US security assistance to Egypt and Israel: Politically untouchable?

Middle East Journal

Volumn 51, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 199-213

  Clarke, Duncan L ^a  

^a AMERICAN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 0003322865     PISSN: 00263141     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (123)

1. The US security assistance program has several elements, including aid for military education and training, and aid to counter nuclear proliferation, terrorism, and illicit narcotics. However, 95 percent of the security assistance budget since 1989 has been for military assistance under the Foreign Military Financing (FMF) program and economic aid under the Economic Support Fund (ESF). All FMF and ESF to Israel and Egypt since the mid-1980s has been in grant form.
2. See US Department of State, Congressional Presentation for Foreign Operations, Fiscal Year 1997, Washington, DC, 1996, pp. 422, 424, 489, 495; US Agency for International Development (AID), US Overseas Loans and Grants: July 1, 1945 - September 30, 1994, Washington, DC, 1995, pp. 4, 10, 13.
3. See US Department of State, Congressional Presentation for Foreign Operations, Fiscal Year 1997, Washington, DC, 1996, pp. 422, 424, 489, 495; US Agency for International Development (AID), US Overseas Loans and Grants: July 1, 1945 - September 30, 1994, Washington, DC, 1995, pp. 4, 10, 13.
4. Clyde R. Mark, "Israel: U.S. Foreign Assistance," CRS Issue Brief, Congressional Research Service, Washington, D.C., 18 October 1996, pp. 3, 11, 14-15; US Department of State, Congressional Presentation for Foreign Operations, pp. 422, 424;
5. Clyde R. Mark, "Israel: U.S. Foreign Assistance," CRS Issue Brief, Congressional Research Service, Washington, D.C., 18 October 1996, pp. 3, 11, 14-15; US Department of State, Congressional Presentation for Foreign Operations, pp. 422, 424;
6. AID, US Overseas Loans and Grants, pp. 4, 10, 13; Shawn L. Twing, "A Comprehensive Guide to U.S. Aid to Israel," Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 14, no. 8 (April 1996), pp. 7, 49-52.
7. AID, US Overseas Loans and Grants, pp. 4, 10, 13; Shawn L. Twing, "A Comprehensive Guide to U.S. Aid to Israel," Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 14, no. 8 (April 1996), pp. 7, 49-52.
8. Casimir A. Yost and Mary Locke, "U.S. Foreign Affairs Resources: Budget Cuts and Consequences," Occasional Paper, Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., 1996, pp. 8, 26.
9. Special privileges include: permitting Israel to spend $475 million of its annual military aid in Israel rather than in the United States, where the money would employ American workers; US funding through the Defense Department's budget of many Israeli defense programs, including its largest, the Arrow missile; paying Israel (and only Israel) all of its foreign aid at the start of the fiscal year thereby allowing it to purchase US Treasury notes and earn an additional $70-80 million yearly in interest paid on those notes by US taxpayers; and many, many more. For a partial listing of these privileges see Mark, "Israel: U.S. Foreign Assistance," pp. 2-8;
10. Colin Campbell, "U.S. Devises Many Ways to Help Its Friend Israel," Atlanta Constitution, 21 January 1990, p. Al;
11. Twing, "A Comprehensive Guide to U.S. Aid to Israel," pp. 49-52.
12. The $3+ billion figure excludes US housing loan guarantees to Israel. For sharply contrasting views on the costs and benefits of the US-Israel relationship in the context of foreign aid, see George W. Ball and Douglas B. Ball, The Passionate Attachment: America's Involvement with Israel, 1947 to the Present (New York: W.W. Norton, 1992), especially pp. 255-82, and, A.F.K. Organski, The $36 Billion Bargain: Strategy and Politics in U.S. Assistance to Israel (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990).
13. The $3+ billion figure excludes US housing loan guarantees to Israel. For sharply contrasting views on the costs and benefits of the US-Israel relationship in the context of foreign aid, see George W. Ball and Douglas B. Ball, The Passionate Attachment: America's Involvement with Israel, 1947 to the Present (New York: W.W. Norton, 1992), especially pp. 255-82, and, A.F.K. Organski, The $36 Billion Bargain: Strategy and Politics in U.S. Assistance to Israel (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990).
14. US Department of State, Congressional Presentation, pp. 416-17.
15. Ibid.
16. US Department of Defense (DOD), United States Security Strategy in the Middle East, Washington, DC, May 1995, p. 7.
17. Paul Lewis, "UN Lists Four Nations at Risk of Wide Income Gaps," The New York Times, 2 June 1994; The World Bank. World Development Report, Washington, DC, 1993, p. 238.
18. Paul Lewis, "UN Lists Four Nations at Risk of Wide Income Gaps," The New York Times, 2 June 1994; The World Bank. World Development Report, Washington, DC, 1993, p. 238.
19. Cassandra [pseudonym], "The Impending Crisis in Egypt," The Middle East Journal 49, no. 1 (Winter 1995), pp. 15-24; John Lancaster, "Praised Abroad, Egypt's Ruler Faltering at Home," The Washington Post, 13 March 1995, p. A1.
20. Cassandra [pseudonym], "The Impending Crisis in Egypt," The Middle East Journal 49, no. 1 (Winter 1995), pp. 15-24; John Lancaster, "Praised Abroad, Egypt's Ruler Faltering at Home," The Washington Post, 13 March 1995, p. A1.
21. Cassandra, "The Impending Crisis in Egypt," pp. 25-26; John Lancaster, "U.S. Aid Has Yet to Lift Most Egyptians," The Washington Post, 5 April 1995, p. A1.
22. Cassandra, "The Impending Crisis in Egypt," pp. 25-26; John Lancaster, "U.S. Aid Has Yet to Lift Most Egyptians," The Washington Post, 5 April 1995, p. A1.
23. See, for instance, US General Accounting Office (GAO), Military Aid to Egypt: Tank Coproduction Raised Costs and May Not Meet Many Program Goals, NSIAD-93-203, Washington, DC, July 1993; GAO, Foreign Assistance: AID Strategic Direction and Continued Management Improvements Needed, NSIAD-93-106, Washington, DC, June 1993, pp. 34-36.
24. See, for instance, US General Accounting Office (GAO), Military Aid to Egypt: Tank Coproduction Raised Costs and May Not Meet Many Program Goals, NSIAD-93-203, Washington, DC, July 1993; GAO, Foreign Assistance: AID Strategic Direction and Continued Management Improvements Needed, NSIAD-93-106, Washington, DC, June 1993, pp. 34-36.
25. Douglas M. Bloomfield, "Foreign Aid Cuts No Mirage This Time," Washington Jewish Week, 11 July 1996, p. 17.
26. Robert F. Zimmerman, Dollars, Diplomacy, and Dependency (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1993), pp. 85-86. Zimmerman is a retired foreign service officer with years of experience with AID. His book focuses particular attention on Egypt. See also Lancaster, "U.S. Aid Has Yet to Lift Most Egyptians," p. A1; GAO, Egypt's Capacity to Absorb and Use Economic Assistance Effectively, ID-77-33, Washington, DC, September 1977, p. 1.
27. Robert F. Zimmerman, Dollars, Diplomacy, and Dependency (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1993), pp. 85-86. Zimmerman is a retired foreign service officer with years of experience with AID. His book focuses particular attention on Egypt. See also Lancaster, "U.S. Aid Has Yet to Lift Most Egyptians," p. A1; GAO, Egypt's Capacity to Absorb and Use Economic Assistance Effectively, ID-77-33, Washington, DC, September 1977, p. 1.
28. Robert F. Zimmerman, Dollars, Diplomacy, and Dependency (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1993), pp. 85-86. Zimmerman is a retired foreign service officer with years of experience with AID. His book focuses particular attention on Egypt. See also Lancaster, "U.S. Aid Has Yet to Lift Most Egyptians," p. A1; GAO, Egypt's Capacity to Absorb and Use Economic Assistance Effectively, ID-77-33, Washington, DC, September 1977, p. 1.
29. Zimmerman, Dollars, Diplomacy, and Dependency, p. 180.
30. Ibid., p. 93. See also Vernon W. Ruttan, United States Assistance Policy: The Domestic Politics of Foreign Economic Aid (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), p. 301.
31. Ibid., p. 93. See also Vernon W. Ruttan, United States Assistance Policy: The Domestic Politics of Foreign Economic Aid (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), p. 301.
32. Fawaz A. Gerges, "Egyptian-Israeli Relations Turn Sour," Foreign Affairs 74, no. 3 (May/June 1995), pp. 73-75; interview of Alfred Leroy Atherton (1990), in Stephanie Hoffman, ed., Egypt: Country Collection, Foreign Affairs Oral History Program (Arlington, VA: Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, 1996), pp. Atherton 24-25.
33. Fawaz A. Gerges, "Egyptian-Israeli Relations Turn Sour," Foreign Affairs 74, no. 3 (May/June 1995), pp. 73-75; interview of Alfred Leroy Atherton (1990), in Stephanie Hoffman, ed., Egypt: Country Collection, Foreign Affairs Oral History Program (Arlington, VA: Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, 1996), pp. Atherton 24-25.
34. Gerges, "Egyptian-Israeli Relations Turn Sour," p. 74.
35. Eric Rozenman, "Their Eyes on Egypt," Washington Jewish Week, 11 February 1993, p. 5; Barbara Opall, "Israel Seeks To Warm Cold Peace," Defense News, 29 July-4 August 1996, p 3. See also Caroline Faraj and Steve Rodan, "Israel Downplays Egyptian Exercise," Defense News, 30 September-6 October 1996, p. 50; "Egypt Received Scud Missile Parts From North Korea, Report Says," Arms Comrol Today 26, no. 5 (July 1996), p. 25.
36. Eric Rozenman, "Their Eyes on Egypt," Washington Jewish Week, 11 February 1993, p. 5; Barbara Opall, "Israel Seeks To Warm Cold Peace," Defense News, 29 July-4 August 1996, p 3. See also Caroline Faraj and Steve Rodan, "Israel Downplays Egyptian Exercise," Defense News, 30 September-6 October 1996, p. 50; "Egypt Received Scud Missile Parts From North Korea, Report Says," Arms Comrol Today 26, no. 5 (July 1996), p. 25.
37. Eric Rozenman, "Their Eyes on Egypt," Washington Jewish Week, 11 February 1993, p. 5; Barbara Opall, "Israel Seeks To Warm Cold Peace," Defense News, 29 July-4 August 1996, p 3. See also Caroline Faraj and Steve Rodan, "Israel Downplays Egyptian Exercise," Defense News, 30 September-6 October 1996, p. 50; "Egypt Received Scud Missile Parts From North Korea, Report Says," Arms Comrol Today 26, no. 5 (July 1996), p. 25.
38. Eric Rozenman, "Their Eyes on Egypt," Washington Jewish Week, 11 February 1993, p. 5; Barbara Opall, "Israel Seeks To Warm Cold Peace," Defense News, 29 July-4 August 1996, p 3. See also Caroline Faraj and Steve Rodan, "Israel Downplays Egyptian Exercise," Defense News, 30 September-6 October 1996, p. 50; "Egypt Received Scud Missile Parts From North Korea, Report Says," Arms Comrol Today 26, no. 5 (July 1996), p. 25.
39. John Lancaster, "Mubarak. Netanyahu Affirm Views in 'Cordial' Talks," The Washington Post, 19 July 1996, p. A3.
40. Alan Dowty. Middle East Crisis: Decision-Making in 1958 1970, and 1973 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984), p. 177.
41. William B. Quandt, American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict since 1967 (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1993), p. 426; Henry Kissinger, Years of Upheaval (New York: Little, Brown, 1982), pp. 202-203, 212, 1205; Anatoly Dobrynin, In Confidence: Moscow's Ambassador to America's Six Cold War Presidents (1962-1986) (New York: Times Books, 1995), pp. 303-304. For a contrasting view see Adam M. Garfinkle, "U.S. Decision-Making in the Jordan Crisis: Correcting the Record," Political Science Quarterly 100, no. 1 (Spring 1985), p. 137.
42. William B. Quandt, American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict since 1967 (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1993), p. 426; Henry Kissinger, Years of Upheaval (New York: Little, Brown, 1982), pp. 202-203, 212, 1205; Anatoly Dobrynin, In Confidence: Moscow's Ambassador to America's Six Cold War Presidents (1962-1986) (New York: Times Books, 1995), pp. 303-304. For a contrasting view see Adam M. Garfinkle, "U.S. Decision-Making in the Jordan Crisis: Correcting the Record," Political Science Quarterly 100, no. 1 (Spring 1985), p. 137.
43. William B. Quandt, American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict since 1967 (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1993), p. 426; Henry Kissinger, Years of Upheaval (New York: Little, Brown, 1982), pp. 202-203, 212, 1205; Anatoly Dobrynin, In Confidence: Moscow's Ambassador to America's Six Cold War Presidents (1962-1986) (New York: Times Books, 1995), pp. 303-304. For a contrasting view see Adam M. Garfinkle, "U.S. Decision-Making in the Jordan Crisis: Correcting the Record," Political Science Quarterly 100, no. 1 (Spring 1985), p. 137.
44. William B. Quandt, American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict since 1967 (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1993), p. 426; Henry Kissinger, Years of Upheaval (New York: Little, Brown, 1982), pp. 202-203, 212, 1205; Anatoly Dobrynin, In Confidence: Moscow's Ambassador to America's Six Cold War Presidents (1962-1986) (New York: Times Books, 1995), pp. 303-304. For a contrasting view see Adam M. Garfinkle, "U.S. Decision-Making in the Jordan Crisis: Correcting the Record," Political Science Quarterly 100, no. 1 (Spring 1985), p. 137.
45. This is especially so of the US armed forces and many civilians in DOD. See Shai Feldman, The Future of U.S.-Israel Strategic Cooperation (Washington, DC: Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 1996), pp. 7, 16, 21, 46.
46. Confidential interview of a former DOD official by Duncan L. Clarke, December 1993. Similar views were expressed by numerous past and present government officials.
47. Robert C. McFarlane, Special Trust (New York: Cadell & Davies, 1994), pp. 187-88; Howard Teicher and Gayle R. Teicher, Twin Pillars to Desert Storm: America's Flawed Vision in the Middle East from Nixon to Bush (New York: William Morrow, 1993), pp. 91-93, 141, 222, 271-74, 357; Karen Puschel, U.S.-Israeli Strategic Cooperation in the Post-Cold War Era: An American Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 73-77; Helena Cobban, The Superpowers and the Syrian-Israeli Conflict: Beyond Crisis Management? (New York: Praeger, 1991), pp. 78-103. Secretary of State George Shultz, a principal architect of strategic cooperation, never mentions the subject in his lengthy memoirs except to regret his support for the US funding of Israel's canceled Lavi fighter. George P. Shultz, Turmoil and Triumph: My Years as Secretary of State (New York: Charles Scribners' Sons, 1993), p. 143.
48. Robert C. McFarlane, Special Trust (New York: Cadell & Davies, 1994), pp. 187-88; Howard Teicher and Gayle R. Teicher, Twin Pillars to Desert Storm: America's Flawed Vision in the Middle East from Nixon to Bush (New York: William Morrow, 1993), pp. 91-93, 141, 222, 271-74, 357; Karen Puschel, U.S.-Israeli Strategic Cooperation in the Post-Cold War Era: An American Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 73-77; Helena Cobban, The Superpowers and the Syrian-Israeli Conflict: Beyond Crisis Management? (New York: Praeger, 1991), pp. 78-103. Secretary of State George Shultz, a principal architect of strategic cooperation, never mentions the subject in his lengthy memoirs except to regret his support for the US funding of Israel's canceled Lavi fighter. George P. Shultz, Turmoil and Triumph: My Years as Secretary of State (New York: Charles Scribners' Sons, 1993), p. 143.
49. Robert C. McFarlane, Special Trust (New York: Cadell & Davies, 1994), pp. 187-88; Howard Teicher and Gayle R. Teicher, Twin Pillars to Desert Storm: America's Flawed Vision in the Middle East from Nixon to Bush (New York: William Morrow, 1993), pp. 91-93, 141, 222, 271-74, 357; Karen Puschel, U.S.-Israeli Strategic Cooperation in the Post-Cold War Era: An American Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 73-77; Helena Cobban, The Superpowers and the Syrian-Israeli Conflict: Beyond Crisis Management? (New York: Praeger, 1991), pp. 78-103. Secretary of State George Shultz, a principal architect of strategic cooperation, never mentions the subject in his lengthy memoirs except to regret his support for the US funding of Israel's canceled Lavi fighter. George P. Shultz, Turmoil and Triumph: My Years as Secretary of State (New York: Charles Scribners' Sons, 1993), p. 143.
50. Robert C. McFarlane, Special Trust (New York: Cadell & Davies, 1994), pp. 187-88; Howard Teicher and Gayle R. Teicher, Twin Pillars to Desert Storm: America's Flawed Vision in the Middle East from Nixon to Bush (New York: William Morrow, 1993), pp. 91-93, 141, 222, 271-74, 357; Karen Puschel, U.S.-Israeli Strategic Cooperation in the Post-Cold War Era: An American Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 73-77; Helena Cobban, The Superpowers and the Syrian-Israeli Conflict: Beyond Crisis Management? (New York: Praeger, 1991), pp. 78-103. Secretary of State George Shultz, a principal architect of strategic cooperation, never mentions the subject in his lengthy memoirs except to regret his support for the US funding of Israel's canceled Lavi fighter. George P. Shultz, Turmoil and Triumph: My Years as Secretary of State (New York: Charles Scribners' Sons, 1993), p. 143.
51. Robert C. McFarlane, Special Trust (New York: Cadell & Davies, 1994), pp. 187-88; Howard Teicher and Gayle R. Teicher, Twin Pillars to Desert Storm: America's Flawed Vision in the Middle East from Nixon to Bush (New York: William Morrow, 1993), pp. 91-93, 141, 222, 271-74, 357; Karen Puschel, U.S.-Israeli Strategic Cooperation in the Post-Cold War Era: An American Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 73-77; Helena Cobban, The Superpowers and the Syrian-Israeli Conflict: Beyond Crisis Management? (New York: Praeger, 1991), pp. 78-103. Secretary of State George Shultz, a principal architect of strategic cooperation, never mentions the subject in his lengthy memoirs except to regret his support for the US funding of Israel's canceled Lavi fighter. George P. Shultz, Turmoil and Triumph: My Years as Secretary of State (New York: Charles Scribners' Sons, 1993), p. 143.
52. Thomas A. Dine, "The Revolution in U.S.-Israel Relations," 1986 (typescript/mimeo).
53. Numerous confidential interviews of US government officials by Duncan L. Clarke, 1990-95; Duncan L. Clarke, "The Arrow Missile: The United States, Israel and Strategic Cooperation," The Middle East Journal 48, no. 3 (Summer 1994), pp. 475-91; Cobban, The Superpowers and the Syrian-Israeli Conflict, pp. 83-111; Andrew Cockburn and Leslie Cockburn, Dangerous Liaison: The Inside Story of the U.S.-Israeli Covert Relationship (New York: Harper Collins, 1991); Seymour M. Hersh, The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy (New York: Random House, 1991). Former Director of the Office of Egyptian Affairs in the US Department of State, Edward L. Peck, says: "My concern with the Arab-Israeli question is that we always - or so often - wound up doing things which may have been good for Israel but were clearly not good for us." Interview of Edward L. Peck (1989), in Hoffman, Egypt, p. Peck-6.
54. Numerous confidential interviews of US government officials by Duncan L. Clarke, 1990-95; Duncan L. Clarke, "The Arrow Missile: The United States, Israel and Strategic Cooperation," The Middle East Journal 48, no. 3 (Summer 1994), pp. 475-91; Cobban, The Superpowers and the Syrian-Israeli Conflict, pp. 83-111; Andrew Cockburn and Leslie Cockburn, Dangerous Liaison: The Inside Story of the U.S.-Israeli Covert Relationship (New York: Harper Collins, 1991); Seymour M. Hersh, The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy (New York: Random House, 1991). Former Director of the Office of Egyptian Affairs in the US Department of State, Edward L. Peck, says: "My concern with the Arab-Israeli question is that we always - or so often - wound up doing things which may have been good for Israel but were clearly not good for us." Interview of Edward L. Peck (1989), in Hoffman, Egypt, p. Peck-6.
55. Numerous confidential interviews of US government officials by Duncan L. Clarke, 1990-95; Duncan L. Clarke, "The Arrow Missile: The United States, Israel and Strategic Cooperation," The Middle East Journal 48, no. 3 (Summer 1994), pp. 475-91; Cobban, The Superpowers and the Syrian-Israeli Conflict, pp. 83-111; Andrew Cockburn and Leslie Cockburn, Dangerous Liaison: The Inside Story of the U.S.-Israeli Covert Relationship (New York: Harper Collins, 1991); Seymour M. Hersh, The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy (New York: Random House, 1991). Former Director of the Office of Egyptian Affairs in the US Department of State, Edward L. Peck, says: "My concern with the Arab-Israeli question is that we always - or so often - wound up doing things which may have been good for Israel but were clearly not good for us." Interview of Edward L. Peck (1989), in Hoffman, Egypt, p. Peck-6.
56. Numerous confidential interviews of US government officials by Duncan L. Clarke, 1990-95; Duncan L. Clarke, "The Arrow Missile: The United States, Israel and Strategic Cooperation," The Middle East Journal 48, no. 3 (Summer 1994), pp. 475-91; Cobban, The Superpowers and the Syrian-Israeli Conflict, pp. 83-111; Andrew Cockburn and Leslie Cockburn, Dangerous Liaison: The Inside Story of the U.S.-Israeli Covert Relationship (New York: Harper Collins, 1991); Seymour M. Hersh, The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy (New York: Random House, 1991). Former Director of the Office of Egyptian Affairs in the US Department of State, Edward L. Peck, says: "My concern with the Arab-Israeli question is that we always - or so often - wound up doing things which may have been good for Israel but were clearly not good for us." Interview of Edward L. Peck (1989), in Hoffman, Egypt, p. Peck-6.
57. Numerous confidential interviews of US government officials by Duncan L. Clarke, 1990-95; Duncan L. Clarke, "The Arrow Missile: The United States, Israel and Strategic Cooperation," The Middle East Journal 48, no. 3 (Summer 1994), pp. 475-91; Cobban, The Superpowers and the Syrian-Israeli Conflict, pp. 83-111; Andrew Cockburn and Leslie Cockburn, Dangerous Liaison: The Inside Story of the U.S.-Israeli Covert Relationship (New York: Harper Collins, 1991); Seymour M. Hersh, The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy (New York: Random House, 1991). Former Director of the Office of Egyptian Affairs in the US Department of State, Edward L. Peck, says: "My concern with the Arab-Israeli question is that we always - or so often - wound up doing things which may have been good for Israel but were clearly not good for us." Interview of Edward L. Peck (1989), in Hoffman, Egypt, p. Peck-6.
58. Bernard Reich, Securing the Covenant: United States-Israel Relations After the Cold War (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1995), p. 123.
59. Feldman, The Future of U.S.-Israel Strategic Cooperation, pp. 6-7.
60. Thomas W. Lippman, "Anti-Terrorism Accord Signed," The Washington Post, 1 May 1996, p. A23.
61. Emphasis added. Joseph Alpher, "Israel: The Challenge of Peace," Foreign Policy 131 (Winter 1995-96), pp. 142-43.
62. Feldman, The Future of U.S.-Israel Strategic Cooperation, pp. 3, 23.
63. Ibid., pp. 61-62.
64. John Lancaster, "Mubarak to Netanyahu: Help Me, I'll Help You," The Washington Post, 23 July 1996, p. A12; Thomas W. Lippman, "Netanyahu Affirms His Hard-Line Image," The Washington Post, 10 July 1996, p. A13.
65. John Lancaster, "Mubarak to Netanyahu: Help Me, I'll Help You," The Washington Post, 23 July 1996, p. A12; Thomas W. Lippman, "Netanyahu Affirms His Hard-Line Image," The Washington Post, 10 July 1996, p. A13.
66. Richard N. Haas, "The Middle East: No More Treaties," Foreign Affairs 75, no. 5 (October 1996), pp. 53-63; Michael Dobbs and Nora Boustany, "Summit Concludes with Little Progress," The Washington Post, 3 October 1996, p. Al; Caroline Faraj and Barbara Opall, "Questions, Recriminations Haunt Middle East Prospects for Peace," Defense News, 21-27 October 1996, p. 4.
67. Richard N. Haas, "The Middle East: No More Treaties," Foreign Affairs 75, no. 5 (October 1996), pp. 53-63; Michael Dobbs and Nora Boustany, "Summit Concludes with Little Progress," The Washington Post, 3 October 1996, p. Al; Caroline Faraj and Barbara Opall, "Questions, Recriminations Haunt Middle East Prospects for Peace," Defense News, 21-27 October 1996, p. 4.
68. Richard N. Haas, "The Middle East: No More Treaties," Foreign Affairs 75, no. 5 (October 1996), pp. 53-63; Michael Dobbs and Nora Boustany, "Summit Concludes with Little Progress," The Washington Post, 3 October 1996, p. Al; Caroline Faraj and Barbara Opall, "Questions, Recriminations Haunt Middle East Prospects for Peace," Defense News, 21-27 October 1996, p. 4.
69. Jim Hoaglund, "The Hebron Pawn," The Washington Post, 19 January 1997, p. C7.
70. Ibid.
71. David Makovsky, "Netanyahu Okays Housing Near Jerusalem," Washington Jewish Week, 20 February 1997, p. 18.
72. Feldman, The Future of U.S.-Israel Strategic Cooperation, p. 31;
73. Lippman, "Netanyahu Affirms His Hard-Line Image," p. A13.
74. See Douglas Bloomfield, "Time for a Serious Netanyahu Commitment," Washington Jewish Week, 3 October 1996, p. 25; Barton Gellman, "Limits Lifted On West Bank Settlements," The Washington Post, 3 August 1996, p. A1.
75. See Douglas Bloomfield, "Time for a Serious Netanyahu Commitment," Washington Jewish Week, 3 October 1996, p. 25; Barton Gellman, "Limits Lifted On West Bank Settlements," The Washington Post, 3 August 1996, p. A1.
76. Bloomfield, "Time for a Serious Netanyahu Commitment," p 25; Neal Sher, "Testing the Prime Minister's Political Skills," Washington Jewish Week, 3 October 1996, p. 25.
77. Bloomfield, "Time for a Serious Netanyahu Commitment," p 25; Neal Sher, "Testing the Prime Minister's Political Skills," Washington Jewish Week, 3 October 1996, p. 25.
78. Quoted in Thomas M. Franck and Edward Weisband, Foreign Policy by Congress (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), p. 165.
79. See Yossi Shain, "Ethnic Diasporas and U.S. Foreign Policy," Political Science Quarterly 109, no. 5 (Winter 1994-95), pp. 811-41.
80. AIPAC, of course, maintains that it furthers American national interests by encouraging close, mutually beneficial US-Israel ties. See Raphael Danziger and Bradley Gordon, "End American Aid to Israel? No, It Remains Vital," Middle East Quarterly 2, no. 3 (September 1995), pp. 13-21. The authors are AIPAC officers.
81. Steven L. Spiegel, The Other Arab-Israeli Conflict (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), p. 160.
82. For example, see Mitchell Geoffrey Bard, The Water's Edge and Beyond: Defining the Limits to Domestic Influence on United States Middle East Policy (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1991); Reich, Securing the Covenant, pp. 65-90; Edward Tivnan, The Lobby: Jewish Political Power and American Foreign Policy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987); Alpher, "Israel: The Challenges of Peace," p. 142; and J.J. Goldberg, Jewish Power: Inside the American Jewish Establishment (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1996), especially pp. 251-78.
83. For example, see Mitchell Geoffrey Bard, The Water's Edge and Beyond: Defining the Limits to Domestic Influence on United States Middle East Policy (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1991); Reich, Securing the Covenant, pp. 65-90; Edward Tivnan, The Lobby: Jewish Political Power and American Foreign Policy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987); Alpher, "Israel: The Challenges of Peace," p. 142; and J.J. Goldberg, Jewish Power: Inside the American Jewish Establishment (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1996), especially pp. 251-78.
84. For example, see Mitchell Geoffrey Bard, The Water's Edge and Beyond: Defining the Limits to Domestic Influence on United States Middle East Policy (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1991); Reich, Securing the Covenant, pp. 65-90; Edward Tivnan, The Lobby: Jewish Political Power and American Foreign Policy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987); Alpher, "Israel: The Challenges of Peace," p. 142; and J.J. Goldberg, Jewish Power: Inside the American Jewish Establishment (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1996), especially pp. 251-78.
85. For example, see Mitchell Geoffrey Bard, The Water's Edge and Beyond: Defining the Limits to Domestic Influence on United States Middle East Policy (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1991); Reich, Securing the Covenant, pp. 65-90; Edward Tivnan, The Lobby: Jewish Political Power and American Foreign Policy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987); Alpher, "Israel: The Challenges of Peace," p. 142; and J.J. Goldberg, Jewish Power: Inside the American Jewish Establishment (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1996), especially pp. 251-78.
86. For example, see Mitchell Geoffrey Bard, The Water's Edge and Beyond: Defining the Limits to Domestic Influence on United States Middle East Policy (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1991); Reich, Securing the Covenant, pp. 65-90; Edward Tivnan, The Lobby: Jewish Political Power and American Foreign Policy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987); Alpher, "Israel: The Challenges of Peace," p. 142; and J.J. Goldberg, Jewish Power: Inside the American Jewish Establishment (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1996), especially pp. 251-78.
87. Dov Zakheim, Flight of the Lavi: Inside a U.S.-Israeli Crisis (Washington, DC: Brassey's, 1996), p. 216. See also pp. 133, 165-66.
88. Dov Zakheim, Flight of the Lavi: Inside a U.S.-Israeli Crisis (Washington, DC: Brassey's, 1996), p. 216. See also pp. 133, 165-66.
89. See references in n. 47 above; Seymour Martin Lipset and Earl Raab, Jews and the New American Scene (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995). pp. 145-46; Duncan L. Clarke, Jason Ellis and Daniel O'Connor, Send Guns and Money: Security Assistance and U.S. Foreign Policy (Westport, CT: Praeger, forthcoming 1997), ch. 7.
90. See references in n. 47 above; Seymour Martin Lipset and Earl Raab, Jews and the New American Scene (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995). pp. 145-46; Duncan L. Clarke, Jason Ellis and Daniel O'Connor, Send Guns and Money: Security Assistance and U.S. Foreign Policy (Westport, CT: Praeger, forthcoming 1997), ch. 7.
91. Thomas L. Friedman, From Beirut to Jerusalem (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1989), p. 441.
92. For early post-Cold War surveys see Benjamin Ginsberg, The Fatal Embrace: Jews and the State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), p. 220; B'nai B'rith Anti-Defamation League poll, 28 April-1 May 1992, Roper Center, CT, 1992; John E. Reilly, ed., American Public Opinion and U.S. Foreign Policy: 1995 (Chicago: Chicago Council on Foreign Relations, 1995), p. 32.
93. For early post-Cold War surveys see Benjamin Ginsberg, The Fatal Embrace: Jews and the State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), p. 220; B'nai B'rith Anti-Defamation League poll, 28 April-1 May 1992, Roper Center, CT, 1992; John E. Reilly, ed., American Public Opinion and U.S. Foreign Policy: 1995 (Chicago: Chicago Council on Foreign Relations, 1995), p. 32.
94. For early post-Cold War surveys see Benjamin Ginsberg, The Fatal Embrace: Jews and the State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), p. 220; B'nai B'rith Anti-Defamation League poll, 28 April-1 May 1992, Roper Center, CT, 1992; John E. Reilly, ed., American Public Opinion and U.S. Foreign Policy: 1995 (Chicago: Chicago Council on Foreign Relations, 1995), p. 32.
95. Reilly, American Public Opinion, p. 32.
96. Ella Bancroft, "Americans Disapprove Present Israel Aid Level by Three to One," Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 14, no. 2 (July/August 1995), p. 86.
97. Steven Kuli, Americans and Foreign Aid: A Study of American Public Attitudes, Program on International Policy Attitudes, University of Maryland, 1 March 1995, pp. 11-12.
98. Quoted in Zimmerman, Dollars, Diplomacy, and Dependency, p. 150. For a similar episode, one involving an Israeli defense official, see Zakheim, Flight of the Lavi, pp. 176-77.
99. Quoted in Zimmerman, Dollars, Diplomacy, and Dependency, p. 150. For a similar episode, one involving an Israeli defense official, see Zakheim, Flight of the Lavi, pp. 176-77.
100. See, for instance, Zimmerman, Dollars, Diplomacy, and Dependency, pp. 57-58, 143, 147. Zimmerman (pp. 58, 140-42) makes a persuasive case that ESF aid has aggravated tensions between Egypt and Israel, and within Israel. See also Duncan L. Clarke, "Israel's Unauthorized Arms Transfers," Foreign Policy 99 (Summer 1995), pp. 89-101; GAO, Defense Industrial Security: Weaknesses in U.S. Security Arrangements with Foreign-Owned Defense Contractors. NSIAD-96-24, February 1996, pp. 22-23.
101. See, for instance, Zimmerman, Dollars, Diplomacy, and Dependency, pp. 57-58, 143, 147. Zimmerman (pp. 58, 140-42) makes a persuasive case that ESF aid has aggravated tensions between Egypt and Israel, and within Israel. See also Duncan L. Clarke, "Israel's Unauthorized Arms Transfers," Foreign Policy 99 (Summer 1995), pp. 89-101; GAO, Defense Industrial Security: Weaknesses in U.S. Security Arrangements with Foreign-Owned Defense Contractors. NSIAD-96-24, February 1996, pp. 22-23.
102. See, for instance, Zimmerman, Dollars, Diplomacy, and Dependency, pp. 57-58, 143, 147. Zimmerman (pp. 58, 140-42) makes a persuasive case that ESF aid has aggravated tensions between Egypt and Israel, and within Israel. See also Duncan L. Clarke, "Israel's Unauthorized Arms Transfers," Foreign Policy 99 (Summer 1995), pp. 89-101; GAO, Defense Industrial Security: Weaknesses in U.S. Security Arrangements with Foreign-Owned Defense Contractors. NSIAD-96-24, February 1996, pp. 22-23.
103. "Time for Self-Reliance," Defense News, 26 August-1 September 1996, p. 20. See also Shawn L. Twing, "Israeli Defense Contract Illustrates How U.S. Aid Harms American Industries," Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 15, no. 4 (October 1996), p. 72.
104. "Time for Self-Reliance," Defense News, 26 August-1 September 1996, p. 20. See also Shawn L. Twing, "Israeli Defense Contract Illustrates How U.S. Aid Harms American Industries," Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 15, no. 4 (October 1996), p. 72.
105. Peace could be costly for the United States. Israeli officials apparently concluded in 1995 that peace with Syria could cost Washington a lump-sum payment of $12 billion to Israel in military and non-military aid, a sum that former DOD official Dov Zakheim denounced as setting "new standards for chutzpah. . ." Dov Zakheim, "Peace with a Price Tag," The Washington Times, 5 January 1996. See also Yost and Locke, "U.S. Foreign Affairs Resources," p. 27.
106. Peace could be costly for the United States. Israeli officials apparently concluded in 1995 that peace with Syria could cost Washington a lump-sum payment of $12 billion to Israel in military and non-military aid, a sum that former DOD official Dov Zakheim denounced as setting "new standards for chutzpah. . ." Dov Zakheim, "Peace with a Price Tag," The Washington Times, 5 January 1996. See also Yost and Locke, "U.S. Foreign Affairs Resources," p. 27.
107. Reich, Securing the Covenant, pp. 105, 107.
108. Representative Howard Berman (D-CA) said, "If Israel and Egypt are untouched and all else is cut, soon aid to Israel will take a whack. [The] argument for foreign aid falls off if just one country is left." Douglas M. Bloomfield, "Foreign Aid Wedge," Washington Jewish Week, 30 March 1995, p. 27; Douglas M. Bloomfield, "Aid Cuts Require Planning," Washington Jewish Week, 6 July 1995, p. 17.
109. Representative Howard Berman (D-CA) said, "If Israel and Egypt are untouched and all else is cut, soon aid to Israel will take a whack. [The] argument for foreign aid falls off if just one country is left." Douglas M. Bloomfield, "Foreign Aid Wedge," Washington Jewish Week, 30 March 1995, p. 27; Douglas M. Bloomfield, "Aid Cuts Require Planning," Washington Jewish Week, 6 July 1995, p. 17.
110. Report of the Commission on U.S.-Israel Relations, Enduring Partnership (Washington, DC: Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 1993), pp. 25-26, 52-53.
111. Howard Rosen, "Economic Relations Between Israel and the United States," in Robert O. Freedman, ed., Israel under Rabin (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995), p. 208;
112. Joel Bainerman, "End U.S. Aid to Israel? Yes, It Does Harm," Middle East Quarterly 2, no. 3 (September 1995), pp. 3-12.
113. The Jubilee Plan for Economic Freedom in Israel (Jerusalem: Institute for Advanced Strategic and Political Studies, July 1996), p. 5.
114. Ibid., pp. 11, 31-32.
115. Bainerman, "End U.S. Aid to Israel? Yes, It Does Harm," pp. 3-12.
116. Zimmerman, Dollars, Diplomacy, and Dependency, pp. 104-106.
117. At Secretary Christopher's behest, a US delegation visited Cairo in April 1996 to assess the implications of reduced security assistance to Egypt. Confidential interviews, State Department officials, 1996.
118. Thomas W. Lippman. "Mideast Aid Survives Budget Ax," The Washington Post, 23 October 1995, p. A6.
119. Ibid., p. A6.
120. Ibid., p. A6.
121. Emphases added. Netanyahu lauded Congress: "If I could only get the Knesset to vote like [the U.S. Congress]," in Shawn Cohen, "Netanyahu Wows Congress, Not U.S. Arab Group," Washington Jewish Week, 18 July 1996, p. 12.
122. AIPAC, "Aid to Israel," Washington, DC, 21 October 1996; E.V. Kontorovich, "Time to Cut Aid to Israel," The Wall Street Journal, 8 August 1996.
123. AIPAC, "Aid to Israel," Washington, DC, 21 October 1996; E.V. Kontorovich, "Time to Cut Aid to Israel," The Wall Street Journal, 8 August 1996.