Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and politics in the developing world

Political Studies

Volumn 46, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 36-52

  Clarke, Gerard ^a  

^a SWANSEA UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0003138946     PISSN: 00323217     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1467-9248.00128     Document Type: Article

References (113)

1. L. M. Salamon, 'The rise of the nonprofit sector', Foreign Affairs, 73 (1994), 109.
2. G. Clarke, 'Participation and Protest: Non-Governmental Organizations and Philippine Politics' (Ph.D. thesis, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, June 1995), p. 305.
3. A. Fowler, 'The role of NGOs in changing state-society relations: perspectives from Eastern and southern Africa', Development Policy Review, 9 (1991), 54.
4. J. Fisher, The Road from Rio: Sustainable Development and the Nongovernmental Movement in the Third World (Westport, Praeger, 1993), p. 24; J. Farrington and D. Lewis, eds, Non-Governmental Organizations and the State in Asia: Rethinking Roles in Sustainable Agricultural Development (London, Routledge, 1993), pp. 92-3.
5. J. Fisher, The Road from Rio: Sustainable Development and the Nongovernmental Movement in the Third World (Westport, Praeger, 1993), p. 24; J. Farrington and D. Lewis, eds, Non-Governmental Organizations and the State in Asia: Rethinking Roles in Sustainable Agricultural Development (London, Routledge, 1993), pp. 92-3.
6. Such organizations, however, especially sports clubs and religious groups, may count among the figures cited in the preceding paragraph, complicating attempts to document the proliferation of NGOs.
7. See, for instance, T. F. Carroll, Intermediary NGOs: the Supporting Link in Grassroots Development (West Hartford, Kumarian, 1992), pp. 9-11, or D. C. Korten, Getting to the 21st Century: Voluntary Action and the Global Agenda (West Hartford, Kumarian, 1990), p. 2.
8. See, for instance, T. F. Carroll, Intermediary NGOs: the Supporting Link in Grassroots Development (West Hartford, Kumarian, 1992), pp. 9-11, or D. C. Korten, Getting to the 21st Century: Voluntary Action and the Global Agenda (West Hartford, Kumarian, 1990), p. 2.
9. See Carroll, Intermediary NGOs, p. 9, or Korten, Getting to the 21st Century, p. 2.
10. See Carroll, Intermediary NGOs, p. 9, or Korten, Getting to the 21st Century, p. 2.
11. Human Development Report 1993 (New York, United Nations Development Programme, and Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 3.
12. Voluntary Aid for Development: The Role of Voluntary Organizations (Paris, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 1988), p. 84.
13. D. Lehmann, Democracy and Development in Latin America: Economics, Politics and Religion in the Postwar Period (London, Polity, 1990), pp. 148-60.
14. Lehmann, Democracy and Development, p. 157.
15. E.g. A. G. Drabek, ed., Development Alternatives: the Challenge for NGOs (New York, Pergamon, 1987); R. Poulton and M. Harris, eds, Putting People First: Voluntary Organizations and Third World Development (London, Macmillan, 1988); R. Holloway, ed., Doing Development: Governments, NGOs and the Rural Poor in Asia (London, Earthscan/CUSO, 1989);
16. E.g. A. G. Drabek, ed., Development Alternatives: the Challenge for NGOs (New York, Pergamon, 1987); R. Poulton and M. Harris, eds, Putting People First: Voluntary Organizations and Third World Development (London, Macmillan, 1988); R. Holloway, ed., Doing Development: Governments, NGOs and the Rural Poor in Asia (London, Earthscan/CUSO, 1989);
17. E.g. A. G. Drabek, ed., Development Alternatives: the Challenge for NGOs (New York, Pergamon, 1987); R. Poulton and M. Harris, eds, Putting People First: Voluntary Organizations and Third World Development (London, Macmillan, 1988); R. Holloway, ed., Doing Development: Governments, NGOs and the Rural Poor in Asia (London, Earthscan/CUSO, 1989);
18. Korten, Getting to the 21st Century;
19. J. Clark, Democratizing Development: The Role of Voluntary Organizations (London, Earthscan, 1991);
20. Carroll, Intermediary NGOs;
21. M. Edwards and D. Hulme, eds, Making a Difference: NGOs and Development in a Changing World (London, Earthscan, 1992);
22. I. Smillie and H. Helmich, eds, Non-Governmental Organizations and Governments: Stakeholders for Development (Paris, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 1993);
23. Fisher, The Road From Rio;
24. A. Bebbington and G. Thiele, eds, Non-governmental Organizations and the State in Latin America: Rethinking Roles in Sustainable Agriculture (London, Routledge, 1993);
25. J. Farrington and A. Bebbington, eds, Reluctant Partners: Non-Governmental Organizations, the State and Sustainable Agricultural Development (London, Routledge, 1993);
26. Farrington and Lewis, Non-Governmental Organizations and the State in Asia;
27. K. Wellard and J. Copestake, eds, Non-governmental Organizations and the State in Africa: Rethinking Roles in Sustainable Agriculture (London, Routledge, 1993);
28. T. Princen and M. Finger, Environmental NGOs in World Politics: Linking the Global and the Local (London, Routledge, 1994). These works are complemented by a thriving journal-and monograph-based literature.
29. J. Echeverri-Gent, The State and the Poor: Public Policy and Political Development in India and the United States (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1993), p. 189.
30. M. Edwards and D. Hulme, 'NGOs and Development: Performance and Accountability in the "New World Order"', paper to the International Workshop on 'NGOs and Development: Performance and Accountability in the "New World Order"' (University of Manchester, 27-29 June 1994), p. 4.
31. J. G. March and J. P. Olson, Rediscovering Institutions: The Organizational Basis of Politics (New York, Free, 1989), p. 3.
32. S. Eckstein, 'Power and Popular Protest in Latin America', in S. Eckstein, ed., Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1989).
33. A number of essays in P. Wignaraja, ed., New Social Movements in the South, Empowering the People (London, Zed, 1993) represent an exception to this point.
34. Gunder-Frank and Fuentes, for instance, argue that institutionalization weakens social movements and that social goods 'can be pursued only through random spontaneity' (A. Gunder-Frank and M Fuentes, 'Civil Democracy: Social Movements in Recent World History', in S. Amin, G. Arrighi, A. Gunder-Frank and I. Wallerstein, eds, Transforming the Revolution: Social Movements and the World System (New York, Monthly Review Press, 1990), p. 176.
35. E.g., the OECD's Voluntary Aid for Development; Clark, Democratizing Development (research funded by Oxfam); Edwards and Hulme, eds, Making a Difference (funded largely by the Save the Children Fund); Carroll, Intermediary NGOs (funded largely by the Inter-American Foundation); Holloway, Doing Development (funded by CUSO (formerly the Canadian University Services Organisation)) and the 1993 four-volume series by Farrington, Bebbington et al., funded by the Overseas Development Institute.
36. E.g., the OECD's Voluntary Aid for Development; Clark, Democratizing Development (research funded by Oxfam); Edwards and Hulme, eds, Making a Difference (funded largely by the Save the Children Fund); Carroll, Intermediary NGOs (funded largely by the Inter-American Foundation); Holloway, Doing Development (funded by CUSO (formerly the Canadian University Services Organisation)) and the 1993 four-volume series by Farrington, Bebbington et al., funded by the Overseas Development Institute.
37. E.g., the OECD's Voluntary Aid for Development; Clark, Democratizing Development (research funded by Oxfam); Edwards and Hulme, eds, Making a Difference (funded largely by the Save the Children Fund); Carroll, Intermediary NGOs (funded largely by the Inter-American Foundation); Holloway, Doing Development (funded by CUSO (formerly the Canadian University Services Organisation)) and the 1993 four-volume series by Farrington, Bebbington et al., funded by the Overseas Development Institute.
38. E.g., the OECD's Voluntary Aid for Development; Clark, Democratizing Development (research funded by Oxfam); Edwards and Hulme, eds, Making a Difference (funded largely by the Save the Children Fund); Carroll, Intermediary NGOs (funded largely by the Inter-American Foundation); Holloway, Doing Development (funded by CUSO (formerly the Canadian University Services Organisation)) and the 1993 four-volume series by Farrington, Bebbington et al., funded by the Overseas Development Institute.
39. E.g., the OECD's Voluntary Aid for Development; Clark, Democratizing Development (research funded by Oxfam); Edwards and Hulme, eds, Making a Difference (funded largely by the Save the Children Fund); Carroll, Intermediary NGOs (funded largely by the Inter-American Foundation); Holloway, Doing Development (funded by CUSO (formerly the Canadian University Services Organisation)) and the 1993 four-volume series by Farrington, Bebbington et al., funded by the Overseas Development Institute.
40. Central America, parts of South America, South Africa and the Philippines represent a partial exception. Some donors aimed specifically to bolster pro-democracy causes while others shied away from supporting overt political agendas.
41. See note 12.
42. Article 71 reads 'The Economic and Social Council may make suitable arrangements for consultation with non-governmental organizations which are concerned with matters within its competence. Such arrangements may be made with international organizations and, where appropriate, with national organizations after consultation with the Member of the United Nations concerned'. L. M. Goodrich and E. Hambro, Charter of the United Nations: Commentary and Documents (Boston, World Peace Foundation, 1946), p. 224.
43. L. C. White, International Non-Governmental Organizations: Their Purposes, Methods and Accomplishments (New Brunswick, Rutgers University Press, 1951), p. 18.
44. J. J. Lador-Lederer, International Non-Governmental Organizations and Economic Entities (Leyden, Sythoff, 1963), p. 13.
45. See, for instance, Korten, Getting to the 21st Century, or D. Hulme, 'Social development research and the third sector: NGOs as users and subjects of social inquiry', in D. Booth, ed., Rethinking Social Development: Theory, Research & Practice (Harlow, Longman, 1994). Normally attributed to W. Nielsen, The Endangered Sector (New York, Columbia University Press, 1979), the term 'third sector', however, tends to underplay the important intermediate positions between the state and private sector occupied by organized religions, trade unions, and professional/representative associations.
46. See, for instance, Korten, Getting to the 21st Century, or D. Hulme, 'Social development research and the third sector: NGOs as users and subjects of social inquiry', in D. Booth, ed., Rethinking Social Development: Theory, Research & Practice (Harlow, Longman, 1994). Normally attributed to W. Nielsen, The Endangered Sector (New York, Columbia University Press, 1979), the term 'third sector', however, tends to underplay the important intermediate positions between the state and private sector occupied by organized religions, trade unions, and professional/representative associations.
47. See, for instance, Korten, Getting to the 21st Century, or D. Hulme, 'Social development research and the third sector: NGOs as users and subjects of social inquiry', in D. Booth, ed., Rethinking Social Development: Theory, Research & Practice (Harlow, Longman, 1994). Normally attributed to W. Nielsen, The Endangered Sector (New York, Columbia University Press, 1979), the term 'third sector', however, tends to underplay the important intermediate positions between the state and private sector occupied by organized religions, trade unions, and professional/representative associations.
48. See, for instance, N. Uphoff, 'Grassroots organizations and NGOs in rural development: oppurtunities with diminishing states and expanding markets', World Development, 21 (1993).
49. See, for instance, H. Sethi, 'Action Groups in the New Politics', in Wignaraja, New Social Movements in the South, or T. Rivera, 'The New World Order: Problems and Prospects for the People's Movement in the Philippines', in C. Karagdag and A. Miclat, eds, Beyond the Cold War: Philippine NGOs et al., 1992).
50. See, for instance, H. Sethi, 'Action Groups in the New Politics', in Wignaraja, New Social Movements in the South, or T. Rivera, 'The New World Order: Problems and Prospects for the People's Movement in the Philippines', in C. Karagdag and A. Miclat, eds, Beyond the Cold War: Philippine NGOs et al., 1992).
51. H. Sethi, 'Some notes on micro-struggles: NGOs and the state', Asian Exchange, May (1993), p. 75.
52. D. L. Sheth, 'The Politics of Social Transformation: Grassroots Movements in India', lecture delivered at the University of Hull, Summer (1991).
53. Clarke, 'Participation and Protest', pp. 322-3.
54. Panca Sila, literally 'five pillars', stresses belief in a supreme being, humanitarianism, national unity, democracy by consensus and social justice.
55. P. Eldridge, 'NGOs and the State in Indonesia', in A. Budiman, ed., State and Civil Society in Indonesia, Monash Papers on Southeast Asia No. 22 (Clayton, Monash University, 1990), p. 506.
56. T. T. Lanh, 'The Role of Vietnamese NGOs in the Current Period', paper presented at the Vietnam Update Conference, 'Doi Moi, the State and Civil Society' (Canberra, Australian National University, 10-11 November 1994).
57. Regarded by Huntington as two key characteristics of political modernization. S. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (Yale, Yale University Press, 1968), p. 93.
58. J. J. Richardson, 'Introduction: Pressure Groups and Government', in J. J. Richardson, ed., Pressure Groups (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 3-4.
59. Sethi, 'Some notes on micro-struggles', p. 84. Similarly, Clark, Democratizing Development, p. 87, argues that NGOs have evolved from the 'carers' of societies to the 'changers'.
60. Sethi, 'Some notes on micro-struggles', p. 84. Similarly, Clark, Democratizing Development, p. 87, argues that NGOs have evolved from the 'carers' of societies to the 'changers'.
61. Cf. Richardson, 'Introduction', p. 11.
62. Korten, Getting to the 21st Century, pp. 115-27.
63. C. Elliot, 'Some aspects of relations between the north and south in the NGO sector', World Development, 15 (1987).
64. S. Silliman, 'Human Rights and the Transition to Democracy', in J. Eder and R. Youngblood, eds, Patterns of Power and Politics in the Philippines: Implications for Development (Tempe, Arizona State University, 1994), p. 129.
65. Clark, Democratizing Development, p. 5.
66. Article II, Section 23 of the 1987 constitution reads: 'The state shall encourage non-governmental, community-based or sectoral organizations that promote the welfare of the nation' while Art. XIII, Sec. 15 notes that 'The state shall respect the role of independent people's organizations to enable the people to pursue and protect, within the democratic framework, their legitimate and collective interests through peaceful and lawful means'.
67. B. Loveman, 'The Political Left in Chile 1973-1990', in B. Carr and S. Ellner, eds, The Latin American Left: from the Fall of Allende to Perostroika (Boulder, Westview, and London, Latin America Bureau, 1993), p. 32.
68. Loveman, 'The Political Left in Chile', p. 32.
69. D. E. Hojman, 'Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and the Chilean transition to democracy', European Review of Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 54 (1993), 7. NGOs based in academe played a key role in this respects.
70. N. Cazan, 'Engaging the State: Associational Life in Sub-Saharan Africa', in J. Migdal, A. Kohli and V. Shue, eds, State Power and Social Forces: Domination and Transformation in the Third World (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 276.
71. T. Lowi, 'American business, public policy, case-studies and political theory', World Politics, 16 (1964), 677-93.
72. G. K. Wilson, Interest Groups (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1990), p. 11.
73. J. Q. Wilson, ed., The Politics of Regulation (New York, Basic, 1983).
74. E. Sader and K. Silverstein, Without Fear of Being Happy: Lula, The Worker's Party and Brazil (London, Verso, 1991), p. 142.
75. 'Cooperation with NGOs in Agriculture and Rural Development' (Manila, Asian Development Bank, August 1989), Vol. 1, p. 131.
76. 'Cooperation with NGOs', ADB, Vol. 1, p. 84.
77. Human Development Report 1993, p. 92.
78. J. Migdal, 'The State in Society', in Migdal et al., State Power and Social Forces, p. 9.
79. A. Brosch, 'The Discourse of Non-Governmental Organisations and the Political Economy of Development in India' (M. A. thesis, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 1990), p. 27. See also P. Karat, Foreign Funding and the Philosophy of Voluntary Organisations: A Factor in Imperialist Strategy (New Delhi, National Book Center, 1988).
80. A. Brosch, 'The Discourse of Non-Governmental Organisations and the Political Economy of Development in India' (M. A. thesis, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 1990), p. 27. See also P. Karat, Foreign Funding and the Philosophy of Voluntary Organisations: A Factor in Imperialist Strategy (New Delhi, National Book Center, 1988).
81. Clarke, 'Participation and Protest', pp. 155-61.
82. See, for instance, R. Kothari, 'NGOs, the state and world capitalism', Economic and Political Weekly, XXI, 50 (13 December 1986).
83. E. Poulat, 'The Path of Latin American Catholicism', in D. Keogh, ed., Church and Politics in Latin America (Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1990), p. 11.
84. See, for instance, E. Mignone, 'The Catholic Church, Human Rights and the "Dirty War" in Argentina', in Keogh, Church and Politics in Latin America, and E. Mignone, Witness to Truth: The Complicity of Church and Dictatorship in Argentina (New York, Orbis, 1988), and their denunciation of the Argentinian hierarchy.
85. See, for instance, E. Mignone, 'The Catholic Church, Human Rights and the "Dirty War" in Argentina', in Keogh, Church and Politics in Latin America, and E. Mignone, Witness to Truth: The Complicity of Church and Dictatorship in Argentina (New York, Orbis, 1988), and their denunciation of the Argentinian hierarchy.
86. B. H. Smith, 'The Catholic Church and Politics in Chile', in Keogh, Church and Politics in Latin America, p. 331.
87. Smith, 'The Catholic Church and Politics in Chile', p. 330.
88. Clarke, 'Participation and Protest', p. 145.
89. Clarke, 'Participation and Protest', pp. 143-9.
90. 'The Philippines: A Summary of Amnesty International's Concerns', ASA 35/02/90 (London, Amnesty International, May 1990), pp. 3 and 5.
91. See Gurmit Singh K. S., A Thorn in the Flesh (Selangor, 1990).
92. B. Eccleston and D. Potter, 'NGOs and the Environmental Politics of Deforestation m Asia', paper presented to the Association of South-East Asian Studies in the United Kingdom (ASEASUK) annual conference (London, 28-30 March 1994).
93. World Development Report 1991: The Challenge of Development (Washington DC, The World Bank, and Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 135.
94. 'Cooperation with NGOs', ADB, Vol. 1, p. 57; Brosch, 'The Discourse on Non-Governmental Organizations', p. 16.
95. 'Cooperation with NGOs', ADB, Vol. 1, p. 57; Brosch, 'The Discourse on Non-Governmental Organizations', p. 16.
96. 'Cooperation with NGOs', ADB, Vol. 2, p. 30.
97. Farrington and Lewis, Nongovernmental Organizations and the State in Asia, p. 92.
98. Farrington and Lewis, Nongovernmental Organizations and the State, p. 93.
99. C. Kay, 'The Agrarian Policy of the Alwyin Government: Continuity or Change?', in D. E. Hojman (ed.), Change in the Chilean Countryside: From Pinochet to Alwyin and Beyond (Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1993), p. 28.
100. See G. Clarke, 'Non-Governmental Organizations and the Philippine state, 1986-1993', South-East Asia Research, 3 (1995), 67-91.
101. A. O. Hirschman, Getting Ahead Collectively: Grassroots Experiences in Latin America (New York, Pergamon, 1987), p. 98.
102. B. Sanyal, Cooperative Autonomy: The Dialectic of State-NGOs Relationship in Developing Countries [sic], Research Series 100 (Geneva, International Labour Organisation, 1994), p. 40.
103. Sanyal, Cooperative Autonomy, pp. 40-1.
104. A. Fowler, 'Non-Governmental Organisations and the Promotion of Democracy in Kenya' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Sussex, December 1993).
105. Concurring, Bratton argues that African NGOs are constrained by internal social conflicts caused by non-kinship-based groups, desperate shortages of trained NGO workers, and a highly politicized institutional environment (M. Bratton, 'Non-governmental Organisations in Africa', pp. 92-3).
106. E. W. Gohlert, 'Thai Democracy and the May 1992 Crisis: The Role of Private Non-Profit Organizations', paper presented to the Western Conference of the Association for Asian Studies, (Tucson, University of Arizona, 23-24 October 1992), p. 2.
107. Hojman, '[NGOs] and the Chilean Transition to Democracy', p. 21.
108. Clarke, 'Participation and Protest', p. 328.
109. Clarke, 'Participation and Protest', p. 221.
110. Huntington, Political Order, p. 7.
111. J. Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1988), pp. 8-9.
112. 'There are no countries', De Tocqueville wrote in 1835, 'in which associations are more needed to prevent the despotism of a faction or the arbitrary power of a prince than those which are democratically constituted' (Alexis De Tocqueville (trans. Henry Reeve), Democracy in America (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1947), p. 243.
113. According to Gramsci, 'The massive structures of modern democracies, both as State organizations and as complexes of associations in civil society, constitute for the art of politics as it were the "trenches" and the permanent fortifications of the front in the war of position: they render merely "partial"the element of movement which before used to be "the whole" of the war etc.' (Q. Hoare and G. Nowell-Smith, eds, Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci (London, Lawrence and Wishart, 1971), p. 243.