's statement in February 1990 that multiparty politics were not appropriate for Africa. See Pearl Robinson, "The National Conference Phenomenon in Francophone Africa," Comparative Studies in Society and History, 36 (July 1994), 585.
65. Terry Lynn Karl, "Petroleum and Political Pacts: The Transition to Democracy in Venezuela," in Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe C. Schmitter, eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Prospects for Democracy (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), p. 216. Also, Whitehead, "International Aspects," pp. 17-18.
66. Terry Lynn Karl, "Petroleum and Political Pacts: The Transition to Democracy in Venezuela," in Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe C. Schmitter, eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Prospects for Democracy (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), p. 216. Also, Whitehead, "International Aspects," pp. 17-18.
67. Dahl, Polyarchy, p. 12.
68. See Nwokedi; Bratton, "International versus Domestic Pressures."
69. Whitehead, "International Aspects," p. 45.
70. Held, Prospects for Democracy, p. 4.
71. Simon Bromley, "The Prospects for Democracy in the Middle East," in Held, ed., p. 380.
72. Ibid., p. 402.
73. Ibid., p. 403.
74. Dunn, pp. 250, 253.
75. Dahl, Polyarchy, p. 39.
76. Huntington, The Third Wave, p. 169.
77. Ibid., p. 170.
78. See Adam Przeworski, "Democracy as a Contingent Outcome of Conflicts," in Jon Elster and Rune Slagstad, eds., Constitutionalism and Democracy (New York: Cambridge University Press and Norwegian University Press, 1988), p. 63; Human Development Report 1996 (Oxford University Press, 1996).
79. See Adam Przeworski, "Democracy as a Contingent Outcome of Conflicts," in Jon Elster and Rune Slagstad, eds., Constitutionalism and Democracy (New York: Cambridge University Press and Norwegian University Press, 1988), p. 63; Human Development Report 1996 (Oxford University Press, 1996).
80. Di Palma, p. 97.
81. Przeworski, "Democracy as a Contingent Outcome," p. 72.
82. But see Frances Hagopian, "Democracy by Undemocratic Means: Elites, Political Pacts, and Regime Transition in Brazil," Comparative Political Studies, 23 (July 1990), 147-70.
83. Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 12-13.
84. Rueschemeyer, Stephens, and Stephens, p. 274. Weiner, p. 865, also contends that "transition to democratic rule is made possible by the presence of a centrist or conservative party to which power could be transferred."
85. Rueschemeyer, Stephens, and Stephens, p. 274. Weiner, p. 865, also contends that "transition to democratic rule is made possible by the presence of a centrist or conservative party to which power could be transferred."
86. For the similar debate on "delegative democracy," see Guillermo O'Donnell, "On the State, Democratization and Some Conceptual Problems: A Latin American View with Glances at Some Postcommunist Countries," World Development, 21 (1993), 1355-69, and "Delegative Democracy," Journal of Democracy, 5 (January 1994), 55-69.
87. For the similar debate on "delegative democracy," see Guillermo O'Donnell, "On the State, Democratization and Some Conceptual Problems: A Latin American View with Glances at Some Postcommunist Countries," World Development, 21 (1993), 1355-69, and "Delegative Democracy," Journal of Democracy, 5 (January 1994), 55-69.
88. Robert Bates, "The Economics of Transitions to Democracy," PS (March 1991), 24-27.
89. Ibid., p. 25.
90. Ibid.
91. Young, p. 243.
92. Nwokedi, citing Joel Barkan, p. 202.
93. Gerardo Munck, "Democratic Transitions in Comparative Perspective," Comparative Politics, 26 (April 1994), 370.
94. Jeffrey Herbst, "The Dilemmas of Explaining Political Upheaval: Ghana in Comparative Perspective," in Widner, ed., pp. 182-98.
95. See Munck, p. 370; and Rustow, pp. 355-57.
96. See Michael Bratton and Nicolas van de Walle, "Neopatrimonial Regimes and Political Transitions in Africa," World Politics, 46 (July 1994).
97. Van de Walle, "Neopatrimonialism and Democracy in Africa," p. 139.
98. Ibid., p. 131.
99. Nwajiaku, pp. 434-38, 446.
100. Whitehead, "Alternatives to 'Liberal Democracy'," p. 325.
101. Ibid., p. 321.
102. Rustow, p. 345.
103. Ibid., p. 346.
104. Munck, p. 362.
105. See Richard L. Sklar, "Towards a Theory of Developmental Democracy," in Adrian Leftwich, ed., Democracy and Development: Theory and Practice (Cambridge, Mass.: 1996), pp. 25-44.