Displacement and Human Rights: Reflections on UN Practice

Human Rights Quarterly

Volumn 20, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 515-554

  Stavropoulou, Maria ^a  

^a UNHCR   (Greece)

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EID: 0003104440     PISSN: 02750392     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/hrq.1998.0033     Document Type: Article

References (314)

1. An example of the fact that refugee concerns were not considered to be part of the human rights realm is reflected in the very limited references to refugee law. UNITED NATIONS, UNITED NATIONS ACTION IN THE FIELD OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1994) ; see also Volker Türk, Das Konzept des internationalen Flüchtlingsschutzes und die Menschenrechte, 34 ASS'N FOR STUDY WORLD REFUGEE PROBLEM BULL. 161, 161-71 (1996) (noting that even a basic text on the United Nations and human rights did not include a chapter on refugees); THE UNITED NATIONS AND HUMAN RIGHTS: A CRITICAL APPRAISAL (Philip Alston ed., 1992); Guy Goodwin-Gill, Preface to INT'L J. REFUGEE L. at v (Special Issue 1990).
2. An example of the fact that refugee concerns were not considered to be part of the human rights realm is reflected in the very limited references to refugee law. UNITED NATIONS, UNITED NATIONS ACTION IN THE FIELD OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1994) ; see also Volker Türk, Das Konzept des internationalen Flüchtlingsschutzes und die Menschenrechte, 34 ASS'N FOR STUDY WORLD REFUGEE PROBLEM BULL. 161, 161-71 (1996) (noting that even a basic text on the United Nations and human rights did not include a chapter on refugees); THE UNITED NATIONS AND HUMAN RIGHTS: A CRITICAL APPRAISAL (Philip Alston ed., 1992); Guy Goodwin-Gill, Preface to INT'L J. REFUGEE L. at v (Special Issue 1990).
3. An example of the fact that refugee concerns were not considered to be part of the human rights realm is reflected in the very limited references to refugee law. UNITED NATIONS, UNITED NATIONS ACTION IN THE FIELD OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1994) ; see also Volker Türk, Das Konzept des internationalen Flüchtlingsschutzes und die Menschenrechte, 34 ASS'N FOR STUDY WORLD REFUGEE PROBLEM BULL. 161, 161-71 (1996) (noting that even a basic text on the United Nations and human rights did not include a chapter on refugees); THE UNITED NATIONS AND HUMAN RIGHTS: A CRITICAL APPRAISAL (Philip Alston ed., 1992); Guy Goodwin-Gill, Preface to INT'L J. REFUGEE L. at v (Special Issue 1990).
4. An example of the fact that refugee concerns were not considered to be part of the human rights realm is reflected in the very limited references to refugee law. UNITED NATIONS, UNITED NATIONS ACTION IN THE FIELD OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1994) ; see also Volker Türk, Das Konzept des internationalen Flüchtlingsschutzes und die Menschenrechte, 34 ASS'N FOR STUDY WORLD REFUGEE PROBLEM BULL. 161, 161-71 (1996) (noting that even a basic text on the United Nations and human rights did not include a chapter on refugees); THE UNITED NATIONS AND HUMAN RIGHTS: A CRITICAL APPRAISAL (Philip Alston ed., 1992); Guy Goodwin-Gill, Preface to INT'L J. REFUGEE L. at v (Special Issue 1990).
5. In this article UN political bodies are those in which governments are represented, such as the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Commission on Human Rights, and the Executive Committee of UNHCR's Program. "Expert bodies" are those made up of independent experts, such as the UN human rights treaty bodies, the Sub-Commission on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, and the International Law Commission. While facilitating analysis, this dichotomy is not absolute, as "independent experts" are nominated by governments and may not always act in an independent manner.
6. Once outside his or her country of origin, the refugee became largely an object of charity, rather than a subject of legal rights, with the exception of the principle of "non-refoulement," the normative quality of which was increasingly recognized. See GUY GOODWIN-GILL, THE REFUGEE IN INTERNATIONAL LAW 180 (2d ed. 1996).
7. See generally Maria Stavropoulou, The Right Not to Be Displaced, 9 AM. U. J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 689, 706-17 & nn.81-133 (1994). See also various contributions in INT'L J. REFUGEE L. (Special Issue 1990).
8. See generally Maria Stavropoulou, The Right Not to Be Displaced, 9 AM. U. J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 689, 706-17 & nn.81-133 (1994). See also various contributions in INT'L J. REFUGEE L. (Special Issue 1990).
9. One exceptional example was that of the internally displaced in Cyprus. See S.C. Res. 68/361, adopted 30 Aug. 1974, U.N. SCOR, 1795th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/68/361 (1974).
10. While describing the most pertinent developments in these fields, this article does not provide an exhaustive analysis of sources.
11. See generally Arthur C. Helton, Displacement and Human Rights: Current Dillemmas in Refugee Protection, 47 J. INT'L AFF. 379 (1994) (dealing exclusively with the violation of the human rights of refugees). See also various contributions in INT'L J. REFUGEE L. (Special Issue 1990).
12. See generally Arthur C. Helton, Displacement and Human Rights: Current Dillemmas in Refugee Protection, 47 J. INT'L AFF. 379 (1994) (dealing exclusively with the violation of the human rights of refugees). See also various contributions in INT'L J. REFUGEE L. (Special Issue 1990).
13. See JAMES C. HATHAWAY, THE LAW OF REFUGEE STATUS (1991). See, e.g., GOOOWIN-GILL, supra note 3, 315-21 (discussing the European Convention on Human Rights and its use in asylum cases).
14. See JAMES C. HATHAWAY, THE LAW OF REFUGEE STATUS (1991). See, e.g., GOOOWIN-GILL, supra note 3, 315-21 (discussing the European Convention on Human Rights and its use in asylum cases).
15. The Right to Adequate Housing, General Comment No. 7, ¶ 4, U.N. ESCOR, Comm. on Econ., Soc. & Cult. Rts., 16th Sess., U.N. Doc. E/C.12/1997/4 (1997) [hereinafter The Right to Adequate Housing] (dealing with art. 11(1) (forced evictions) of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, adopted 16 Dec. 1966, 999 U.N.T.S. 171, G.A. Res. 2200 (XXI), U.N. GAOR, 21st Sess., Supp. No. 16, at 52, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (entered into force 23 Mar. 1976)).
16. UNITED NATIONS, FORCED EVICTIONS AND HUMAN RIGHTS, FACT SHEET No. 25.
17. Id.
18. Id. ("[T]his is not often the case with internal displacement.")
19. Id.
20. Id.
21. Id. ¶ 31.
22. UNITED NATIONS, supra note 10, at 6.
23. See ULRIKE DAVY, ASYL UND INTERNATIONALES FLÜCHTLINGSRECHT, BAND I: VÖLKERRECHTLICHER RAHMEN 31 (1996).
24. Note by the Secretary General, Annex: Comprehensive Study Prepared by Mr. Francis M. Deng, Representative of the Secretary-General on the Human Rights Issues Related to Internally Displaced Persons, ¶ 34, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 49th Sess., Agenda Item 11(a), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1993/35 (1993) [hereinafter Comprehensive Study].
25. See, e.g., id. ¶¶ 33-54 (discussing the definition); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11, ¶¶ 116-27, E/CN.4/1995/50 (1994).
26. See Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Mr. Francis M. Deng, Submitted Pursuant to Commission Resolution 1997/39, Addendum, Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 54th Sess., Agenda Item 9, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1998/53 (1997) [hereinafter Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement].
27. See supra notes 14-16 and accompanying text.
28. See Francis M. Deng, Compilation and Analysis of Legal Norms, Part II: Legal Aspects Relating to the Protection Against Arbitrary Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 54th Sess., Agenda Item 9(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1998/53/Add.2 [hereinafter Compilation and Analysis of Legal Norms].
29. The term "refugee" is utilized here in a manner broader than that stated in the Refugee Convention, cited infra note 149 (read: broader than the usual, restricted interpretation the term has acquired through forty-five years of application).
30. See supra note 19 and accompanying text.
31. See supra note 23 for relevant analysis.
32. The UN documents on forced evictions and population transfers all recognize this tact. See UNITED NATIONS, supra note 10; Population Transfer Preliminary Report, supra note 14.
33. See Provisional Agenda, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 48th Sess., Agenda Item 18, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1996/1/Add.1 (1996).
34. See id. at Agenda Item 18(b).
35. See id. at Agenda Item 8.
36. See infra notes 131-45 and accompanying text.
37. See infra notes 114-29 and accompanying text.
38. See Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, supra note 21.
39. On the right not to be displaced see Maria Stavropoulou, The Question of the Right Not to Be Displaced, in PROCEEDINGS OF THE 90TH ANNUAL MEETING OF ASIL (1996). On the right to return see Maria Stavropoulou, Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Right to Return in International Law, in INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS: LAW AND PRACTICE IN BOSNIA & HERZEGOVINA (Michael O'Flaherty et al. eds., 1998) (forthcoming).
40. On the right not to be displaced see Maria Stavropoulou, The Question of the Right Not to Be Displaced, in PROCEEDINGS OF THE 90TH ANNUAL MEETING OF ASIL (1996). On the right to return see Maria Stavropoulou, Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Right to Return in International Law, in INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS: LAW AND PRACTICE IN BOSNIA & HERZEGOVINA (Michael O'Flaherty et al. eds., 1998) (forthcoming).
41. The Sub-Commission has also been urged to reaffirm the right to leave a country in order to seek asylum, as well as standards relevant to detention of asylum seekers, the increasing violation of which "would benefit from an authoritative re-affirmation UNHCR Statement by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner tor Refugees to the Forty-Eighth Session of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities (13 Aug. 1996) (on file with author) [hereinafter Statement on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities]; See also infra text pt. III.F.
42. See Draft Provisional Agenda for the Fifty-Third Session of the Commission, Chairman's Proposal: Restructuring of the Commission's Agenda, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 24, Annex I, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/L.100 (1996) (on file with author).
43. See, e.g., Internally Displaced Persons, C.H.R. Res. 1997/39, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 53rd Sess. Supp. No. 3, at 130, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1997/150 (1997) [hereinafter C.H.R. Res. 1997/39].
44. Monitoring by a UN court for the protection of refugees and displaced persons would ®accord to aggrieved individuals or representative groups a right of petition to redress violations of international refugee and human rights law, thus protecting their rights and achieving greater uniformity in the interpretation of the refugee status criteria." Helton, supra note 7, at 389.
45. Türk, supra note 1.
46. Id. Human rights mechanisms are all the rapporteurs, working groups, and other bodies or individuals mandated with observing the human rights situation in different countries or in the global situation with regard to a specific right.
47. This is not so in the case of internally displaced persons. See Internally Displaced Persons: Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Mr. Francis M. Deng, Submitted Pursuant to Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1995/57: Compilation and Analysis of Legal Norms, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 9(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/52/Add.2 (1995).
48. See, e.g., supra note 36. The Refugee Convention is cited infra at note 149.
49. See, e.g., infra note 99.
50. For a description of the activities of the mandate on internally displaced persons and further references see Francis M. Deng, Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Mr. Francis M. Deng, Submitted Pursuant to Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1996/52, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum Rts., 53d Sess., Agenda Item 9(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1997/43 (1997) [hereinafter Report on Internally Displaced Persons 1997].
51. So far the Representative has placed emphasis on the study of the problem, rather than the operationalization of his mandate. Different scenaria have been explored and proposed, however. See, e.g., Roberta Cohen, Discussion Paper: Internally Displaced Persons: An Extended Role for UNHCR (unpublished manuscript, Nov. 1996) (on file with author).
52. Sadruddin Aga Khan, Special Rapporteur, Study on Human Rights and Massive Exoduses, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 38th Sess., Agenda Item 12(b), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1 503 (1981) [hereinafter Sadruddin Aga Khan Study].
53. Id. ¶ 1.
54. Report of the Secretary-General, Question of the Violation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 37th Sess., Agenda Item 13, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1440 (1981).
55. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted 10 Dec. 1948, G.A. Res. 217A (III), U.N. GAOR, 3d Sess., (Resolutions, part 1) at 71, U.N. Doc. A/810 (1948), reprinted in 43 AM. J. INT'L L. SUPP. 127 (1949).
56. Question of the Violation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in Any Part of the World with Particular Reference to Colonial and Other Dependent Countries and Territories U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 38th Sess., Annex J., Agenda Item 12(b) UN Doc E/CN 4/1503 (1981). The countries examined were Equatorial Guinea, East Bengal Burundi, Uganda, Sahel, Chile, Angola, Cyprus, Namibia, West Asia, Western Sahara, Zimbabwe, South Africa, The Philippines, Zaire, Burma, Nicaragua, Chad Cuba Haiti El Salvador, Afghanistan, Ethiopia, Indo-China, and Mexico. This document was officially withdrawn but can still be found in libraries (on file with author).
57. Sadruddin Aga Khan Study, supra note 47.
58. Id.
59. Id. ¶ 38.
60. Id.
61. Id. Of the other seven recommendations, five related to relief and development aid and planning, one related to "early warning," and one to asylum law and practice.
62. By 1986 "early warning" had become fashionable, particularly after the recommendations prepared by a Group of Governmental Experts on International Co-operation to Avert New Flows of Refugees were submitted to the General Assembly, which had appointed the Group in 1981. See G.A. Res. 36/148, U.N. GAOR, 36th Sess., Supp. No 148, U.N. Doc. A/Res/36/148; International Co-operation to Avert New Flows of Refugees (Secretary-General), U.N. GAOR, 41st Sess., Supp. No. 324, U.N. Doc. A/41/ 324 (1986) (containing the Group's final report). See generally Maria Stavropoulou, Human Rights and "Early Warning" in the United Nations, 14 NETH. Q. HUM. RTS. 419 (1996).
63. By 1986 "early warning" had become fashionable, particularly after the recommendations prepared by a Group of Governmental Experts on International Co-operation to Avert New Flows of Refugees were submitted to the General Assembly, which had appointed the Group in 1981. See G.A. Res. 36/148, U.N. GAOR, 36th Sess., Supp. No 148, U.N. Doc. A/Res/36/148; International Co-operation to Avert New Flows of Refugees (Secretary-General), U.N. GAOR, 41st Sess., Supp. No. 324, U.N. Doc. A/41/ 324 (1986) (containing the Group's final report). See generally Maria Stavropoulou, Human Rights and "Early Warning" in the United Nations, 14 NETH. Q. HUM. RTS. 419 (1996).
64. Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 47th Sess., Agenda Item 11 (a), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1991/25 (1991).
65. See C.H.R. Res. 1982/32, reprinted in relevant part in Human Rights and Massive Exoduses Note by the Secretary-General, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 39th Sess., Agenda Item 12, ¶ 2, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1983/33 (1983) [hereinafter Human Rights and Massive Exoduses, 1983 Note by the Secretary-General]; G.A. Res. 37/186, in Human Rights and Massive Exoduses, Note by the Secretary-General, supra, ¶ 3.
66. See Human Rights and Massive Exoduses, 1983 Note by the Secretary-General, supra note 58.
67. Id. The organizations especially noted the need to uphold principles already guaranteed in various instruments, in particular the right to seek asylum and legislation concerning migrant workers. Id.
68. Id. (The NGOs included the International Commission of Jurists, the International Social Service, the Anti-Slavery Society, and various women's and religious groups.)
69. Id. (for examples, see the replies of Australia, Belgium, Spain, and the United States).
70. Id. (for example, see the reply of Denmark).
71. Id.
72. Id.
73. Id. 67. The Group was established in 1981 by G.A. Res. 36/148, U.N. GAOR, 41st Sess Supp. No. 324, U.N. Doc. A/Res/36/148 (1981). In its final report the Group divided the circumstances causing new massive flows of refugees into "man-made causes and factors" and "natural causes." The "man-made factors" included "political causes (wars, armed conflicts, aggression, alien domination, foreign armed intervention and occupation, colonialism, oppressive, segregationist, and racially supremacist regimes, unequal treatment under oppressive regimes, and mass forcible expulsions across international frontiers) and "socio-economic factors" (particularly those threatening the physical integrity and survival of large groups of people, generally the result of a prolonged state of underdevelopment and an adverse economic environment). International Co-operation to Avert New Flows of Refugees, Note by the Secretary-General, Annex: Report of the Working Group of Governmental Experts, U.N. GAOR, 41st Sess., Supp. No. 324, Annex, ¶¶ 30-44, U.N. Doc. A/41/324 (1986). After an analysis of relevant international instruments, machinery, and practices, the Group put forward a number of recommendations. Half of these pertained to the need to respect international obligations (including in the area of human rights) and Security Council and General Assembly resolutions. The rest related to improved cooperation and analysis of information. Id. ¶¶ 66-72.
74. As to the information provided by the Secretary-General on action taken by his office, this focused exclusively on "early warning." See, e.g., Human Rights and Mass Exoduses Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 43d Sess. Agenda Item 12 ¶¶ 10-15, U.N. Doc. A/43/743 (1988) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1988]; Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 44th Sess., Agenda Item 12, ¶¶ 6-11, U.N. Doc. A/44/622 (1989) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1989]; Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 45th Sess., Agenda Item 12, ¶¶ 4-9, U.N Doc A/45/ 6070990) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1990] Human Rights and Mass Exoduses Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 46th Sess., Agenda Item 12 ¶¶ 4-11, U.N. Doc. A/46/542 (1991) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1991]; Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the Secretary-General U.N. GAOR 47th Sess. Agenda Item 12, ¶¶ 4-8, U.N. Doc. A/47/552 (1992) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1992].
75. As to the information provided by the Secretary-General on action taken by his office, this focused exclusively on "early warning." See, e.g., Human Rights and Mass Exoduses Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 43d Sess. Agenda Item 12 ¶¶ 10-15, U.N. Doc. A/43/743 (1988) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1988]; Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 44th Sess., Agenda Item 12, ¶¶ 6-11, U.N. Doc. A/44/622 (1989) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1989]; Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 45th Sess., Agenda Item 12, ¶¶ 4-9, U.N Doc A/45/ 6070990) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1990] Human Rights and Mass Exoduses Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 46th Sess., Agenda Item 12 ¶¶ 4-11, U.N. Doc. A/46/542 (1991) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1991]; Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the Secretary-General U.N. GAOR 47th Sess. Agenda Item 12, ¶¶ 4-8, U.N. Doc. A/47/552 (1992) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1992].
76. As to the information provided by the Secretary-General on action taken by his office, this focused exclusively on "early warning." See, e.g., Human Rights and Mass Exoduses Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 43d Sess. Agenda Item 12 ¶¶ 10-15, U.N. Doc. A/43/743 (1988) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1988]; Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 44th Sess., Agenda Item 12, ¶¶ 6-11, U.N. Doc. A/44/622 (1989) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1989]; Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 45th Sess., Agenda Item 12, ¶¶ 4-9, U.N Doc A/45/ 6070990) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1990] Human Rights and Mass Exoduses Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 46th Sess., Agenda Item 12 ¶¶ 4-11, U.N. Doc. A/46/542 (1991) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1991]; Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the Secretary-General U.N. GAOR 47th Sess. Agenda Item 12, ¶¶ 4-8, U.N. Doc. A/47/552 (1992) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1992].
77. As to the information provided by the Secretary-General on action taken by his office, this focused exclusively on "early warning." See, e.g., Human Rights and Mass Exoduses Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 43d Sess. Agenda Item 12 ¶¶ 10-15, U.N. Doc. A/43/743 (1988) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1988]; Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 44th Sess., Agenda Item 12, ¶¶ 6-11, U.N. Doc. A/44/622 (1989) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1989]; Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 45th Sess., Agenda Item 12, ¶¶ 4-9, U.N Doc A/45/ 6070990) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1990] Human Rights and Mass Exoduses Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 46th Sess., Agenda Item 12 ¶¶ 4-11, U.N. Doc. A/46/542 (1991) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1991]; Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the Secretary-General U.N. GAOR 47th Sess. Agenda Item 12, ¶¶ 4-8, U.N. Doc. A/47/552 (1992) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1992].
78. As to the information provided by the Secretary-General on action taken by his office, this focused exclusively on "early warning." See, e.g., Human Rights and Mass Exoduses Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 43d Sess. Agenda Item 12 ¶¶ 10-15, U.N. Doc. A/43/743 (1988) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1988]; Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 44th Sess., Agenda Item 12, ¶¶ 6-11, U.N. Doc. A/44/622 (1989) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1989]; Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 45th Sess., Agenda Item 12, ¶¶ 4-9, U.N Doc A/45/ 6070990) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1990] Human Rights and Mass Exoduses Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 46th Sess., Agenda Item 12 ¶¶ 4-11, U.N. Doc. A/46/542 (1991) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1991]; Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the Secretary-General U.N. GAOR 47th Sess. Agenda Item 12, ¶¶ 4-8, U.N. Doc. A/47/552 (1992) [hereinafter Report of the Secretary-General 1992].
79. See, e.g., Report of the Secretary-General 1988, supra note 69, ¶ 17 (reply of Brazil); Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 43d Sess., Agenda Item 12, U.N. Doc. A/43/743/Add.1 (1988) (containing the replies of the United States and Mexico) [hereinafter Addendum to the Report of the Secretary- General 1988]. The Refugee Convention is cited infra at note 149.
80. See, e.g., Report of the Secretary-General 1988, supra note 69, ¶ 17 (reply of Brazil); Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 43d Sess., Agenda Item 12, U.N. Doc. A/43/743/Add.1 (1988) (containing the replies of the United States and Mexico) [hereinafter Addendum to the Report of the Secretary-General 1988]. The Refugee Convention is cited infra at note 149.
81. Human Rights and Mass Exoduses: Note by the Secretariat, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum Rts 45th Sess., Agenda Item 12, at 3, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1989/27 (1989).
82. See Internally Displaced Persons: Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Mr. Francis Deng, Submitted Pursuant to Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1993/95, Addendum: Profiles in Displacement: Colombia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1995/50/Add.1 (1994).
83. Report of the Secretary-General 1989, supra note 69, at 7.
84. Report of the Secretary-General 1990, supra note 69, at 5.
85. Id. at 7.
86. Id. at 9.
87. Id.
88. Addendum to the Report of the Secretary-General 1988, supra note 70, ¶¶ 2-4.
89. Id. at ¶ 4.
90. Report of the Secretary-General 1989, supra note 69, at 9.
91. Report of the Secretary-General 1991, supra note 69, at 9.
92. Id. at 8.
93. Report of the Secretary-General 1992, supra note 69, at 6.
94. Id.
95. The only exceptions were a reply by Morocco in Report of the Secretary-General 1992, supra note 69, at 14; and the reply of the UNHCR in Report of the Secretary-General 1989, supra note 69, at 12.
96. The only exceptions were a reply by Morocco in Report of the Secretary-General 1992, supra note 69, at 14; and the reply of the UNHCR in Report of the Secretary-General 1989, supra note 69, at 12.
97. Sadruddin Aga Khan Study, supra note 46.
98. See Report of the Secretary-General 1989, supra note 69.
99. Note by the Secretary-General Pursuant to Economic and Social Council Resolution 1990/78: Annex Report on Refugees, Displaced Persons and Returnees, Prepared by Mr. Jacques Cuenod, Consultant, U.N. ESCOR, 2d Sess., Agenda Item 12, U.N. Doc. E/ 1991/109/Add.1 (1991). The Economic and Social Council is a subsidiary body of the UN General Assembly and the parent body of the Commission on Human Rights.
100. Id. at 51.
101. Internally Displaced Persons, C.H.R. Res. 1991/25, Comm'n on Human Rts., 47th Sess., Supp. No. 2, at 69, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1991/91 (1991).
102. Analytical Report of the Secretary on Internally Displaced Persons, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 48th Sess., Agenda Item 11(a), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1992/ 23 (1992).
103. Internally Displaced Persons, C.H.R. Res. 1992/73, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 48th Sess., Supp. No. 2, U.N. Doc. E/1992/22 (1992).
104. See, e.g., REFUGEE POLICY GROUP, NORWEGIAN REFUGEE COUNCIL: REPORT OF THE NORWEGIAN GOVERNMENT ROUND TABLE DISCUSION ON UNITED NATIONS HUMAN RIGHTS PROTECTION FOR INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS (5-6 Feb. 1993, Nyon, Switzerland). These included the Refugee Policy Group, the Norwegian Refugee Council, and the Friends World Committee for Consultation (Quakers).
105. See id.
106. Comprehensive Study, supra note 19.
107. Id. ¶ 284. The report also identified the need for a focal mechanism within the United Nations system to address the needs of the internally displaced. Id. ¶¶ 285-87.
108. See Internally Displaced Persons, C.H.R. Res. 1993/95, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 49th Sess , Supp. No. 3, at 274, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1993/122 (1993).
109. See Internally Displaced Persons, C.H.R. Res. 1995/57, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess , Supp. No. 4, at 175, U.N. Doc. E/1995/23 (1995).
110. See, e.g., Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 50th Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1994/44 (1994) [hereinafter Report on Internally Displaced 1994]; Internally Displaced Persons, Reports of the Representative of the Secretary-General, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 9, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/ 1996/52 (1996) [hereinafter Report on Internally Displaced 1996]; Report on Internally Displaced Persons 1997, supra note 44; Internally Displaced Persons, Note by the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., Supp. No. 558, Annex, U.N. Doc. A/50/558 (1995).
111. See, e.g., Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary- General, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 50th Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1994/44 (1994) [hereinafter Report on Internally Displaced 1994]; Internally Displaced Persons, Reports of the Representative of the Secretary-General, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 9, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/ 1996/52 (1996) [hereinafter Report on Internally Displaced 1996]; Report on Internally Displaced Persons 1997, supra note 44; Internally Displaced Persons, Note by the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., Supp. No. 558, Annex, U.N. Doc. A/50/558 (1995).
112. See, e.g., Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary- General, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 50th Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1994/44 (1994) [hereinafter Report on Internally Displaced 1994]; Internally Displaced Persons, Reports of the Representative of the Secretary-General, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 9, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/ 1996/52 (1996) [hereinafter Report on Internally Displaced 1996]; Report on Internally Displaced Persons 1997, supra note 44; Internally Displaced Persons, Note by the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., Supp. No. 558, Annex, U.N. Doc. A/50/558 (1995).
113. See, e.g., Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary- General, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 50th Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1994/44 (1994) [hereinafter Report on Internally Displaced 1994]; Internally Displaced Persons, Reports of the Representative of the Secretary-General, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 9, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/ 1996/52 (1996) [hereinafter Report on Internally Displaced 1996]; Report on Internally Displaced Persons 1997, supra note 44; Internally Displaced Persons, Note by the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., Supp. No. 558, Annex, U.N. Doc. A/50/558 (1995).
114. The Compilation and Analysis of Legal Norms was completed in 1995 and submitted to the Commission on Human Rights at its fifty-first session. Internally Displaced Persons: Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Mr. Francis M. Deng, Submitted Pursuant to Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1995/57: Compilation and Analysis of Legal Norms, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 9(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/52/Add.2 (1995). See also Walter Kaelin, Protection in International Human Rights Law, INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE OF THE RED CROSS, INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS, SYMPOSIUM, Geneva 23-25 Oct. 1995.
115. The Compilation and Analysis of Legal Norms was completed in 1995 and submitted to the Commission on Human Rights at its fifty-first session. Internally Displaced Persons: Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Mr. Francis M. Deng, Submitted Pursuant to Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1995/57: Compilation and Analysis of Legal Norms, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 9(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/52/Add.2 (1995). See also Walter Kaelin, Protection in International Human Rights Law, INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE OF THE RED CROSS, INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS, SYMPOSIUM, Geneva 23-25 Oct. 1995.
116. See Compilation and Analysis of Legal Norms, supra note 23.
117. See Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, supra note 21, ¶ 8.
118. See Report on Internally Displaced Persons 1997, supra note 44.
119. See, e.g., Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative ot the Secretary-General Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 50th Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1994/44/Add.1 (1994) (Sri Lanka); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN4/1995/50/Add.1 (1995) (Colombia); Internally Displaced Persons: Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11 (d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1995/ 50/Add 3 (1995) (Burundi); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1995/50/Add.4 (1995) (Rwanda; Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 9(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/52/Add.1 (1996) (Peru); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General Profiles in Displacement, U.N. GAOR, U.N. Doc. A/51/483/Add.1 (1996) (Tajikistan); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 53d Sess., Agenda Item 9(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1997/ 43/Add.1 (1997) (Mozambique).
120. See, e.g., Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative ot the Secretary- General Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 50th Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1994/44/Add.1 (1994) (Sri Lanka); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN4/1995/50/Add.1 (1995) (Colombia); Internally Displaced Persons: Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11 (d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1995/ 50/Add 3 (1995) (Burundi); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1995/50/Add.4 (1995) (Rwanda; Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 9(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/52/Add.1 (1996) (Peru); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General Profiles in Displacement, U.N. GAOR, U.N. Doc. A/51/483/Add.1 (1996) (Tajikistan); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 53d Sess., Agenda Item 9(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1997/ 43/Add.1 (1997) (Mozambique).
121. See, e.g., Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative ot the Secretary- General Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 50th Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1994/44/Add.1 (1994) (Sri Lanka); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN4/1995/50/Add.1 (1995) (Colombia); Internally Displaced Persons: Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11 (d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1995/ 50/Add 3 (1995) (Burundi); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1995/50/Add.4 (1995) (Rwanda; Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 9(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/52/Add.1 (1996) (Peru); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General Profiles in Displacement, U.N. GAOR, U.N. Doc. A/51/483/Add.1 (1996) (Tajikistan); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 53d Sess., Agenda Item 9(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1997/ 43/Add.1 (1997) (Mozambique).
122. See, e.g., Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative ot the Secretary- General Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 50th Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1994/44/Add.1 (1994) (Sri Lanka); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN4/1995/50/Add.1 (1995) (Colombia); Internally Displaced Persons: Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11 (d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1995/ 50/Add 3 (1995) (Burundi); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1995/50/Add.4 (1995) (Rwanda; Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 9(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/52/Add.1 (1996) (Peru); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General Profiles in Displacement, U.N. GAOR, U.N. Doc. A/51/483/Add.1 (1996) (Tajikistan); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 53d Sess., Agenda Item 9(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1997/ 43/Add.1 (1997) (Mozambique).
123. See, e.g., Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative ot the Secretary- General Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 50th Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1994/44/Add.1 (1994) (Sri Lanka); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN4/1995/50/Add.1 (1995) (Colombia); Internally Displaced Persons: Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11 (d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1995/ 50/Add 3 (1995) (Burundi); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1995/50/Add.4 (1995) (Rwanda; Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 9(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/52/Add.1 (1996) (Peru); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General Profiles in Displacement, U.N. GAOR, U.N. Doc. A/51/483/Add.1 (1996) (Tajikistan); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 53d Sess., Agenda Item 9(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1997/ 43/Add.1 (1997) (Mozambique).
124. See, e.g., Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative ot the Secretary- General Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 50th Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1994/44/Add.1 (1994) (Sri Lanka); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN4/1995/50/Add.1 (1995) (Colombia); Internally Displaced Persons: Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11 (d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1995/ 50/Add 3 (1995) (Burundi); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1995/50/Add.4 (1995) (Rwanda; Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 9(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/52/Add.1 (1996) (Peru); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General Profiles in Displacement, U.N. GAOR, U.N. Doc. A/51/483/Add.1 (1996) (Tajikistan); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 53d Sess., Agenda Item 9(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1997/ 43/Add.1 (1997) (Mozambique).
125. See, e.g., Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative ot the Secretary- General Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 50th Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1994/44/Add.1 (1994) (Sri Lanka); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN4/1995/50/Add.1 (1995) (Colombia); Internally Displaced Persons: Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11 (d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1995/ 50/Add 3 (1995) (Burundi); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1995/50/Add.4 (1995) (Rwanda; Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 9(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/52/Add.1 (1996) (Peru); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General Profiles in Displacement, U.N. GAOR, U.N. Doc. A/51/483/Add.1 (1996) (Tajikistan); Internally Displaced Persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Profiles in Displacement, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 53d Sess., Agenda Item 9(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1997/ 43/Add.1 (1997) (Mozambique).
126. All missions thus far have been undertaken to countries where internal armed conflicts caused large numbers of internally displaced persons.
127. Other issues that the report examines are the role of the international agencies, the role of nongovernmental community, and the role of donors.
128. See discussion of NGO work, infra notes 240-45 and accompanying text.
129. See supra notes 21-24 and accompanying text.
130. For a description of the situation of the internally displaced in various countries, see US COMMITTEE FOR REFUGEES, WORLD REFUGE SURVEY (1997) . A new project undertaken by the Norwegian Refusee Council, the Global IDP Survey, was launched in early 1997, aiming at providing a comprehensive overview of the situation of the internally displaced around the world. See NORWEGIAN REFUGEE COUNCIL, GLOBAL IDP SURVEY: AN INDEPENDENT REPORT ON INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS WORLDWIDE (1997).
131. For a description of the situation of the internally displaced in various countries, see US COMMITTEE FOR REFUGEES, WORLD REFUGE SURVEY (1997) . A new project undertaken by the Norwegian Refusee Council, the Global IDP Survey, was launched in early 1997, aiming at providing a comprehensive overview of the situation of the internally displaced around the world. See NORWEGIAN REFUGEE COUNCIL, GLOBAL IDP SURVEY: AN INDEPENDENT REPORT ON INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS WORLDWIDE (1997).
132. See Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, supra note 21, ¶ 37.
133. See GOODWIN-GILL, supra note 3, at 13. At the time of the drafting of the Refugee Convention other categories of "refugees," such as "national refugees" or those created by population transfers, were mostly considered as not needing international protection as they were entitled to rights afforded by their countries of residence. Although it was recognized that they might need assistance, they nevertheless did not benefit from the Refugee Convention.
134. The Human Rights Dimensions of Population Transfer, Preliminary Working Paper Submitted by Claire Palley, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 44th Sess., Agenda Item 10, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1992/WP.1 (1992).
135. Res. 1992/28, in Report of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities on its Forty-Fourth Session, U.N. ESCOR, Comm. on Hum. Rts., Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 48th Sess., U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1992/58 (1992).
136. Population Transfer Preliminary Report, supra note 14.
137. Progress Report Prepared by Mr. Awn Shawhat Al-Khasawneh, Human Rights Dimensions of Population Transfer, Including the Implantation of Settlers and Settlements, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 46th Sess., Agenda Item 8, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1994/18 (1994) [hereinafter Population Transfer Progress Report].
138. Human Rights and Population Transfer: Final Report of the Special Rapporteur, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 49th Sess., Agenda Item 10, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/23 (1997) [hereinafter Population Transfer Final Report]. See also Note by the Secretary- General, Human Rights Dimensions of Population Transfer, Including the Implantation of Settlers and Settlements, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 52d Sess., Agenda Item 8, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1996/29 (1996) (noting that due to reasons beyond the control of the Secretariat, including the severe constraints on the Organization, the special rapporteur could not complete his report in time - that is, in 1996, as initially foreseen).
139. Human Rights and Population Transfer: Final Report of the Special Rapporteur, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 49th Sess., Agenda Item 10, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/23 (1997) [hereinafter Population Transfer Final Report]. See also Note by the Secretary-General, Human Rights Dimensions of Population Transfer, Including the Implantation of Settlers and Settlements, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 52d Sess., Agenda Item 8, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1996/29 (1996) (noting that due to reasons beyond the control of the Secretariat, including the severe constraints on the Organization, the special rapporteur could not complete his report in time - that is, in 1996, as initially foreseen).
140. Population Transfer Preliminary Report, supra note 14.
141. See supra discussion on definitions, notes 8-27 and accompanying text.
142. Population Transfer Progress Report, supra note 115.
143. Population Transfer Preliminary Report, supra note 14, ¶ 376.
144. Id. ¶ 383.
145. Population Transfer Progress Report, supra note 115.
146. Id.
147. Id.
148. Id.
149. Population Transfer Final Report, supra note 116.
150. Id. ¶ 6.
151. Id.
152. Id.
153. Res 1997/29 in Report of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities on its Forty-Ninth Session, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 49th Sess., 36th mtg., at 69, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1998/2 (1997).
154. Limited discussion of the issue has also taken place within the Commission. See infra note 138.
155. The Right to Adequate Housing, First Progress Report Submitted by Mr. Rajindar Sachar, Special Rapporteur, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 45th Sess., Agenda Item 8, UN Doc E/CN4/SUD.2/1993/15 (1993); The Right to Adequate Housing, Second Progress Report Submitted by Mr. Rajindar Sachar, Special Rapporteur, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 46th Sess., Agenda Item 8, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1994/20 (1994) [hereinafter Sachar Second Progress Report].
156. The Right to Adequate Housing, First Progress Report Submitted by Mr. Rajindar Sachar, Special Rapporteur, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 45th Sess., Agenda Item 8, UN Doc E/CN4/SUD.2/1993/15 (1993); The Right to Adequate Housing, Second Progress Report Submitted by Mr. Rajindar Sachar, Special Rapporteur, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 46th Sess., Agenda Item 8, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1994/20 (1994) [hereinafter Sachar Second Progress Report].
157. The Right to Adequate Housing, Final Report Submitted by Mr. Rajindar Sachar, Special Rapporteur, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 47th Sess., Agenda Item 8, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1995/12 (1995).
158. Sachar Second Progress Report, supra note 132.
159. Id. at 27.
160. Res. 1994/38, in Report of the Sub-Commission, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 46th Sess., U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1994/2 (1994).
161. Guidelines on International Events and Forced Evictions: Report of the Secretary-General U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 47th Sess., Agenda Item 8, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1995/13 (1995); Guidelines on International Events and Forced
162. Guidelines on International Events and Forced Evictions: Report of the Secretary- General U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 47th Sess., Agenda Item 8, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1995/13 (1995); Guidelines on International Events and Forced Evictions: Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1996/ 11 (1996).
163. The Secretariat also submitted an analytical report on forced evictions to the Commission in 1993. Forced Evictions: Analytical Report Compiled by the Secretary-General Pursuant to Commission Resolution 1993/77, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 50th Sess., Agenda Item 7, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1994/20 (1994). The Commission requested the submission of the report following its adoption of resolution 1993/77, in which it also affirmed that the practice of forced evictions constitutes "a gross violation of human rights, in particular the right to adequate housing." Id. Since 1993 the Commission has remained silent on the issue, possibly due to the strong resistance of the United States to economic, social and cultural rights. The debate as to the right to housing continued in 1996, in the deliberations leading to the Istanbul Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II). See The Right to Adequate Housing, Note by the Secretariat, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum Rts Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 48th Sess., Agenda Item 8, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1996/10 (1996).
164. The Secretariat also submitted an analytical report on forced evictions to the Commission in 1993. Forced Evictions: Analytical Report Compiled by the Secretary-General Pursuant to Commission Resolution 1993/77, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 50th Sess., Agenda Item 7, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1994/20 (1994). The Commission requested the submission of the report following its adoption of resolution 1993/77, in which it also affirmed that the practice of forced evictions constitutes "a gross violation of human rights, in particular the right to adequate housing." Id. Since 1993 the Commission has remained silent on the issue, possibly due to the strong resistance of the United States to economic, social and cultural rights. The debate as to the right to housing continued in 1996, in the deliberations leading to the Istanbul Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II). See The Right to Adequate Housing, Note by the Secretariat, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum Rts Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 48th Sess., Agenda Item 8, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1996/10 (1996).
165. Res. 1996/27, in Report of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities on its Forty-Eighth Session, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 48th Sess., 35th mtg., at 67, 11, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1996/41 (1996) [hereinafter 1996 Report of the Sub-Commission]. See also Res. 1997/6, in Report of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities on its Forty-Ninth Session, U.N. ESCOR Comm'n on Hum. Rts., Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 49th Sess., at 24, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/50 (E/CN.4/ 1998/2) (1997) [hereinafter 1997 Report of the Sub-Commission].
166. Res. 1996/27, in Report of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities on its Forty-Eighth Session, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 48th Sess., 35th mtg., at 67, 11, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1996/41 (1996) [hereinafter 1996 Report of the Sub-Commission]. See also Res. 1997/6, in Report of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities on its Forty-Ninth Session, U.N. ESCOR Comm'n on Hum. Rts., Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 49th Sess., at 24, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/50 (E/CN.4/ 1998/2) (1997) [hereinafter 1997 Report of the Sub-Commission].
167. Res. 1996/27, supra note 139, ¶¶ 2-4.
168. Id. ¶ 5.
169. Res. 1995/29, in Report of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities on its Forty-Seventh Session, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 47th Sess., 35th mtg., at 73, 74, pmbl., U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1995/51 (1995) [hereinafter 1995 Report of the Sub-Commission].
170. Id.
171. Expert Seminar on the Practice of Forced Evictions: Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 53d Sess., Agenda Item 4, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/7 (1997).
172. 1997 Report of the Sub-Commission, supra note 139.
173. Res. 1994/24, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 46th Sess., U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1994/56 (E/CN.4/1995/2) (1994).
174. Id.
175. Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities Res. 1995/13, in 1995 Report of the Sub-Commission, supra note 142, at 43, ¶ 4.
176. Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, art. 33, adopted 28 July 1951, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.2/108 (1951), 189 U.N.T.S. 150 (entered into force 22 Apr. 1954) [hereinafter Refugee Convention].
177. Res. 1996/9, in 1996 Report of the Sub-Commission, supra note 139.
178. See Working Paper on the Right to Freedom of Movement and Related Issues, Prepared by Mr. Volodymyr Boutkevitch in Implementation of Decision 1996/109 of the Sub-Commission, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 49th Sess., Agenda Item 10, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/22 (1997).
179. Decision 1996/102, in 1996 Report of the Sub-Commission, supra note 139, at 89.
180. Id. See also Working Paper on the Right to Freedom of Movement and Related Issues, supra note 151.
181. Res. 1997/29, in 1997 Report of the Sub-Commission, supra note 139, at 69.
182. Res 1997/30 in 1997 Report of the Sub-Commission, supra note 139, at 71.
183. See Res 1994/45, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 46th Sess., Agenda Item 15, arts. 7(c), 10, 11, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1994/2/Add.1 (1994); see also ILO Convention No 169, Convention Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries, adopted 27 June 1989, entered into force 5 Sept. 1991, reprinted in INTERNATIONAL LABOR ORGANIZATION, INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 1436-47, 1919-91 (1992).
184. See Res 1994/45, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 46th Sess., Agenda Item 15, arts. 7(c), 10, 11, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1994/2/Add.1 (1994); see also ILO Convention No 169, Convention Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries, adopted 27 June 1989, entered into force 5 Sept. 1991, reprinted in INTERNATIONAL LABOR ORGANIZATION, INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 1436-47, 1919-91 (1992).
185. The first two reports of the Working Group can be found in Report of the Working Group Established in Accordance with Commission Human Rights Resolution 1995/ 32, U.N. ESCOR Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/84 (1996); Report of the Group Established in Accordance Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1995/32, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 53d Sess., U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1997/102 (1997).
186. The first two reports of the Working Group can be found in Report of the Working Group Established in Accordance with Commission Human Rights Resolution 1995/ 32, U.N. ESCOR Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/84 (1996); Report of the Group Established in Accordance Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1995/32, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 53d Sess., U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1997/102 (1997).
187. The draft declaration was attached to Working Paper Submitted by Mr. Theo van Boven and Mr. Asbjørn Eide, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 43d Sess., Agenda Item 4, U.N. Doc. ECN4/Sub2/1991/55 (1991), and further revised in 1994. See Asbjorn Eide et al., Combatting Lawlessness in Gray Zone Conflicts through Minimum Humanitarian Standards, 89 AM. J. INT'L L. 215, 219-23 (1995).
188. The draft declaration was attached to Working Paper Submitted by Mr. Theo van Boven and Mr. Asbjørn Eide, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., Sub-Comm'n on Prevention of Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, 43d Sess., Agenda Item 4, U.N. Doc. ECN4/Sub2/1991/55 (1991), and further revised in 1994. See Asbjorn Eide et al., Combatting Lawlessness in Gray Zone Conflicts through Minimum Humanitarian Standards, 89 AM. J. INT'L L. 215, 219-23 (1995).
189. See Eide et al., supra note 158.
190. See C.H.R. Res. 1995/29, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum Rts., 51st Sess., U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1995/29 (1995); C.H.R. Res. 1996/26, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 11, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/80 (1996).
191. These comments were compiled in two reports in 1996 and 1997. See Minimum Humanitarian Standards, Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 15, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1997/77 (1997).
192. Draft Article 7 of the draft declaration cited supra note 158 reads: 1. All persons have the right to remain in peace in their homes and their places of residence. 2. The displacement of the population or parts thereof shall not be ordered unless their safety or imperative security reasons so demand. Should such displacement have to be carried out, all possible measures shall be taken in order that the population may be transferred and received under satisfactory conditions of shelter, hygiene, health, safety and nutrition. Persons or groups thus displaced shall be allowed to return to their homes or their places of residence as soon as the conditions which made their displacement imperative have ceased. Every effort shall be made to enable those so displaced who wish to remain together to do so. Families whose members wish to remain together must be allowed must be allowed to do so. The persons thus displaced shall be free to move around in the territory, subject only to the safety of the persons involved or reasons of imperative security. No person shall be compelled to leave their own territory.
193. Report of the Secretary-General Prepared Pursuant to Commission Resolution 1995/29, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 15, at 20, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/80/Add.3 (1996).
194. The report from the International Workshop on Minimum Humanitarian Standards, convened in Cape Town during September 1996, is contained in U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 53d Sess., Agenda Item 10, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1997/77/Add.1 (1997).
195. Report of the Secretary-General Prepared in Accordance with Commission Resolution 1996/51, C.H.R. Res. 1997/21, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 53d Sess., Agenda Item 6, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1997/21 (1997).
196. Report Submitted by Bosnia and Herzegovina Pursuant to a Special Decision Taken by the Committee, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., U.N. Doc. CERD/C/247/Add.1 (1995).
197. Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., Supp. No. 18, Agenda Item 103, ¶ 219, U.N. Doc. A/50/18 (1995).
198. General Comment of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 4, ¶ 18, reprinted in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, Note by the Secretariat, U.N. Doc. HRI/VSN/1/Rev.1 (1994) [hereinafter Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations]. See also General Comment of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 2, ¶¶ 6 & 8, in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations, supra (regarding international assistance measures).
199. General Comment of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 4, ¶ 18, reprinted in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, Note by the Secretariat, U.N. Doc. HRI/VSN/1/Rev.1 (1994) [hereinafter Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations]. See also General Comment of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 2, ¶¶ 6 & 8, in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations, supra (regarding international assistance measures).
200. General Comment of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 4, ¶ 18, reprinted in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, Note by the Secretariat, U.N. Doc. HRI/VSN/1/Rev.1 (1994) [hereinafter Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations]. See also General Comment of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 2, ¶¶ 6 & 8, in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations, supra (regarding international assistance measures).
201. See The Right to Adequate Housing, supra note 9.
202. General Comment of the Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 15, ¶¶ 9-10, reprinted in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations,
203. General Comment of the Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 15, ¶¶ 9- 10, reprinted in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations,
204. Therquestion of internal exile was also addressed in an early UN study on the freedom from arbitrary arrest, detention, and exile. U.N. Dept. of Int'l. Economy and Social Affairs Study of the Right of Everyone to be Free from Arbitrary Arrest Detention and Exile, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 18th Sess., Agenda Item 4, at 203, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/826/Rev.1, U.N. Sales No. 65.XIV.2 (1964). The study interpreted the term "exile" also cover internal exile (or banishment). The study further indicated that banishment within a country was a much more frequent occurrence than expulsion or external exile in both law and practice in a considerable number of countries, where it was applied either as a penal sanction or as a preventive or security measure.
205. During 1995, for instance, the HRC expressed its concern for asylum-seekers, refugees, or displaced persons in the following countries: the United States, Ukraine, Latvia, the United Kingdom, and the Russian Federation (in Chechnya, North Ossetia, and Ingushetia). See Report of the Human Rights Committee, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., Supp. No. 40, U.N. Doc. A/50/40 (1995). The CAT dealt with Switzerland and the Netherlands. See Report of the Committee Against Torture, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., Supp. No 44, U.N. Doc. A/50/44 (1995); see also Brian Gorlick, Refugee Protects and the Committee Against Torture, 7 INT'L J. REFUGEE L. 504 (1995); GOODWIN-GILL, supra note 3, at 153-55.
206. During 1995, for instance, the HRC expressed its concern for asylum-seekers, refugees, or displaced persons in the following countries: the United States, Ukraine, Latvia, the United Kingdom, and the Russian Federation (in Chechnya, North Ossetia, and Ingushetia). See Report of the Human Rights Committee, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., Supp. No. 40, U.N. Doc. A/50/40 (1995). The CAT dealt with Switzerland and the Netherlands. See Report of the Committee Against Torture, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., Supp. No 44, U.N. Doc. A/50/44 (1995); see also Brian Gorlick, Refugee Protects and the Committee Against Torture, 7 INT'L J. REFUGEE L. 504 (1995); GOODWIN-GILL, supra note 3, at 153-55.
207. During 1995, for instance, the HRC expressed its concern for asylum-seekers, refugees, or displaced persons in the following countries: the United States, Ukraine, Latvia, the United Kingdom, and the Russian Federation (in Chechnya, North Ossetia, and Ingushetia). See Report of the Human Rights Committee, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., Supp. No. 40, U.N. Doc. A/50/40 (1995). The CAT dealt with Switzerland and the Netherlands. See Report of the Committee Against Torture, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., Supp. No 44, U.N. Doc. A/50/44 (1995); see also Brian Gorlick, Refugee Protects and the Committee Against Torture, 7 INT'L J. REFUGEE L. 504 (1995); GOODWIN-GILL, supra note 3, at 153-55.
208. During 1995, for instance, the HRC expressed its concern for asylum-seekers, refugees, or displaced persons in the following countries: the United States, Ukraine, Latvia, the United Kingdom, and the Russian Federation (in Chechnya, North Ossetia, and Ingushetia). See Report of the Human Rights Committee, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., Supp. No. 40, U.N. Doc. A/50/40 (1995). The CAT dealt with Switzerland and the Netherlands. See Report of the Committee Against Torture, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., Supp. No 44, U.N. Doc. A/50/44 (1995); see also Brian Gorlick, Refugee Protects and the Committee Against Torture, 7 INT'L J. REFUGEE L. 504 (1995); GOODWIN-GILL, supra note 3, at 153-55.
209. In 1995, for instance, CERD requested such information to be submitted by El Salvador, Italy, Cyprus, Sri Lanka, Guatemala, and Croatia. See Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., Supp. No. 18, U.N. Doc. A/50/18 (1995).
210. See Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the High Commissioner for Human Rights U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 53d Sess., Agenda Item 9(d), ¶ 30, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1997/42 (1997) [hereinafter Mass Exoduses Report 1997].
211. Draft Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination to the General Assembly at its Fifty-First Session, U.N. GAOR, 33d Sess., U.N. Doc. CERD/C/ 49/CRP.2/Add.9.
212. For instance, in 1995 the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women briefly discussed the situation of displaced women in Peru and Croatia. See Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., Supp. No. 38, U.N. Doc. A/50/38 (1995).
213. Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, U.N. GAOR, World Conf. on Hum. Rts., 48th Sess., 22d plen. mtg., part 1, ¶ 18, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.157/23 (1993), reprinted in 32 I.L.M. 1667 (1993).
214. Id.
215. High Commissioner for the Promotion and Protection of All Human Rights, G.A. Res. 48/141, U.N. GAOR, 48th Sess., 85th plen. mtg., Agenda Item 20, U.N. Doc. A/RES/48/ 141 (1994).
216. See Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, C.H.R. Res. 1995/88, in Comm'n on Hum Rts., supra note 98, at 88. The request was repeated in 1996 and in 1997. See Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess, Supp. No. 3, U.N. Doc. E/1996/23 (1996); Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, C.H.R. Res. 1997/75, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 53d Sess., Supp. No. 3, at 250, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1997/ 150 (1997) [hereinafter C.H.R. Res. 1997/75].
217. See Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, C.H.R. Res. 1995/88, in Comm'n on Hum Rts., supra note 98, at 88. The request was repeated in 1996 and in 1997. See Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess, Supp. No. 3, U.N. Doc. E/1996/23 (1996); Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, C.H.R. Res. 1997/75, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 53d Sess., Supp. No. 3, at 250, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1997/ 150 (1997) [hereinafter C.H.R. Res. 1997/75].
218. See Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, C.H.R. Res. 1995/88, in Comm'n on Hum Rts., supra note 98, at 88. The request was repeated in 1996 and in 1997. See Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess, Supp. No. 3, U.N. Doc. E/1996/23 (1996); Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, C.H.R. Res. 1997/75, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 53d Sess., Supp. No. 3, at 250, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1997/ 150 (1997) [hereinafter C.H.R. Res. 1997/75].
219. This was done as part of peacekeeping operations. See ASPEN INSTITUTE, HONORING HUMAN RIGHTS AND KEEPING THE PEACE (1995); see also Implications of Humanitarian Activities for the Enjoyment of Human Rights, Further Preparatory Document Submitted by Mrs. Claire Palley, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 46th Sess Agenda Item 20, U.N. Doc E/CN.4/Sub.2/1994/39 (1994) (providing one of the first discussions on the compatibility of large UN operations and human rights) (hereinafter Implications of Humanitarian Activities].
220. This was done as part of peacekeeping operations. See ASPEN INSTITUTE, HONORING HUMAN RIGHTS AND KEEPING THE PEACE (1995); see also Implications of Humanitarian Activities for the Enjoyment of Human Rights, Further Preparatory Document Submitted by Mrs. Claire Palley, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 46th Sess Agenda Item 20, U.N. Doc E/CN.4/Sub.2/1994/39 (1994) (providing one of the first discussions on the compatibility of large UN operations and human rights) (hereinafter Implications of Humanitarian Activities].
221. See Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 53d Sess., ¶ 29, U.N. Doc. E/CN./1997/98 (1997).
222. See, e.g., Human Rights Field Operation in Rwanda, Report on the Human Rights Situation in Rwanda and the Activities of HRFOR, April-May 1996 (on file with author).
223. See Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. ESCOR Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1995/49 (1995) [hereinafter Mass Exoduses Report 1995]; Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 9(d) U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/42 (1996) [hereinafter Mass Exoduses Report 1996]; Mass Exoduses Report 1997, supra note 174. Special rapporteurs have been requested to monitor and report on situations that have created or could create displacement See, e.g., C.H.R. Res. 1997/39, supra note 37; C.H.R. Res. 1997/75, supra note 180.
224. See Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. ESCOR Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1995/49 (1995) [hereinafter Mass Exoduses Report 1995]; Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 9(d) U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/42 (1996) [hereinafter Mass Exoduses Report 1996]; Mass Exoduses Report 1997, supra note 174. Special rapporteurs have been requested to monitor and report on situations that have created or could create displacement See, e.g., C.H.R. Res. 1997/39, supra note 37; C.H.R. Res. 1997/75, supra note 180.
225. See Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. ESCOR Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 51st Sess., Agenda Item 11, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1995/49 (1995) [hereinafter Mass Exoduses Report 1995]; Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 9(d) U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/42 (1996) [hereinafter Mass Exoduses Report 1996]; Mass Exoduses Report 1997, supra note 174. Special rapporteurs have been requested to monitor and report on situations that have created or could create displacement See, e.g., C.H.R. Res. 1997/39, supra note 37; C.H.R. Res. 1997/75, supra note 180.
226. Of the thematic rapporteurs one should note in particular the work of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women and the Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary, or Arbitrary Executions.
227. See, e.g., Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Rwanda, Submitted by the Special Rapporteur, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 10, ¶¶ 61-62 (discussing property and illegal occupation of the houses of refugees), ¶ 105 (discussing enforced disappearances of refugees), ¶¶ 109-39 (discussing expulsions and return of refugees), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/68 (1996). Cf. Final Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Afghanistan, Submitted by the Special Rapporteur, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 10, ¶¶ 33-34, 99, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/64 (1996).
228. See, e.g., Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Rwanda, Submitted by the Special Rapporteur, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 10, ¶¶ 61- 62 (discussing property and illegal occupation of the houses of refugees), ¶ 105 (discussing enforced disappearances of refugees), ¶¶ 109-39 (discussing expulsions and return of refugees), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/68 (1996). Cf. Final Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Afghanistan, Submitted by the Special Rapporteur, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 10, ¶¶ 33-34, 99, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/64 (1996).
229. See e.g., Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, G.A. Res. 50/182, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., 99th plen mtg Agenda Item 112(b), U.N. Doc. A/RES/50/182 (1996); Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, G.A. Res. 48/139, U.N. GAOR, 48th Sess., 85th plen. mtg., Agenda Item 114(b), U.N. Doc. A/RES/48/139 (1994). The General Assembly has also adopted a Declaration on the Human Rights of Individuals Who Are Not Nationals of the Country in Which They Live, G.A. Res. 40/144, U.N. GAOR, 40th Sess., 116th plen. mtg., Agenda Item 12, U.N. Doc. A/RES/40/144 (1986), reprinted in UNHCR, COLLECTION OF INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS AND OTHER LEGAL TEXTS CONCERNING REFUGEES AND DISPLACED PERSONS 249 (1995) [hereinafter UNHCR COLLECTION]. Article 7 of the declaration deals with expulsion. Id. at 4. The General Assembly has further adopted a Declaration on the Protection of Women and Children in Emergency and Armed Conflict, G.A. Res. 3318 (XXIX), U.N. GAOR, 29th Sess., adopted 14 Dec. 1974, reprinted in UNHCR COLLECTION, supra, at 260. Article 5 of this declaration requires that, inter alia, "forcible eviction" committed by belligerents during the course of military operations or in occupied territories and affecting women and children, shall be considered criminal. Id.
230. See e.g., Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, G.A. Res. 50/182, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., 99th plen mtg Agenda Item 112(b), U.N. Doc. A/RES/50/182 (1996); Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, G.A. Res. 48/139, U.N. GAOR, 48th Sess., 85th plen. mtg., Agenda Item 114(b), U.N. Doc. A/RES/48/139 (1994). The General Assembly has also adopted a Declaration on the Human Rights of Individuals Who Are Not Nationals of the Country in Which They Live, G.A. Res. 40/144, U.N. GAOR, 40th Sess., 116th plen. mtg., Agenda Item 12, U.N. Doc. A/RES/40/144 (1986), reprinted in UNHCR, COLLECTION OF INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS AND OTHER LEGAL TEXTS CONCERNING REFUGEES AND DISPLACED PERSONS 249 (1995) [hereinafter UNHCR COLLECTION]. Article 7 of the declaration deals with expulsion. Id. at 4. The General Assembly has further adopted a Declaration on the Protection of Women and Children in Emergency and Armed Conflict, G.A. Res. 3318 (XXIX), U.N. GAOR, 29th Sess., adopted 14 Dec. 1974, reprinted in UNHCR COLLECTION, supra, at 260. Article 5 of this declaration requires that, inter alia, "forcible eviction" committed by belligerents during the course of military operations or in occupied territories and affecting women and children, shall be considered criminal. Id.
231. See e.g., Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, G.A. Res. 50/182, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., 99th plen mtg Agenda Item 112(b), U.N. Doc. A/RES/50/182 (1996); Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, G.A. Res. 48/139, U.N. GAOR, 48th Sess., 85th plen. mtg., Agenda Item 114(b), U.N. Doc. A/RES/48/139 (1994). The General Assembly has also adopted a Declaration on the Human Rights of Individuals Who Are Not Nationals of the Country in Which They Live, G.A. Res. 40/144, U.N. GAOR, 40th Sess., 116th plen. mtg., Agenda Item 12, U.N. Doc. A/RES/40/144 (1986), reprinted in UNHCR, COLLECTION OF INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS AND OTHER LEGAL TEXTS CONCERNING REFUGEES AND DISPLACED PERSONS 249 (1995) [hereinafter UNHCR COLLECTION]. Article 7 of the declaration deals with expulsion. Id. at 4. The General Assembly has further adopted a Declaration on the Protection of Women and Children in Emergency and Armed Conflict, G.A. Res. 3318 (XXIX), U.N. GAOR, 29th Sess., adopted 14 Dec. 1974, reprinted in UNHCR COLLECTION, supra, at 260. Article 5 of this declaration requires that, inter alia, "forcible eviction" committed by belligerents during the course of military operations or in occupied territories and affecting women and children, shall be considered criminal. Id.
232. See e.g., Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, G.A. Res. 50/182, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., 99th plen mtg Agenda Item 112(b), U.N. Doc. A/RES/50/182 (1996); Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, G.A. Res. 48/139, U.N. GAOR, 48th Sess., 85th plen. mtg., Agenda Item 114(b), U.N. Doc. A/RES/48/139 (1994). The General Assembly has also adopted a Declaration on the Human Rights of Individuals Who Are Not Nationals of the Country in Which They Live, G.A. Res. 40/144, U.N. GAOR, 40th Sess., 116th plen. mtg., Agenda Item 12, U.N. Doc. A/RES/40/144 (1986), reprinted in UNHCR, COLLECTION OF INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS AND OTHER LEGAL TEXTS CONCERNING REFUGEES AND DISPLACED PERSONS 249 (1995) [hereinafter UNHCR COLLECTION]. Article 7 of the declaration deals with expulsion. Id. at 4. The General Assembly has further adopted a Declaration on the Protection of Women and Children in Emergency and Armed Conflict, G.A. Res. 3318 (XXIX), U.N. GAOR, 29th Sess., adopted 14 Dec. 1974, reprinted in UNHCR COLLECTION, supra, at 260. Article 5 of this declaration requires that, inter alia, "forcible eviction" committed by belligerents during the course of military operations or in occupied territories and affecting women and children, shall be considered criminal. Id.
233. See, e.g., Protection of and Assistance to Internally Displaced Persons, G.A. Res. 50/ 195, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., 99th plen. mtg., Agenda Item 112(c), U.N. Doc. A/RES/50/ 195 (1996).
234. S.C. Res 1009 U.N. SCOR, 50th Sess., 3563d mtg., at 2, U.N. Doc. S/Res/1009 (1995).
235. Situation of Human Rights in the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Republic of Croatia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro), G.A. Res. 50/ 193, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., 99th plen. mtg., Agenda Item 112(c), U.N. Doc. A/Res/50/ 193 (1996).
236. S.C. Res. 1036, U.N. SCOR, 51st Sess., 3618th mtg., at 1, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1036 (1996).
237. S.C. Res. 1049, U.N. SCOR, 51st Sess., 3639th mtg., at 2, U.N. Doc. S/Res/1049 (1996).
238. S.C. Res. 1040, U.N. SCOR, 51st Sess., 3632d mtg., U.N. Doc. S/Res/1040 (1996). 194. Impact of Armed Conflict on Children, Note by the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 51st Sess., Supp. No. 306, ¶¶ 63-90, U.N. Doc. A/51/306 (1996).
239. Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of its Forty-Eighth Session, U.N. GAOR, 51st Sess., Supp. No. 10, at 9, U.N. Doc. A/51/10 (1996).
240. Id. art. 18.
241. Id. art. 19.
242. Id. at 332.
243. Report of the Secretary-General Pursuant to Paragraph 2 of Security Council Resolution 808, U.N. SCOR, 51st Sess., 3623d mtg., art. 2, U.N. Doc. S/25704 (1996).
244. S.C. Res. 955, U.N. SCOR, 49th Sess., 3540th mtg., Annex, U.N. Doc. S/Res/955 (1994).
245. Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (Geneva IV), adopted 12 Aug. 1948, 6 U.S.T. 3516, T.I.A.S. No. 3365, 75 U.N.T.S. 287 (entered into force for U.S. 2 Feb. 1956), art. 3, Protocol II.
246. See Statute of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, adopted 14 Dec. 1950, G.A. Res. 428(V), HCR/INF/1/Rev.3, ¶¶ 1, 8 (1950).
247. See Stavropoulou, supra note 4, at 706-09.
248. Even today, however, the view that human rights work is incompatible with the "strictly humanitarian and nonpolitical character" of humanitarian agencies is predominant. That human rights work is not in itself political (even though it can be "politicized," especially within the realms of the UN's political bodies), but very much humanitarian in character, remains to be fully accepted.
249. Refugee Convention, supra note 149, art. 32.
250. The term "protection" for refugees or as provided by UNHCR has so far defied an agreed-upon understanding, although at present it is more or less understood to be grounded in the concept of human rights protection. See Türk, supra note 1; Guy Goodwin-Gill, The Language of Protection, 1 INT'L J. REFUGEE L. 6 (1989); see also UNHCR, Note on International Protection, U.N. GAOR, 45th Sess., ¶ 10, U.N. Doc. A/AC.96/830 (1994); UNHCR, THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S REFUGEES: THE CHALLENGE OF PROTECTION (1993).
251. The term "protection" for refugees or as provided by UNHCR has so far defied an agreed- upon understanding, although at present it is more or less understood to be grounded in the concept of human rights protection. See Türk, supra note 1; Guy Goodwin-Gill, The Language of Protection, 1 INT'L J. REFUGEE L. 6 (1989); see also UNHCR, Note on International Protection, U.N. GAOR, 45th Sess., ¶ 10, U.N. Doc. A/AC.96/830 (1994); UNHCR, THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S REFUGEES: THE CHALLENGE OF PROTECTION (1993).
252. The term "protection" for refugees or as provided by UNHCR has so far defied an agreed- upon understanding, although at present it is more or less understood to be grounded in the concept of human rights protection. See Türk, supra note 1; Guy Goodwin-Gill, The Language of Protection, 1 INT'L J. REFUGEE L. 6 (1989); see also UNHCR, Note on International Protection, U.N. GAOR, 45th Sess., ¶ 10, U.N. Doc. A/AC.96/830 (1994); UNHCR, THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S REFUGEES: THE CHALLENGE OF PROTECTION (1993).
253. The term "protection" for refugees or as provided by UNHCR has so far defied an agreed- upon understanding, although at present it is more or less understood to be grounded in the concept of human rights protection. See Türk, supra note 1; Guy Goodwin-Gill, The Language of Protection, 1 INT'L J. REFUGEE L. 6 (1989); see also UNHCR, Note on International Protection, U.N. GAOR, 45th Sess., ¶ 10, U.N. Doc. A/AC.96/830 (1994); UNHCR, THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S REFUGEES: THE CHALLENGE OF PROTECTION (1993).
254. See GOODWIN-GILL, supra note 3, at 8-18.
255. In 1989 UNHCR cautiously identified as potential areas of cooperation with human rights entities the dissemination of information and training. See Report of the Secretary-General 1989, supra note 69, at 12.
256. Under the current High Commissioner, Ms. Sadako Ogata, human rights terminology has been integrated into the policies of the organization. See, e.g., UNHCR Statements to the Commission on Human Rights in 1996 (on file with author);
257. UNHCR Statements to the Commission on Human Rights in 1997 (on file with the author) [hereinafter UNHCR Statements 1997].
258. Compare with note 179 UNHCR's 1996 statement that it is fully involved in all UN human rights fora, in Mass Exoduses Report 1996, supra note 184, at 18. See also UNHCR, POLICY SERIES SECOND PAPER: UNHCR & HUMAN RIGHTS (1997) (on file with author).
259. Compare with note 179 UNHCR's 1996 statement that it is fully involved in all UN human rights fora, in Mass Exoduses Report 1996, supra note 184, at 18. See also UNHCR, POLICY SERIES SECOND PAPER: UNHCR & HUMAN RIGHTS (1997) (on file with author).
260. See, e.g., UNHCR COLLECTION, supra note 187. Cf. UNHCR, HANDBOOK ON PROCEDURES AND CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING REFUGEE STATUS (UNDER THE 1951 CONVENTION AND THE 1967 PROTOCOL RELATING TO THE STATUS OF REFUGEES) (1979) [hereinafter UNHCR HANDBOOK 1979]; UNHCR, REFUGEE PROTECTION AND HUMAN RIGHTS: TRAINING MODULE (1995); UNHCR, UNHCR GUIDELINES ON DETENTION OF ASYLUM SEEKERS (1996); UNHCR, SEXUAL VIOLENCE AGAINST REFUGEES: GUIDELINES ON PREVENTION AND RESPONSE (1995); UNHCR, INTERNATIONAL LEGAL STANDARDS APPLICABLE TO THE PROTECTION OF INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS: A REFERENCE MANUAL FOR UNHCR STAFF (1996).
261. See, e.g., UNHCR COLLECTION, supra note 187. Cf. UNHCR, HANDBOOK ON PROCEDURES AND CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING REFUGEE STATUS (UNDER THE 1951 CONVENTION AND THE 1967 PROTOCOL RELATING TO THE STATUS OF REFUGEES) (1979) [hereinafter UNHCR HANDBOOK 1979]; UNHCR, REFUGEE PROTECTION AND HUMAN RIGHTS: TRAINING MODULE (1995); UNHCR, UNHCR GUIDELINES ON DETENTION OF ASYLUM SEEKERS (1996); UNHCR, SEXUAL VIOLENCE AGAINST REFUGEES: GUIDELINES ON PREVENTION AND RESPONSE (1995); UNHCR, INTERNATIONAL LEGAL STANDARDS APPLICABLE TO THE PROTECTION OF INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS: A REFERENCE MANUAL FOR UNHCR STAFF (1996).
262. See, e.g., UNHCR COLLECTION, supra note 187. Cf. UNHCR, HANDBOOK ON PROCEDURES AND CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING REFUGEE STATUS (UNDER THE 1951 CONVENTION AND THE 1967 PROTOCOL RELATING TO THE STATUS OF REFUGEES) (1979) [hereinafter UNHCR HANDBOOK 1979]; UNHCR, REFUGEE PROTECTION AND HUMAN RIGHTS: TRAINING MODULE (1995); UNHCR, UNHCR GUIDELINES ON DETENTION OF ASYLUM SEEKERS (1996); UNHCR, SEXUAL VIOLENCE AGAINST REFUGEES: GUIDELINES ON PREVENTION AND RESPONSE (1995); UNHCR, INTERNATIONAL LEGAL STANDARDS APPLICABLE TO THE PROTECTION OF INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS: A REFERENCE MANUAL FOR UNHCR STAFF (1996).
263. See, e.g., UNHCR COLLECTION, supra note 187. Cf. UNHCR, HANDBOOK ON PROCEDURES AND CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING REFUGEE STATUS (UNDER THE 1951 CONVENTION AND THE 1967 PROTOCOL RELATING TO THE STATUS OF REFUGEES) (1979) [hereinafter UNHCR HANDBOOK 1979]; UNHCR, REFUGEE PROTECTION AND HUMAN RIGHTS: TRAINING MODULE (1995); UNHCR, UNHCR GUIDELINES ON DETENTION OF ASYLUM SEEKERS (1996); UNHCR, SEXUAL VIOLENCE AGAINST REFUGEES: GUIDELINES ON PREVENTION AND RESPONSE (1995); UNHCR, INTERNATIONAL LEGAL STANDARDS APPLICABLE TO THE PROTECTION OF INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS: A REFERENCE MANUAL FOR UNHCR STAFF (1996).
264. See, e.g., UNHCR COLLECTION, supra note 187. Cf. UNHCR, HANDBOOK ON PROCEDURES AND CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING REFUGEE STATUS (UNDER THE 1951 CONVENTION AND THE 1967 PROTOCOL RELATING TO THE STATUS OF REFUGEES) (1979) [hereinafter UNHCR HANDBOOK 1979]; UNHCR, REFUGEE PROTECTION AND HUMAN RIGHTS: TRAINING MODULE (1995); UNHCR, UNHCR GUIDELINES ON DETENTION OF ASYLUM SEEKERS (1996); UNHCR, SEXUAL VIOLENCE AGAINST REFUGEES: GUIDELINES ON PREVENTION AND RESPONSE (1995); UNHCR, INTERNATIONAL LEGAL STANDARDS APPLICABLE TO THE PROTECTION OF INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS: A REFERENCE MANUAL FOR UNHCR STAFF (1996).
265. See, e.g., UNHCR COLLECTION, supra note 187. Cf. UNHCR, HANDBOOK ON PROCEDURES AND CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING REFUGEE STATUS (UNDER THE 1951 CONVENTION AND THE 1967 PROTOCOL RELATING TO THE STATUS OF REFUGEES) (1979) [hereinafter UNHCR HANDBOOK 1979]; UNHCR, REFUGEE PROTECTION AND HUMAN RIGHTS: TRAINING MODULE (1995); UNHCR, UNHCR GUIDELINES ON DETENTION OF ASYLUM SEEKERS (1996); UNHCR, SEXUAL VIOLENCE AGAINST REFUGEES: GUIDELINES ON PREVENTION AND RESPONSE (1995); UNHCR, INTERNATIONAL LEGAL STANDARDS APPLICABLE TO THE PROTECTION OF INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS: A REFERENCE MANUAL FOR UNHCR STAFF (1996).
266. See, e.g., CIS Programme of Action (May 1996), UNHCR Regional Conference to Address the Problems of Refugees, Displaced Persons, Other Forms of Involuntary Displacement and Returnees in the Countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States and Relevant Neighboring States, ¶¶ 7, 9-10, CISCONF/1996/5 (1996) [hereinafter Regional Conference to Address the Problems of Refugees, Displaced Persons, Other Forms of Involuntary Displacement and Returnees in the Countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States and Relevant Neighboring States]. Compare this with earlier regional initiatives, where human rights played a less prominent role, as discussed in UNITED NATIONS, supra note 1, at 292-93. See also UNHCR, CONCLUSIONS ON THE INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION OF REFUGEES ADOPTED BY THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE UNHCR PROGRAM (1980) (loose-leaf) (many of which contain references to human rights standards).
267. See, e.g., CIS Programme of Action (May 1996), UNHCR Regional Conference to Address the Problems of Refugees, Displaced Persons, Other Forms of Involuntary Displacement and Returnees in the Countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States and Relevant Neighboring States, ¶¶ 7, 9-10, CISCONF/1996/5 (1996) [hereinafter Regional Conference to Address the Problems of Refugees, Displaced Persons, Other Forms of Involuntary Displacement and Returnees in the Countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States and Relevant Neighboring States]. Compare this with earlier regional initiatives, where human rights played a less prominent role, as discussed in UNITED NATIONS, supra note 1, at 292-93. See also UNHCR, CONCLUSIONS ON THE INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION OF REFUGEES ADOPTED BY THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE UNHCR PROGRAM (1980) (loose-leaf) (many of which contain references to human rights standards).
268. See Statement on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, supra note 35; UNHCR Statements 1997, supra note 209 (including statements by the High Commissioner to the Commission, where she welcomes the development of guiding principles for the internally displaced and urges the development of the law on the right not to be displaced).
269. See Statement on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, supra note 35; UNHCR Statements 1997, supra note 209 (including statements by the High Commissioner to the Commission, where she welcomes the development of guiding principles for the internally displaced and urges the development of the law on the right not to be displaced).
270. Compare UNHCR HANDBOOK 1979, supra note 211 (containing rather few references to international human rights instruments), and UNHCR, UNHCR STRATEGY TOWARDS 2000 (1996) (making only one reference to human rights throughout the entire text), with lames C. Hathaway, "Fear of Persecution" and the Law of Human Rights, 91 BULL. HUM. RTS. 98 (1991); Note on International Protection, Exec. Comm., Standing Comm., 3d mtg., ¶ 20, U.N. Doc. EC/46/SC/CRP.37 (1996); and UNHCR, UNHCR GUIDELINES ON DETENTION OF ASYLUM SEEKERS (1996) (containing extensive references to international human rights standards).
271. Compare UNHCR HANDBOOK 1979, supra note 211 (containing rather few references to international human rights instruments), and UNHCR, UNHCR STRATEGY TOWARDS 2000 (1996) (making only one reference to human rights throughout the entire text), with lames C. Hathaway, "Fear of Persecution" and the Law of Human Rights, 91 BULL. HUM. RTS. 98 (1991); Note on International Protection, Exec. Comm., Standing Comm., 3d mtg., ¶ 20, U.N. Doc. EC/46/SC/CRP.37 (1996); and UNHCR, UNHCR GUIDELINES ON DETENTION OF ASYLUM SEEKERS (1996) (containing extensive references to international human rights standards).
272. Compare UNHCR HANDBOOK 1979, supra note 211 (containing rather few references to international human rights instruments), and UNHCR, UNHCR STRATEGY TOWARDS 2000 (1996) (making only one reference to human rights throughout the entire text), with lames C. Hathaway, "Fear of Persecution" and the Law of Human Rights, 91 BULL. HUM. RTS. 98 (1991); Note on International Protection, Exec. Comm., Standing Comm., 3d mtg., ¶ 20, U.N. Doc. EC/46/SC/CRP.37 (1996); and UNHCR, UNHCR GUIDELINES ON DETENTION OF ASYLUM SEEKERS (1996) (containing extensive references to international human rights standards).
273. Compare UNHCR HANDBOOK 1979, supra note 211 (containing rather few references to international human rights instruments), and UNHCR, UNHCR STRATEGY TOWARDS 2000 (1996) (making only one reference to human rights throughout the entire text), with lames C. Hathaway, "Fear of Persecution" and the Law of Human Rights, 91 BULL. HUM. RTS. 98 (1991); Note on International Protection, Exec. Comm., Standing Comm., 3d mtg., ¶ 20, U.N. Doc. EC/46/SC/CRP.37 (1996); and UNHCR, UNHCR GUIDELINES ON DETENTION OF ASYLUM SEEKERS (1996) (containing extensive references to international human rights standards).
274. Compare UNHCR HANDBOOK 1979, supra note 211 (containing rather few references to international human rights instruments), and UNHCR, UNHCR STRATEGY TOWARDS 2000 (1996) (making only one reference to human rights throughout the entire text), with lames C. Hathaway, "Fear of Persecution" and the Law of Human Rights, 91 BULL. HUM. RTS. 98 (1991); Note on International Protection, Exec. Comm., Standing Comm., 3d mtg., ¶ 20, U.N. Doc. EC/46/SC/CRP.37 (1996); and UNHCR, UNHCR GUIDELINES ON DETENTION OF ASYLUM SEEKERS (1996) (containing extensive references to international human rights standards).
275. See, e.g., Mikhael Barutciski, The Reinforcement of Non-Admission Policies and the Subversion of UNHCR: Displacement and Internal Assistance in Bosnia-Herzegovina (1992-1994), 8 INT'L). REFUGEE L. 49 (1996) (providing a critical stance). Cf. Erin Mooney, In-Country Protection: Out of Bounds for UNHCR?, in REFUGEE RIGHTS AND REALITIES: EVOLVING INTERNATIONAL CONCEPTS AND REGIMES (Frances Nicholson & Patrick Twomey eds., forthcoming).
276. See, e.g., Mikhael Barutciski, The Reinforcement of Non-Admission Policies and the Subversion of UNHCR: Displacement and Internal Assistance in Bosnia-Herzegovina (1992-1994), 8 INT'L). REFUGEE L. 49 (1996) (providing a critical stance). Cf. Erin Mooney, In-Country Protection: Out of Bounds for UNHCR?, in REFUGEE RIGHTS AND REALITIES: EVOLVING INTERNATIONAL CONCEPTS AND REGIMES (Frances Nicholson & Patrick Twomey eds., forthcoming).
277. Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, C.H.R. Res. 1994/66, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 50th Sess., Supp. No. 4, U.N. Doc. E/1994/24 (1994).
278. Id.
279. Id.
280. Mass Exoduses Report 1995, supra note 184.
281. C.H.R. Res. 1995/88, supra note 180.
282. Id.
283. Mass fxoduses Report 1996, supra note 184.
284. Id.
285. Id.
286. Id.
287. Id.
288. C.H.R. Res. 1996/51, supra note 180.
289. See supra notes 39 and 210 and accompanying text discussing UNHCR's monitoring role regarding application of the Refugee Convention cited supra note 149.
290. Mass Exoduses Report 1997, supra note 174.
291. Impact of Armed Conflict on Children, Note by the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 51st Sess., Supp. No. 306, U.N. Doc. A/51/306, Annex & Add.1 (1996).
292. Mass Exoduses Report 1997, supra note 174.
293. See U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 9(d), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1997/L.69 (1997) (on file with author).
294. Id.
295. See U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1997/L.112 (1997).
296. See C.H.R. Res. 1997/75, supra note 180.
297. Id.
298. 237: Id. See also QUAKER UNITED NATIONS OFFICE - GENEVA (TIM WICHERT), REFUGEES AND DISPLACED PERSONS: 1997 UN COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS (1997).
299. C.H.R. Res. 1997/75, supra note 180.
300. See, e.g., U.S. COMMITTEE FOR REFUGEES, WORLD REFUGEE SURVEY (1997). For an early discussion of refugee and human rights issues, see ROBERTA COHEN, INTRODUCING REFUGEE ISSUES INTO THE UNITED NATIONS HUMAN RIGHTS AGENDA (1990).
301. See, e.g., U.S. COMMITTEE FOR REFUGEES, WORLD REFUGEE SURVEY (1997). For an early discussion of refugee and human rights issues, see ROBERTA COHEN, INTRODUCING REFUGEE ISSUES INTO THE UNITED NATIONS HUMAN RIGHTS AGENDA (1990).
302. Recently, Human Rights Watch appointed three regional focal points on refugees and displaced persons. See, e.g., HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH/AFRICA, FAILING THE INTERNALLY DISPLACED: THE UNDP DISPLACED PERSONS PROGRAM IN KENYA (1997).
303. See, e.g., AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, GREAT LAKES REGION, STILL IN NEED OF PROTECTION: REPATRIATION, REFOULEMENT AND THE SAFETY OF REFUGEES AND THE INTERNALLY DISPLACED (1997), HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH/HELSINKI, TURKEY'S FAILED POLICY TO AID THE FORCIBLY DISPLACED IN THE SOUTHEA (1996); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH/HELSINKI, THE COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES: REFUGEES AND INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS IN ARMENIA, AZERBAIJAN, GEORGIA, THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION, AND TAJIKSTAN (1996).
304. See, e.g., AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, GREAT LAKES REGION, STILL IN NEED OF PROTECTION: REPATRIATION, REFOULEMENT AND THE SAFETY OF REFUGEES AND THE INTERNALLY DISPLACED (1997), HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH/HELSINKI, TURKEY'S FAILED POLICY TO AID THE FORCIBLY DISPLACED IN THE SOUTHEA (1996); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH/HELSINKI, THE COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES: REFUGEES AND INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS IN ARMENIA, AZERBAIJAN, GEORGIA, THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION, AND TAJIKSTAN (1996).
305. See, e.g., AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, GREAT LAKES REGION, STILL IN NEED OF PROTECTION: REPATRIATION, REFOULEMENT AND THE SAFETY OF REFUGEES AND THE INTERNALLY DISPLACED (1997), HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH/HELSINKI, TURKEY'S FAILED POLICY TO AID THE FORCIBLY DISPLACED IN THE SOUTHEA (1996); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH/HELSINKI, THE COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES: REFUGEES AND INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS IN ARMENIA, AZERBAIJAN, GEORGIA, THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION, AND TAJIKSTAN (1996).
306. One example is the Forced Migration Projects of the Open Society Institute, which have a regional focus on Eastern Europe and the countries of the former Soviet Union. See, e.g., 13 FORCED MIGRATION MONITOR, Sept. 1996.
307. See e.g., SCOTT LECKIE, WHEN PUSH COMES TO SHOVE: FORCED EVICTIONS AND, HUMAN RIGHTS (1995); HABITAT INTERNATIONAL COALITION, REPORT OF A FACT FINDING MISSION (MARCH 996): THE IMPACT OF WAR AND FORCED EVICTIONS ON URBANIZATION IN TURKEY: VIOLATIONS OF HOUSING RIGHTS (1996).
308. See e.g., SCOTT LECKIE, WHEN PUSH COMES TO SHOVE: FORCED EVICTIONS AND, HUMAN RIGHTS (1995); HABITAT INTERNATIONAL COALITION, REPORT OF A FACT FINDING MISSION (MARCH 996): THE IMPACT OF WAR AND FORCED EVICTIONS ON URBANIZATION IN TURKEY: VIOLATIONS OF HOUSING RIGHTS (1996).
309. See generally WORLD IN CRISIS: THE POLITICS OF SURVIVAL AT THE END OF THE 2OTH CENTURY (Medecins Sans Frontieres/Doctors Without Borders ed 1997) [hereinafter WORLD IN CRISIS] See especially lain Guest & Francoise Bouchet-Saulnier, International Law and Reality:The Protection Gap, in WORLD in CRISIS, supra, at 79 (1997). See also INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF VOLUNTARY AGENCIES, THE HUMAN RIGHTS OF REFUGEES AND INTERNALLY DISPLACED PER ON (1994); JAN BORGEN, THE PROTECTION OF INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS BY THE NORWEGIAN REFUGEE COUNCIL (1994).
310. See generally WORLD IN CRISIS: THE POLITICS OF SURVIVAL AT THE END OF THE 2OTH CENTURY (Medecins Sans Frontieres/Doctors Without Borders ed 1997) [hereinafter WORLD IN CRISIS] See especially lain Guest & Francoise Bouchet-Saulnier, International Law and Reality:The Protection Gap, in WORLD in CRISIS, supra, at 79 (1997). See also INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF VOLUNTARY AGENCIES, THE HUMAN RIGHTS OF REFUGEES AND INTERNALLY DISPLACED PER ON (1994); JAN BORGEN, THE PROTECTION OF INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS BY THE NORWEGIAN REFUGEE COUNCIL (1994).
311. See generally WORLD IN CRISIS: THE POLITICS OF SURVIVAL AT THE END OF THE 2OTH CENTURY (Medecins Sans Frontieres/Doctors Without Borders ed 1997) [hereinafter WORLD IN CRISIS] See especially lain Guest & Francoise Bouchet-Saulnier, International Law and Reality:The Protection Gap, in WORLD in CRISIS, supra, at 79 (1997). See also INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF VOLUNTARY AGENCIES, THE HUMAN RIGHTS OF REFUGEES AND INTERNALLY DISPLACED PER ON (1994); JAN BORGEN, THE PROTECTION OF INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS BY THE NORWEGIAN REFUGEE COUNCIL (1994).
312. See generally WORLD IN CRISIS: THE POLITICS OF SURVIVAL AT THE END OF THE 2OTH CENTURY (Medecins Sans Frontieres/Doctors Without Borders ed 1997) [hereinafter WORLD IN CRISIS] See especially lain Guest & Francoise Bouchet-Saulnier, International Law and Reality:The Protection Gap, in WORLD in CRISIS, supra, at 79 (1997). See also INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF VOLUNTARY AGENCIES, THE HUMAN RIGHTS OF REFUGEES AND INTERNALLY DISPLACED PER ON (1994); JAN BORGEN, THE PROTECTION OF INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS BY THE NORWEGIAN REFUGEE COUNCIL (1994).
313. One example of an international document where human rights standards are meshed with Standards of international humanitarian and refugee law is the program of action developed at the UNHCR Regional Conference to Address the Problems of Refugees, Displaced Persons, Other Forms of Involuntary Displacement and Returnees in the Countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States and Relevant Neighboring States, supra note 212. For a critique of the conference process, see 12 FORCED MIGRATION MONITOR, June 1996.
314. See WICHERT, supra note 237 (suggesting this approach).