Economic conflict in postwar Lebanon: State - Labor relations between 1992 and 1997

Middle East Journal

Volumn 52, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 531-550

  Baroudi, Sami E ^a  

^a LEBANESE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY   (Lebanon)

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EID: 0002872636     PISSN: 00263141     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (129)

1. In this article, the author adopts the following translation from Arabic: niqaba is "trade union," itihad niqabat is "federation of trade unions." Up until 1997, the CGTL was a confederation of 22 federations; in 1997, the government authorized five new federations thai were not recognized by the former leadership of the CGTL. See Al-Nahar (Beirut), 15 May 1997, p. 9.
2. The leftist elements included mainly parliamentary deputies Najah Wakim and Zahir al-Khatib and former deputy Habib Sadiq (1992-96); while the non-leftists included mainly Hizballah, the Phalangist party, former prime ministers 'Umar Karami and Salim al-Hus, and deputy Nasib Lahud.
3. For the history of Lebanon's labor movement before independence see the first volume of Ilyas Buwari, Tarikh al-Harakat al-'Ummaliyya wa al-Niqabiyya fi Lubnan: 1908-1946 (History of the Labor and Unions Movement in Lebanon: 1908-1946) (Beirut: Dar al-Farabi, 1986).
4. For the text of the labor code, see "Qanun al-'Amal al-Lubnani" (The Lebanese Labor Code), in Al-Jarida al-Rasmiyya (Beirut), 2 November 1948.
5. Ibid.
6. Most pre-war Lebanese cabinets were dominated by conservative pro-business politicians who feared a unified and independent labor movement and sought to keep labor weak and disorganized, with a section of it coopted by the government. On the close ties between government and business in pre-war Lebanon see, for example, Tabitha Petran, The Struggle Over Lebanon (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1987), especially pp. 36-37. While Ilyas Buwari might have exaggerated the extent of government intervention in the formation of trade unions, he nevertheless gives many concrete examples of the government licensing unions of carpenters, painters, and press workers, which failed to attract the majority of workers in these sectors. Buwari, Tarikh al-Harakat al-'Ummaliyya wa al-Niqabiyya fi Lubnam: 1947-1970, vol. 2, especially pp. 63, 70, 107, 129, 214.
7. Most pre-war Lebanese cabinets were dominated by conservative pro-business politicians who feared a unified and independent labor movement and sought to keep labor weak and disorganized, with a section of it coopted by the government. On the close ties between government and business in pre-war Lebanon see, for example, Tabitha Petran, The Struggle Over Lebanon (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1987), especially pp. 36-37. While Ilyas Buwari might have exaggerated the extent of government intervention in the formation of trade unions, he nevertheless gives many concrete examples of the government licensing unions of carpenters, painters, and press workers, which failed to attract the majority of workers in these sectors. Buwari, Tarikh al-Harakat al-'Ummaliyya wa al-Niqabiyya fi Lubnam: 1947-1970, vol. 2, especially pp. 63, 70, 107, 129, 214.
8. Ibid., pp. 248. 272.
9. The CGTL was established in 1958. Before 1970, it did not include any of the leftist federations.
10. Theodor Hanf, Coexistence in Wartime Lebanon: Decline of a State and Birth of a Nation (London: The Center for Lebanese Studies with I.B. Tauris & Co., Ltd., 1993), p.101.
11. According to figures from Lebanon's Central Bank (BDL), the minimum wage (in constant 1964 prices) rose from LL125 in 1964 to LL200 in 1975 (55 percent growth). Banque du Liban, Al-Taqrir al-Sanawi li al-'Am 1974 (Annual Report for 1974) (Beirut: Banque du Liban, 1975), p. 158.
12. Claude Dubar and Salim Nasr, Les Classes Sociales au Liban (Social Classes in Lebanon) (Paris: La Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques, 1976), p. 113.
13. Hanf, Coexistence in Wartime Lebanon: Decline of a State and Birth of a Nation, p. 102.
14. Ibid., p. 640.
15. For an English text of the Ta'if accords, see Joseph Malia, The Document of National Understanding: A Commentary (Oxford: Center for Lebanese Studies. May 1992).
16. See for example, General Labor Union, "Al-Tawsiyyat wa al-Muqararat li al-Mu'tamar al-Niqabi al-'Am Fi Dawratihi al-Sadisa" (The Recommendations and Resolutions of the Sixth Session of the General National Conference of Unions), Beirut, 13 December 1995, p. 2. This unpublished report was provided to the author by the CGTL.
17. Albert Mansur, Mawt Jumhuriyya (Death of a Republic) (Beirut: Dar al-Jadid, 1994), p. 360.
18. The exchange rate dropped from LL879 to one US dollar, to LL2,420 to one US dollar. Banque du Liban, Al-Taqrir al-Sanawi li 'Am 1991 (Annual Report for 1991) (Beirut: Banque du Liban, 1992); Banque du Liban, Al-Taqrir al-Sanawi li 'Am 1992 (Annual Report for 1992) (Beirut: Banque du Liban, 1993), Banque du Liban, Al-Taqrir al-Sanawi li 'Am 1993 (Annual Report for 1993) (Beirut: Banque du Liban, 1994).
19. The exchange rate dropped from LL879 to one US dollar, to LL2,420 to one US dollar. Banque du Liban, Al-Taqrir al-Sanawi li 'Am 1991 (Annual Report for 1991) (Beirut: Banque du Liban, 1992); Banque du Liban, Al-Taqrir al-Sanawi li 'Am 1992 (Annual Report for 1992) (Beirut: Banque du Liban, 1993), Banque du Liban, Al-Taqrir al-Sanawi li 'Am 1993 (Annual Report for 1993) (Beirut: Banque du Liban, 1994).
20. The exchange rate dropped from LL879 to one US dollar, to LL2,420 to one US dollar. Banque du Liban, Al-Taqrir al-Sanawi li 'Am 1991 (Annual Report for 1991) (Beirut: Banque du Liban, 1992); Banque du Liban, Al-Taqrir al-Sanawi li 'Am 1992 (Annual Report for 1992) (Beirut: Banque du Liban, 1993), Banque du Liban, Al-Taqrir al-Sanawi li 'Am 1993 (Annual Report for 1993) (Beirut: Banque du Liban, 1994).
21. The term "Second Republic" refers to the structure of government in Lebanon following the adoption by the Lebanese parliament, on 5 November 1989, of the constitutional amendments agreed upon at the Ta'if conference (September 1989), which paved the way for ending the Lebanese war. For the Ta'if agreements and politics in the Second Republic, see Albert Mansur, Al-Inqilab 'ala al-Ta 'if (Turning Against Ta'if) (Beirut: Dar al-Jadid, 1993).
22. These measures included raising the value of the customs dollar to LL800; collecting the penalties on private construction that was done during the war in violation of building codes, and especially on private construction on public lands (such as the coastline); and raising the tax on each tank (20 liters) of gasoline to LL1,000 (about 54 cents, given the average exchange rate for the dollar in July 1992). See Al-Nahar, 15 July 1992, p. 2.
23. The average exchange rate of the US dollar for the month of September was LL2,528. See Banque du Liban. Al-Taqrir al-Sanawi li 'Am 1994 (Annual Report for 1994) (Beirut: Banque du Liban, 1995), p. 52.
24. Michael Young, "Stability and the Poor," The Lebanon Report, no. 2 (Summer 1996), p. 34.
25. Ibid., p. 24.
26. David Butter, "How Hariri Pulled Lebanon from the Abyss," Middle East Economic Digest, 27 October 1995, p. 3.
27. Young, "Stability and the Poor," p. 34.
28. Al-Nahar, 2 May 1993, p. 8.
29. Al-Nahar, 9 July 1993, p. 8.
30. For Al-Amin's remarks see ibid.; and Al-Nahar, 22 July 1993, p. 8.
31. For Al-Amin's remarks see ibid.; and Al-Nahar, 22 July 1993, p. 8.
32. A copy of the Arabic text of the 14 December 1993 agreement between the CGTL and Al-Amin (with the minister's signature) was provided to the author by Ghassan Shluq, former economic advisor to the CGTL. In his customary statement to the press after every meeting of the Council of Ministers, Michel Samaha, then minister of information, provided the following information with regard to the agreement: "at the beginning of the Council of Ministers meeting (15 December 1993) the prime minister informed the Council of the contents of the agreement reached yesterday between the minister of labor and the CGTL." Translated by the author from Arabic.
33. Al-Amin, who negotiated the November 1993 understanding, was later dropped from Hariri's second cabinet. At the 12 March 1996 meeting between Hariri and Abu Rizq, the former blamed Al-Amin for not properly representing the government's position in his dealings with the CGTL. Al-Safir (Beirut), 13 March 1996, p. 3.
34. The General National Conference is a CGTL-dominated forum that includes representatives from over 100 syndicates, associations and civic groups. Both the sixth and seventh sessions of the General National Conference were well attended, and received good press coverage, providing the CGTL and its allies with the opportunity to air their grievances and apply pressure on the Hariri government. General Labor Union, "Al-Tawsiyyat wa al-Maqarat li al-Mu'tamar al-Watani al-Niqabi al-'Am fi Dawratihi al-Sadisa," pp. 4-5: and "Taqrir Muqadam ila al-Mu'tamar al-Watani al-'Am al-Dawra al-Sabi'a." (Report Submitted to the General National Conference at its Seventh Session) Beirut, 13 January 1996, pp. 13-14. This unpublished report was provided to the author courtesy of the CGTL.
35. The General National Conference is a CGTL-dominated forum that includes representatives from over 100 syndicates, associations and civic groups. Both the sixth and seventh sessions of the General National Conference were well attended, and received good press coverage, providing the CGTL and its allies with the opportunity to air their grievances and apply pressure on the Hariri government. General Labor Union, "Al-Tawsiyyat wa al-Maqarat li al-Mu'tamar al-Watani al-Niqabi al-'Am fi Dawratihi al-Sadisa," pp. 4-5: and "Taqrir Muqadam ila al-Mu'tamar al-Watani al-'Am al-Dawra al-Sabi'a." (Report Submitted to the General National Conference at its Seventh Session) Beirut, 13 January 1996, pp. 13-14. This unpublished report was provided to the author courtesy of the CGTL.
36. Ibid.
37. Al-Nahar, 8 July 1995, p. 2.
38. Al-Hayat (London), 18 July 1995, p. 3.
39. Ibid. See also Hariri's remarks during a press conference, quoted in Al-Nahar, 20 July 1995, p. 16.
40. Ibid. See also Hariri's remarks during a press conference, quoted in Al-Nahar, 20 July 1995, p. 16.
41. The strongest criticisms came from former Speaker of the House Husayn al-Husayni, former Prime Minister 'Umar Karami, Shaykh Husayn Fadlallah, deputies Nasib Lahud and Zahir al-Khatib, and the Phalangist party. See Al-Safir, 27 October 1995, p. 3; Al-Nahar, 20 August 1995, p. 4; and Al-Hayat, 22 August 1995.
42. The strongest criticisms came from former Speaker of the House Husayn al-Husayni, former Prime Minister 'Umar Karami, Shaykh Husayn Fadlallah, deputies Nasib Lahud and Zahir al-Khatib, and the Phalangist party. See Al-Safir, 27 October 1995, p. 3; Al-Nahar, 20 August 1995, p. 4; and Al-Hayat, 22 August 1995.
43. The strongest criticisms came from former Speaker of the House Husayn al-Husayni, former Prime Minister 'Umar Karami, Shaykh Husayn Fadlallah, deputies Nasib Lahud and Zahir al-Khatib, and the Phalangist party. See Al-Safir, 27 October 1995, p. 3; Al-Nahar, 20 August 1995, p. 4; and Al-Hayat, 22 August 1995.
44. Al-Safir, 26 February 1996, p. 6; Al-Nahar, 22 August 1996, p. 14; and Al-Nahar, 30 August 1996, p. 10.
45. Al-Safir, 26 February 1996, p. 6; Al-Nahar, 22 August 1996, p. 14; and Al-Nahar, 30 August 1996, p. 10.
46. Al-Safir, 26 February 1996, p. 6; Al-Nahar, 22 August 1996, p. 14; and Al-Nahar, 30 August 1996, p. 10.
47. "Taqrir Muqadam ila al-Mu'tamar al-Watani al-'Am al-Dawra al-Sabi'a."
48. Ibid., p. 5. See also the decisions of the CGTL executive council meeting of 6 February 1996 in Al-Safir, 7 February 1996, p. 6.
49. Ibid., p. 5. See also the decisions of the CGTL executive council meeting of 6 February 1996 in Al-Safir, 7 February 1996, p. 6.
50. Al-Safir, 7 February 1996, p. 6.
51. See, for example, the remarks made by an unidentified minister quoted in Al-Safir, 10 February 1996, p. 2.
52. Al-Safir, 13 February 1996. p.1; and Al-Safir, 13 February 1996, p. 10.
53. Al-Safir, 13 February 1996. p.1; and Al-Safir, 13 February 1996, p. 10.
54. See Al-Hayat, 27 February 1996, p.2: and Al-Hayat, 28 February 1996, p. 2.
55. See Al-Hayat, 27 February 1996, p.2: and Al-Hayat, 28 February 1996, p. 2.
56. See Al-Safir, 28 February 1996, p. 3.
57. Al-Safir, 10 February 1996, p. 2; and Al-Hayat, 5 March 1996, p. 6.
58. Al-Safir, 10 February 1996, p. 2; and Al-Hayat, 5 March 1996, p. 6.
59. Al-Hayat, 5 March 1996, p. 6; and Al-Safir, 13 March 1996, p. 3.
60. Al-Hayat, 5 March 1996, p. 6; and Al-Safir, 13 March 1996, p. 3.
61. Al-Nahar, 5 March 1996, p. 10.
62. Al-Safir, 13 March 1996, p. 6. The Price Index Committee is a loosely organized body that includes representatives appointed by business groups, the CGTL, and the Ministry of Labor. The committee's main role is to provide a forum for business and labor to agree (with government mediation) on annual adjustments of wages to reflect increases in the cost of living. Nothing has been heard about the work of the committee since the spring of 1996.
63. Al-Nahar, 27 March 1996, p. 10.
64. Al-Nahar, 4 April 1996, p. 2.
65. Al-Nahar, 3 April 1996, p. 2. Author's translation.
66. The Israeli operation had two main objectives: to destroy Hizballah's bases in South Lebanon, and to pressure the Lebanese government and army to intervene to stop Hizballah's attacks in South Lebanon. The operation ended on 27 April with the signing of the "April Understanding" (the main parties to the April Understanding were the governments of Lebanon, Israel, Syria, the United States, and France) that barred all warring sides from attacking civilians.
67. See, for example, the statements issued by Al-Hay'at al-Iqtisadiyya (Economic Association), a forum that represents employers' interests, quoted in Al-Nahar, 2 April 1996, p. 10; and Al-Safir, 16 April 1996, p. 6.
68. See, for example, the statements issued by Al-Hay'at al-Iqtisadiyya (Economic Association), a forum that represents employers' interests, quoted in Al-Nahar, 2 April 1996, p. 10; and Al-Safir, 16 April 1996, p. 6.
69. Al-Nahar, 2 August 1996, p. 19; and Al-Nahar, 1 August 1996, p. 19.
70. Al-Nahar, 2 August 1996, p. 19; and Al-Nahar, 1 August 1996, p. 19.
71. Al-Hayat, 8 August 1996, p. 3.
72. Al-Nahar, 14 August 1996, p. 9.
73. Among those present at the meeting were former Speaker of the House Husayn al-Husayni; former Prime Minister Salim al-Hus, a score of deputies opposed to Hariri, and representatives from the Phalangist, National Liberals, and Communist parties, as well as Al-Tayyar al-Watani al-Hurr (The Independent National Current), supporters of the deposed general, and former prime minister, Michel 'Awn. Al-Hayat, 26 September 1996, p. 3.
74. Al-Nahar, 26 September 1996, p. 8.
75. Al-Nahar, 3 October 1996, p. 10.
76. Al-Nahar, 1 October 1996, p. 10; and Al-Nahar, 10 October 1996, p. 8.
77. Al-Nahar, 1 October 1996, p. 10; and Al-Nahar, 10 October 1996, p. 8.
78. Al-Nahar, 10 October 1996, p. 8.
79. Hariri had poor relations with Abu Rizq since at least the CGTL strike of July 1995. Birri's relations with Abu Rizq deteriorated after the CGTL tried to stage a sit-in before parliament, and as a result of the CGTL's executive council's continued opposition to the admission to the CGTL of five new federations of unions that were loyal to Birri's Amal party. See Al-Diyar (Beirut), 16 April 1997, p. 2. Perhaps the last influential political figure to turn against Abu Rizq was Minister of the Displaced Walid Jumblatt, who, according to sources, realized by early April that his efforts to change the confrontational approach of Abu Rizq were bearing no fruits.
80. See interview with Abu Rizq in Nahar al-Shabah (Beirut) (Appendix to Al-Nahar), 23 April 1997, p. 30. See also Al-Nahar,3 April 1997, p. 16; Al-Nahar, 16 April 1997, p. 10; and Al-Diyar, 17 April 1997, p. 1.
81. See interview with Abu Rizq in Nahar al-Shabah (Beirut) (Appendix to Al-Nahar), 23 April 1997, p. 30. See also Al-Nahar,3 April 1997, p. 16; Al-Nahar, 16 April 1997, p. 10; and Al-Diyar, 17 April 1997, p. 1.
82. See interview with Abu Rizq in Nahar al-Shabah (Beirut) (Appendix to Al-Nahar), 23 April 1997, p. 30. See also Al-Nahar,3 April 1997, p. 16; Al-Nahar, 16 April 1997, p. 10; and Al-Diyar, 17 April 1997, p. 1.
83. See interview with Abu Rizq in Nahar al-Shabah (Beirut) (Appendix to Al-Nahar), 23 April 1997, p. 30. See also Al-Nahar,3 April 1997, p. 16; Al-Nahar, 16 April 1997, p. 10; and Al-Diyar, 17 April 1997, p. 1.
84. Of the 26 delegates who voted in this election, 24 voted for Abu Rizq. See Al-Diyar, 25 April 1997, p. 11.
85. Al-Diyar, 25 April 1997, p. 11; see also Monday Morning (Beirut), 5 May 1997, p. 5; and Monday Morning, 1 June 1997, p. 15.
86. Al-Diyar, 25 April 1997, p. 11; see also Monday Morning (Beirut), 5 May 1997, p. 5; and Monday Morning, 1 June 1997, p. 15.
87. Al-Diyar, 25 April 1997, p. 11; see also Monday Morning (Beirut), 5 May 1997, p. 5; and Monday Morning, 1 June 1997, p. 15.
88. Al-Diyar, 25 April 1997, p. 11; and Al-Nahar, 15 May 1997, p. 11.
89. Al-Diyar, 25 April 1997, p. 11; and Al-Nahar, 15 May 1997, p. 11.
90. Al-Nahur, 15 May 1997, p. 9; see also the text of the legal suit submitted before the Beirut primary court on 28 April 1997 by three federations loyal to Abu Rizq against Ghanim al-Zughbi. cited in Al-Nahar, 1 May 1997, p. 12.
91. Al-Nahur, 15 May 1997, p. 9; see also the text of the legal suit submitted before the Beirut primary court on 28 April 1997 by three federations loyal to Abu Rizq against Ghanim al-Zughbi. cited in Al-Nahar, 1 May 1997, p. 12.
92. Al-Nahar, 24 April 1997, p. 12; and Al-Diyar, 25 April 1997, p. 11.
93. Al-Nahar, 24 April 1997, p. 12; and Al-Diyar, 25 April 1997, p. 11.
94. See interview with veteran labor activist Ilyas Habri, in Al-Nahar. 15 May 1997, p. 9.
95. See Al-Hayat, 1 October 1996, p. 3; Al-Nahar, 3 October 1996, p. 10: Al-Diyar, 5 October 1996, p. 3.
96. See Al-Hayat, 1 October 1996, p. 3; Al-Nahar, 3 October 1996, p. 10: Al-Diyar, 5 October 1996, p. 3.
97. See Al-Hayat, 1 October 1996, p. 3; Al-Nahar, 3 October 1996, p. 10: Al-Diyar, 5 October 1996, p. 3.
98. Memorandum submitted by the CGTL to the Council of Ministers on 11 December 1993, quoted in Al-Nahar, 14 December 1993, p. 5.
99. There were no wage adjustments in 1997 or 1998.
100. For business reactions to the 1996 wage increase, see Al-Nahar, 2 April 1996, p. 10; Al-Safir, 30 March 1996, p. 6; and Al-Safir, 3 April 1996, p. 9.
101. For business reactions to the 1996 wage increase, see Al-Nahar, 2 April 1996, p. 10; Al-Safir, 30 March 1996, p. 6; and Al-Safir, 3 April 1996, p. 9.
102. For business reactions to the 1996 wage increase, see Al-Nahar, 2 April 1996, p. 10; Al-Safir, 30 March 1996, p. 6; and Al-Safir, 3 April 1996, p. 9.
103. Elie Yashwi. Iqtisad Lubnan (Lebanon's Economy) (Beirut: Maktabat Lubnan, 1996), p. 379.
104. See "Taqrir Muqadam ila al-Mu'tamar al-Watani al-'Am al-Dawra al-Sabi'a," p. 13.
105. Banque du Liban, Al-Taqrir al-Sanani lil-Am 1996 (Annual Report, 1996) (Beirut: Banque du Liban, 1997), p. 19.
106. General Labor Union, "Al-Tawsiyyat wa al-Muqararat li al-Mu'tamar al-Niqabi al-'Am fi Dawratihi al-Sadisa," p. 13. Quotation translated by author.
107. See for example Abu Rizq's interview with Al-Nahar a few days after his election in July 1993 to the CGTL presidency, Al-Nahar, 14 July 1993, p. 14; and the statements issued by the executive committee of the CGTL on 6 February 1996, quoted in Al-Safir, 1 February 1996, p. 6; see also Al-Safir, 4 March 1996, p. 5.
108. See for example Abu Rizq's interview with Al-Nahar a few days after his election in July 1993 to the CGTL presidency, Al-Nahar, 14 July 1993, p. 14; and the statements issued by the executive committee of the CGTL on 6 February 1996, quoted in Al-Safir, 1 February 1996, p. 6; see also Al-Safir, 4 March 1996, p. 5.
109. See for example Abu Rizq's interview with Al-Nahar a few days after his election in July 1993 to the CGTL presidency, Al-Nahar, 14 July 1993, p. 14; and the statements issued by the executive committee of the CGTL on 6 February 1996, quoted in Al-Safir, 1 February 1996, p. 6; see also Al-Safir, 4 March 1996, p. 5.
110. See for example Abu Rizq's interview with Al-Nahar a few days after his election in July 1993 to the CGTL presidency, Al-Nahar, 14 July 1993, p. 14; and the statements issued by the executive committee of the CGTL on 6 February 1996, quoted in Al-Safir, 1 February 1996, p. 6; see also Al-Safir, 4 March 1996, p. 5.
111. The exchange rate fluctuated widely throughout 1992. So while LL118,000 represented $134 on 1 January 1992, it only amounted to about $46 in September 1992. For the changes in the exchange rate between 1992 and 1995, see Banque du Liban, Al-Taqrir al-Sanawi li 'Am 1995 (Annual Report for 1995) (Beirut: Banque du Liban, 1996), p. 60. The minimum wage more than doubled between 1992 and 1995. See "Taqrir Muqadam ila al-Mu'tamar al-Watani al-'Am al-Dawra al-Sabi'a." pp. 13-14.
112. The exchange rate fluctuated widely throughout 1992. So while LL118,000 represented $134 on 1 January 1992, it only amounted to about $46 in September 1992. For the changes in the exchange rate between 1992 and 1995, see Banque du Liban, Al-Taqrir al-Sanawi li 'Am 1995 (Annual Report for 1995) (Beirut: Banque du Liban, 1996), p. 60. The minimum wage more than doubled between 1992 and 1995. See "Taqrir Muqadam ila al-Mu'tamar al-Watani al-'Am al-Dawra al-Sabi'a." pp. 13-14.
113. "The Week in Focus: Employers Say Retirement Fund Not Needed," Eco News (Beirut), 2 September 1996, p. 2.
114. The National Fund for Social Security was established in 1965 as an autonomous government agency (under the authority of the minister of social affairs). It handles workers' pensions (from the retirement fund), as well as medical insurance for covered workers and maternity leaves. By law, employers must pay to the retirement fund a percentage of the minimum wage for each of their workers. Upon reaching retirement age (65) every worker is entitled to receive as pension the amount that has accumulated in his or her pension fund. For a good description of the work of the National Fund for Social Security, see 'Abd al-Halim Hraybi, "Al-Daman al-Ijtima'i wa 'Ilaqatihi hi al-Tanmiyya" (Social Security and its Relation to Development), Ab'ad, no. 6, May 1997, pp. 114-26; and Amir 'Abd al-Malik, "Al-Daman al-Ijtima'i wa I'adat Tawzi' al-Dakhl" (Social Security and Income Redistribution), Ab'ad, no. 6, May 1997, pp. 127-40.
115. The National Fund for Social Security was established in 1965 as an autonomous government agency (under the authority of the minister of social affairs). It handles workers' pensions (from the retirement fund), as well as medical insurance for covered workers and maternity leaves. By law, employers must pay to the retirement fund a percentage of the minimum wage for each of their workers. Upon reaching retirement age (65) every worker is entitled to receive as pension the amount that has accumulated in his or her pension fund. For a good description of the work of the National Fund for Social Security, see 'Abd al-Halim Hraybi, "Al-Daman al-Ijtima'i wa 'Ilaqatihi hi al-Tanmiyya" (Social Security and its Relation to Development), Ab'ad, no. 6, May 1997, pp. 114-26; and Amir 'Abd al-Malik, "Al-Daman al-Ijtima'i wa I'adat Tawzi' al-Dakhl" (Social Security and Income Redistribution), Ab'ad, no. 6, May 1997, pp. 127-40.
116. Al-Nahar, 3 April 1997, p. 2.
117. Author's interviews with private builders who employ primarily unskilled Syrian workers.
118. See, for example, Abu Rizq's remarks to the press, quoted in Al-Nahar, 3 May 1996, p. 9.
119. Personal interviews with Yasir Ni'mi, Secretary General of the CGTL, in Beirut in July 1996, and with Ghassan Shluq, economic advisor to the CGTL, in Beirut in July 1996.
120. Prior to the July 1993 election, Bishara settled his differences with the Ministry of Labor, and agreed to exclude delegates with communist or strongly leftist leanings from his list. His list was referred to in the press as the 'amr al-waqi' (fait accompli) list. Al-Nahar, 8 July 1993, p. 9. Bishara's deal with the government cost him the support of the communist delegates, and contributed to his loss of the presidency by three votes to Abu Rizq; out of 44 votes (members of the CGTL's executive commiittee), Abu Rizq received 23 and Bishara 21. Al-Nahar, 9 July 1993, p. 8.
121. Prior to the July 1993 election, Bishara settled his differences with the Ministry of Labor, and agreed to exclude delegates with communist or strongly leftist leanings from his list. His list was referred to in the press as the 'amr al-waqi' (fait accompli) list. Al-Nahar, 8 July 1993, p. 9. Bishara's deal with the government cost him the support of the communist delegates, and contributed to his loss of the presidency by three votes to Abu Rizq; out of 44 votes (members of the CGTL's executive commiittee), Abu Rizq received 23 and Bishara 21. Al-Nahar, 9 July 1993, p. 8.
122. Bishara's rival federation is called Iitihad al-Niqabat al-Qita'iyya (Federation of Sectoral Syndicates).
123. See, for example, Abu Rizq's speech at the 3 October 1996 sit-in close to Government House (to protest the government plan to shut down most private radio and telvision stataions), Al-Diyar, 4 October 1996. See also Abu Rizq's remarks after visiting the Maronite Patriarch on 5 October 1996, when he said inter alia: *Freedom is essential for Lebanon, Lebanon cannot exist without freedom, especially freedom of the media, which is the key to maintaining freedom of speech and freedom of expression .... Freedom and bread are a constant theme for us at CGTL, when our freedom and our bread are in danger, we are all soldiers righting for them .... Because by doing so we would be defending Lebanon and its continuation.* Al-Nahar, 5 October 1996, p. 3. Quotation translated by the author.
124. See, for example, Abu Rizq's speech at the 3 October 1996 sit-in close to Government House (to protest the government plan to shut down most private radio and telvision stataions), Al-Diyar, 4 October 1996. See also Abu Rizq's remarks after visiting the Maronite Patriarch on 5 October 1996, when he said inter alia: *Freedom is essential for Lebanon, Lebanon cannot exist without freedom, especially freedom of the media, which is the key to maintaining freedom of speech and freedom of expression .... Freedom and bread are a constant theme for us at CGTL, when our freedom and our bread are in danger, we are all soldiers righting for them .... Because by doing so we would be defending Lebanon and its continuation.* Al-Nahar, 5 October 1996, p. 3. Quotation translated by the author.
125. See, for example, the open letter addressed by Abu Rizq and Yasir Ni'mi to the prime minister. Cited in Al-Nahar, 3 October 1997, p. 8.
126. For the circumstances surrounding Abu Rizq's reelection, see Al-Safir, 29 July 1998, p. 6; Al-Safir, 31 July 1998, pp. 1, 21; Al-Diyar al-Iqtisadi (Beirut) (Appendix to Al-Diyar), 29 July 1998, pp. 17-18; and Al-Diyar al-Iqtisadi, 30 July 1998, pp. 17-18.
127. For the circumstances surrounding Abu Rizq's reelection, see Al-Safir, 29 July 1998, p. 6; Al-Safir, 31 July 1998, pp. 1, 21; Al-Diyar al-Iqtisadi (Beirut) (Appendix to Al-Diyar), 29 July 1998, pp. 17-18; and Al-Diyar al-Iqtisadi, 30 July 1998, pp. 17-18.
128. For the circumstances surrounding Abu Rizq's reelection, see Al-Safir, 29 July 1998, p. 6; Al-Safir, 31 July 1998, pp. 1, 21; Al-Diyar al-Iqtisadi (Beirut) (Appendix to Al-Diyar), 29 July 1998, pp. 17-18; and Al-Diyar al-Iqtisadi, 30 July 1998, pp. 17-18.
129. For the circumstances surrounding Abu Rizq's reelection, see Al-Safir, 29 July 1998, p. 6; Al-Safir, 31 July 1998, pp. 1, 21; Al-Diyar al-Iqtisadi (Beirut) (Appendix to Al-Diyar), 29 July 1998, pp. 17-18; and Al-Diyar al-Iqtisadi, 30 July 1998, pp. 17-18.