A genealogy of the increasing gap between science and the public

Public Understanding of Science

Volumn 10, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 99-113

  Bensaude Vincent, Bernadette ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0002761018     PISSN: 09636625     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1088/0963-6625/10/1/307     Document Type: Article

References (80)

1. See, for example, J. Mavis "Report Deplores Science-Media Gap," Science 281 (1998): 2036; S. Brenner, "The Impact of Society on Science," Science 282 (1998): 1411-1412.
2. See, for example, J. Mavis "Report Deplores Science-Media Gap," Science 281 (1998): 2036; S. Brenner, "The Impact of Society on Science," Science 282 (1998): 1411-1412.
3. One exceptional occasion where the notion of gap is openly debated is the remarkable collection of articles gathered in "Launch Perspective," Public Understanding of Science 1 (1992).
4. B. Jurdant, "Vulgarisation scientifique et idéologie," Communications 14 (1969): 150-161; "La science et son mythe, la scientificité," Education permanente 6 (1970): 65-76; Les Problèmes théoriques de la vulgarisation scientifique (Strasbourg, doctoral thesis, Université Louis Pasteur, 1971); S. Hilgartner, "The Dominant View of Popularization: Conceptual Problems, Political Uses," Social Studies of Science 20 (1990): 519-539.
5. B. Jurdant, "Vulgarisation scientifique et idéologie," Communications 14 (1969): 150-161; "La science et son mythe, la scientificité," Education permanente 6 (1970): 65-76; Les Problèmes théoriques de la vulgarisation scientifique (Strasbourg, doctoral thesis, Université Louis Pasteur, 1971); S. Hilgartner, "The Dominant View of Popularization: Conceptual Problems, Political Uses," Social Studies of Science 20 (1990): 519-539.
6. B. Jurdant, "Vulgarisation scientifique et idéologie," Communications 14 (1969): 150-161; "La science et son mythe, la scientificité," Education permanente 6 (1970): 65-76; Les Problèmes théoriques de la vulgarisation scientifique (Strasbourg, doctoral thesis, Université Louis Pasteur, 1971); S. Hilgartner, "The Dominant View of Popularization: Conceptual Problems, Political Uses," Social Studies of Science 20 (1990): 519-539.
7. B. Jurdant, "Vulgarisation scientifique et idéologie," Communications 14 (1969): 150-161; "La science et son mythe, la scientificité," Education permanente 6 (1970): 65-76; Les Problèmes théoriques de la vulgarisation scientifique (Strasbourg, doctoral thesis, Université Louis Pasteur, 1971); S. Hilgartner, "The Dominant View of Popularization: Conceptual Problems, Political Uses," Social Studies of Science 20 (1990): 519-539.
8. P. Roqueplo, Le partage du savoir, science, culture et vulgarisation (Paris: Le Seuil, 1974); M. La Follette, Making Science Our Own. Public Images of Science 1910-1955 (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1990); In When Science Meets the Public, ed B. Lewenstein (Washington: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1992); "Industrial Life Insurance, Public Health Campaigns, and Public Communication of Science, 1908-1951," Public Understanding of Science 1 (1992): 347-366.
9. P. Roqueplo, Le partage du savoir, science, culture et vulgarisation (Paris: Le Seuil, 1974); M. La Follette, Making Science Our Own. Public Images of Science 1910-1955 (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1990); In When Science Meets the Public, ed B. Lewenstein (Washington: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1992); "Industrial Life Insurance, Public Health Campaigns, and Public Communication of Science, 1908-1951," Public Understanding of Science 1 (1992): 347-366.
10. P. Roqueplo, Le partage du savoir, science, culture et vulgarisation (Paris: Le Seuil, 1974); M. La Follette, Making Science Our Own. Public Images of Science 1910-1955 (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1990); In When Science Meets the Public, ed B. Lewenstein (Washington: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1992); "Industrial Life Insurance, Public Health Campaigns, and Public Communication of Science, 1908-1951," Public Understanding of Science 1 (1992): 347-366.
11. P. Roqueplo, Le partage du savoir, science, culture et vulgarisation (Paris: Le Seuil, 1974); M. La Follette, Making Science Our Own. Public Images of Science 1910-1955 (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1990); In When Science Meets the Public, ed B. Lewenstein (Washington: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1992); "Industrial Life Insurance, Public Health Campaigns, and Public Communication of Science, 1908-1951," Public Understanding of Science 1 (1992): 347-366.
12. In Vulgariser la science, Le procès de l'ignorance, eds. D. Jacobi and B. Schiele (Seysell, Champ Vallon, 1988); C. Dornan, "Some Problems in Conceptualizing the Issue of Science and the Media," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 7 (1990): 48-71; S. Hilgartner, "The Dominant View of Popularization: Conceptual Problems, Political Uses," Social Studies of Science 20 (1990): 519-539; R. Cooter and S. Pumfrey, "Separate Spheres and Public Places: Reflections on the History of Science Popularization and Science in Popular Culture," History of Science, 32 (1994), 237-267.
13. In Vulgariser la science, Le procès de l'ignorance, eds. D. Jacobi and B. Schiele (Seysell, Champ Vallon, 1988); C. Dornan, "Some Problems in Conceptualizing the Issue of Science and the Media," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 7 (1990): 48-71; S. Hilgartner, "The Dominant View of Popularization: Conceptual Problems, Political Uses," Social Studies of Science 20 (1990): 519-539; R. Cooter and S. Pumfrey, "Separate Spheres and Public Places: Reflections on the History of Science Popularization and Science in Popular Culture," History of Science, 32 (1994), 237-267.
14. In Vulgariser la science, Le procès de l'ignorance, eds. D. Jacobi and B. Schiele (Seysell, Champ Vallon, 1988); C. Dornan, "Some Problems in Conceptualizing the Issue of Science and the Media," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 7 (1990): 48-71; S. Hilgartner, "The Dominant View of Popularization: Conceptual Problems, Political Uses," Social Studies of Science 20 (1990): 519-539; R. Cooter and S. Pumfrey, "Separate Spheres and Public Places: Reflections on the History of Science Popularization and Science in Popular Culture," History of Science, 32 (1994), 237-267.
15. In Vulgariser la science, Le procès de l'ignorance, eds. D. Jacobi and B. Schiele (Seysell, Champ Vallon, 1988); C. Dornan, "Some Problems in Conceptualizing the Issue of Science and the Media," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 7 (1990): 48-71; S. Hilgartner, "The Dominant View of Popularization: Conceptual Problems, Political Uses," Social Studies of Science 20 (1990): 519-539; R. Cooter and S. Pumfrey, "Separate Spheres and Public Places: Reflections on the History of Science Popularization and Science in Popular Culture," History of Science, 32 (1994), 237-267.
16. L. Fleck, Genesis and Development of Scientific Fact (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1979), 99-125.
17. T. Shinn and R. Whitley, Expository Science: Forms and Functions of Popularization (Dordrecht-Boston-Lancaster: D. Reidel, 1985); D. Jacobi, "Du discours scientifique, de sa reformulation et de quelques usages sociaux de la science," Langue française 64 (1984): 37-51; S. Shapin, "Science and the Public," in Companion to the History of Modern Science, eds. R. C. Olby et al. (Londres: Routledge, 1990): 990-1007; J. Golinski, Science as Public Culture: Chemistry and Enlightenment in Britain, 1760-1820 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
18. T. Shinn and R. Whitley, Expository Science: Forms and Functions of Popularization (Dordrecht-Boston-Lancaster: D. Reidel, 1985); D. Jacobi, "Du discours scientifique, de sa reformulation et de quelques usages sociaux de la science," Langue française 64 (1984): 37-51; S. Shapin, "Science and the Public," in Companion to the History of Modern Science, eds. R. C. Olby et al. (Londres: Routledge, 1990): 990-1007; J. Golinski, Science as Public Culture: Chemistry and Enlightenment in Britain, 1760-1820 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
19. T. Shinn and R. Whitley, Expository Science: Forms and Functions of Popularization (Dordrecht-Boston-Lancaster: D. Reidel, 1985); D. Jacobi, "Du discours scientifique, de sa reformulation et de quelques usages sociaux de la science," Langue française 64 (1984): 37-51; S. Shapin, "Science and the Public," in Companion to the History of Modern Science, eds. R. C. Olby et al. (Londres: Routledge, 1990): 990-1007; J. Golinski, Science as Public Culture: Chemistry and Enlightenment in Britain, 1760-1820 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
20. T. Shinn and R. Whitley, Expository Science: Forms and Functions of Popularization (Dordrecht-Boston-Lancaster: D. Reidel, 1985); D. Jacobi, "Du discours scientifique, de sa reformulation et de quelques usages sociaux de la science," Langue française 64 (1984): 37-51; S. Shapin, "Science and the Public," in Companion to the History of Modern Science, eds. R. C. Olby et al. (Londres: Routledge, 1990): 990-1007; J. Golinski, Science as Public Culture: Chemistry and Enlightenment in Britain, 1760-1820 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
21. See, for example, Yves Jeanneret, Ecrire la science, Formes et enjeux de la vulgarisation (Paris: PUF, 1994).
22. See B. Latour, Science in Action, chapter 1, especially the conclusion: "Although it sounds counter-intuitive at first, the more technical and specialized a literature is, the more social it becomes, since the number of associations necessary to drive readers out and force them into accepting a claim as a fact increase (...) The distinction between the technical literature and the rest is not a natural boundary; it is a border created by the disproportionate amount of linkages, resources and allies locally available. This literature is so hard to read and analyze not because it escapes from all normal social links, but because it is more social than so-called normal social ties," (Cambridge: Open University Press, 1987): 62.
23. Plato, Republic VII, 515b-518c.
24. Opinion or doxa is not synonym of ignorance, rather in Republic VI it was defined as an intermediate between science and ignorance.
25. See, for example, Plato, Meno, 97a-97d.
26. Symmetrically, however, it should be noticed that Jurgen Habermas's description of the emergence of the notion of "public sphere" does not take into account the role of scientists (J. Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, translation by Thomas Burger with Fredereick Lawrence, Cambridge, MA, 1989).
27. See, for example, M. F. Mortureux, La formation et le fonctionnement d'un discours de vulgarisation scientifique au XVIIIe siècle à travers l'œuvre de Fontenelle (Paris: Thèse de l'Université de Paris VIII, 1983).
28. One illustration is the best-seller by F. Algarotti, Il Newtonianismo per le Dame, Naples, 1735, immediately translated into French (1735), then in English as Sir Isaac Newton explained "for the use of the ladies in six dialogues on light and colours" (1739) and later on in German (Berlin, 1752).
29. R. Darnton, The Business of Enlightenment: A Publishing History of the Encyclopédie 1751-1800 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979); J. V. Golinski, "Science in the Enlightenment," History of Science 24 (1986): 411-424.
30. R. Darnton, The Business of Enlightenment: A Publishing History of the Encyclopédie 1751-1800 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979); J. V. Golinski, "Science in the Enlightenment," History of Science 24 (1986): 411-424.
31. L. Daston, "The Ideal and Reality of the Republic of Letters in the Enlightenment," Science in context 4 (1991): 367-86. D. Goodman, The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994); A. Goldar, Impolite Learning: Conduct and Community in the Republic of Letters, 1680-1750 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995); G. V. Sutton, Science fora Polite Society: Gender, Culture, and the Demonstration of Enlightenment (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995).
32. L. Daston, "The Ideal and Reality of the Republic of Letters in the Enlightenment," Science in context 4 (1991): 367-86. D. Goodman, The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994); A. Goldar, Impolite Learning: Conduct and Community in the Republic of Letters, 1680-1750 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995); G. V. Sutton, Science fora Polite Society: Gender, Culture, and the Demonstration of Enlightenment (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995).
33. L. Daston, "The Ideal and Reality of the Republic of Letters in the Enlightenment," Science in context 4 (1991): 367-86. D. Goodman, The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994); A. Goldar, Impolite Learning: Conduct and Community in the Republic of Letters, 1680-1750 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995); G. V. Sutton, Science fora Polite Society: Gender, Culture, and the Demonstration of Enlightenment (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995).
34. L. Daston, "The Ideal and Reality of the Republic of Letters in the Enlightenment," Science in context 4 (1991): 367-86. D. Goodman, The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994); A. Goldar, Impolite Learning: Conduct and Community in the Republic of Letters, 1680-1750 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995); G. V. Sutton, Science fora Polite Society: Gender, Culture, and the Demonstration of Enlightenment (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995).
35. Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere; K. M. Baker, "Public opinion as a political invention" in Inventing the French Revolution: Essays on French Politicial Culture in the Eighteenth-Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 167-199; M. C. Jacob, "The Mental Landscape of the Pubic Sphere: A European Perspective," Eighteenth-Century Studies 28 (1994): 95-113; T. Broman, "The Habermasian Public Sphere and Science in the Enlightenment," History of Science 36 (1998): 123-149.
36. Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere; K. M. Baker, "Public opinion as a political invention" in Inventing the French Revolution: Essays on French Politicial Culture in the Eighteenth-Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 167-199; M. C. Jacob, "The Mental Landscape of the Pubic Sphere: A European Perspective," Eighteenth-Century Studies 28 (1994): 95-113; T. Broman, "The Habermasian Public Sphere and Science in the Enlightenment," History of Science 36 (1998): 123-149.
37. Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere; K. M. Baker, "Public opinion as a political invention" in Inventing the French Revolution: Essays on French Politicial Culture in the Eighteenth-Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 167-199; M. C. Jacob, "The Mental Landscape of the Pubic Sphere: A European Perspective," Eighteenth-Century Studies 28 (1994): 95-113; T. Broman, "The Habermasian Public Sphere and Science in the Enlightenment," History of Science 36 (1998): 123-149.
38. Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere; K. M. Baker, "Public opinion as a political invention" in Inventing the French Revolution: Essays on French Politicial Culture in the Eighteenth-Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 167-199; M. C. Jacob, "The Mental Landscape of the Pubic Sphere: A European Perspective," Eighteenth-Century Studies 28 (1994): 95-113; T. Broman, "The Habermasian Public Sphere and Science in the Enlightenment," History of Science 36 (1998): 123-149.
39. I. Kant "What is Enlightenment?" in Kant on History, ed. L. W. Beck, (Indianapolis: 1963).
40. O. Hochadel, "The Popularization of Electricity in Germany (1740-1790) Enlightenment or Entertainment?" Communication to the International Conference of History of Science, Liège, August 1997.
41. H. Descremps, La science sans-culottisée, Premier essai sur les moyens de faciliter l'étude de l'astronomie tant aux amateurs qu'aux gens de lettres, qu'aux marins de la République française et d'opérer une révolution dans l'enseignement Paris An II (1798-4); C. Gillispie, "The Encyclopédie and the Jacobin Philosophy of Science: A Study in Ideas and Consequences" in Criticial Problems in the History of Science, ed. Marshall Clagett (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1959): 255-320.
42. H. Descremps, La science sans-culottisée, Premier essai sur les moyens de faciliter l'étude de l'astronomie tant aux amateurs qu'aux gens de lettres, qu'aux marins de la République française et d'opérer une révolution dans l'enseignement Paris An II (1798-4); C. Gillispie, "The Encyclopédie and the Jacobin Philosophy of Science: A Study in Ideas and Consequences" in Criticial Problems in the History of Science, ed. Marshall Clagett (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1959): 255-320.
43. In the 1860s, there were 15 scientific periodicals published in Paris and approximately the same number published in London; see S. Sheets-Pyenson, "Popular Science Periodicals in Paris and London: The Emergence of a Low Scientific Culture, 1820-1875," Annals of Science 42, (1985): 549-572; P. Bronks, Science Before the Great War (Houndmills, England: MacMillan; New York, St Martins Press, 1996);
44. In the 1860s, there were 15 scientific periodicals published in Paris and approximately the same number published in London; see S. Sheets-Pyenson, "Popular Science Periodicals in Paris and London: The Emergence of a Low Scientific Culture, 1820-1875," Annals of Science 42, (1985): 549-572; P. Bronks, Science Before the Great War (Houndmills, England: MacMillan; New York, St Martins Press, 1996);
45. For a broad international perspective on the emergence of mass communication of science, see the papers gathered in La science populaire dans la presse et l'édition, eds. B. Bensaude-Vincent, A. Rasmussen (Paris: CNRS éditions, 1997), especially the papers authored by B. V. Lewenstein, P. Broks, P. Govoni, A. Daum, S. Sheets-Pyenson, M. F. De Nunes, A. M. Goldfarb, and M. Ferraz.
46. The invention of the term scientist by Whewell in the 1830s instead of the traditional denomination "philosopher," reflects this integration and at the same time shows that it was a slow and gradual process since, as pointed out by an anonymous referee of this paper, the term was scarcely used until the early twentieth century.
47. Union centrale des arts décoratifs, Le livre des expositions universelles, 1851-1989 (Paris: 1983); B. Schroeder-Gudehus and A. Rasmussen, Les fastes du progrès, Guide des expositions universelles, (Paris: Flammarion, 1992).
48. Union centrale des arts décoratifs, Le livre des expositions universelles, 1851-1989 (Paris: 1983); B. Schroeder-Gudehus and A. Rasmussen, Les fastes du progrès, Guide des expositions universelles, (Paris: Flammarion, 1992).
49. After the South Kensington Museum was created in 1853, some 100 museums were created in Great Britain in the 1870s and 1880s. In the closing years of the century, the unified German Empire founded a series of about 50 museums. The Deutsches Museum, opened in Munich in 1903, became a model for many other museums inspired by educational purposes. On exhibitions in Britain, see S. Schaffer, "Babbage's Dance and the Impresarios of Mechanism," in Cultural Babbage: Technology, Time and Invention, eds. F. Sufford and J. Uglow (London: Faber and Faber, 1996): 53-80; I. T. Morus, "Currents from Underworld: Electricity and the Technology of Display in Early Victorian England," Isis 84 (1993): 50-69; On the evolution of American museums, see S. Conn, Museums and American Intellectual Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998.)
50. After the South Kensington Museum was created in 1853, some 100 museums were created in Great Britain in the 1870s and 1880s. In the closing years of the century, the unified German Empire founded a series of about 50 museums. The Deutsches Museum, opened in Munich in 1903, became a model for many other museums inspired by educational purposes. On exhibitions in Britain, see S. Schaffer, "Babbage's Dance and the Impresarios of Mechanism," in Cultural Babbage: Technology, Time and Invention, eds. F. Sufford and J. Uglow (London: Faber and Faber, 1996): 53-80; I. T. Morus, "Currents from Underworld: Electricity and the Technology of Display in Early Victorian England," Isis 84 (1993): 50-69; On the evolution of American museums, see S. Conn, Museums and American Intellectual Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998.)
51. After the South Kensington Museum was created in 1853, some 100 museums were created in Great Britain in the 1870s and 1880s. In the closing years of the century, the unified German Empire founded a series of about 50 museums. The Deutsches Museum, opened in Munich in 1903, became a model for many other museums inspired by educational purposes. On exhibitions in Britain, see S. Schaffer, "Babbage's Dance and the Impresarios of Mechanism," in Cultural Babbage: Technology, Time and Invention, eds. F. Sufford and J. Uglow (London: Faber and Faber, 1996): 53-80; I. T. Morus, "Currents from Underworld: Electricity and the Technology of Display in Early Victorian England," Isis 84 (1993): 50-69; On the evolution of American museums, see S. Conn, Museums and American Intellectual Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998.)
52. See E. Parinet, "Les éditeurs et le marché: la vulgarisation scientifique dans l'édition française," in La science populaire dans la presse et l'édition, eds. B. Bensaude-Vincent, A. Rasmussen (Paris: CNRS éditions, 1997), 33-50.
53. R. Altick, The English Common Reader. A Social History of the Mass Reading Public 1800-1900 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1957);
54. N. Richter, Les bibliothèques populaires (Paris: Cercle de la librairie, 1978);
55. Colportage et lecture populaire: imprimés de large circulation en Europe XVI-XIXe siècles, eds. R. Chartier, H. J. Lüsebrink (Paris: IMEC-MSH);
56. Histoire de la lecture dans le monde occidental, eds. G. Cavallo, R. Chartier (Paris: Le Seuil, 1997);
57. C. Kaestle, et al., Literacy in the United States: Readers and Reading Since 1880 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998).
58. B. Béguet, "Lectures de. vulgarisation scientifique au XIXe siècle," in La science populaire dans la presse et l'édition XIXe et XXe siècles, eds. B. Bensaude-Vincent, A. Rasmussen (Paris: CNRS éditions, 1997), 51-68.
59. A. Comte, Discours sur l'esprit positif 1844, paragraph 34 (Paris: Vrin, 1995), 127-127; A similar assumption can be found in T. H. Huxley's definition of science as nothing more than organized common sense. Such representations were however challenged by alternative claims that common sense was inadequate and misleading towards the end of the century; A. Comte, Cours de philosophie positive 34° Leçon (Paris: Hermann 1975), 546.
60. A. Comte, Discours sur l'esprit positif 1844, paragraph 34 (Paris: Vrin, 1995), 127-127; A similar assumption can be found in T. H. Huxley's definition of science as nothing more than organized common sense. Such representations were however challenged by alternative claims that common sense was inadequate and misleading towards the end of the century; A. Comte, Cours de philosophie positive 34° Leçon (Paris: Hermann 1975), 546.
61. Comte, Discours sur l'esprit positif, 1844.
62. See B. Bensaude-Vincent, "Louis Pasteur face à la presse scientifique," in L'Institut Pasteur: Contributions à son Histoire, ed. Michel Morange (Paris: La Découverte, 1991) 75-88. Pasteur himself made extensive use of the resources of the press to promote his work, see for example M. Bucchi, "The Public Science of Louis Pasteur: The Experiment on Anthrax Vaccine in the Popular Press of the Time," History and Philosophy of Life Sciences 19(1997): 181-209.
63. See B. Bensaude-Vincent, "Louis Pasteur face à la presse scientifique," in L'Institut Pasteur: Contributions à son Histoire, ed. Michel Morange (Paris: La Découverte, 1991) 75-88. Pasteur himself made extensive use of the resources of the press to promote his work, see for example M. Bucchi, "The Public Science of Louis Pasteur: The Experiment on Anthrax Vaccine in the Popular Press of the Time," History and Philosophy of Life Sciences 19(1997): 181-209.
64. See S. Sheets-Pyenson, "Popular Science Periodicals in Paris and London: The Emergence of a Low Scientific Culture 1820-1875," Annals of Science 42 (1985): 549-572.
65. A. Secord, "Science in the Pub: Artisan Botanists in Early 19th Century Lancashire," History of Science 32 (1994): 269-315.
66. P. de la Cotardière, P. Fuentes, Camille Flammarion (Paris: Flammarion, 1993); B. Bensaude-Vincent, "Camille Flammarion: prestige de la science populaire," Romantisme 65 (1989): 93-104.
67. P. de la Cotardière, P. Fuentes, Camille Flammarion (Paris: Flammarion, 1993); B. Bensaude-Vincent, "Camille Flammarion: prestige de la science populaire," Romantisme 65 (1989): 93-104.
68. Bachelard, La Formation de l'esprit scientifique (Paris: Vrin, 1938), edition 1972, 14.
69. M. Serres, "Déontologie: La réforme et les sept pêchés capitaux," in Hermès II L'interférence, Ed Minuit, (Paris, 1972) 201-222.
70. N. Bohr, "Causality and Complementarity," Philosophy of Science 4 (1937): 289-298.
71. See "Vulgariser les sciences (1919-1939)," Cahiers d'histoire et de philosophie des sciences, No 24, eds. B. Bensaude-Vincent and C. Blondel (1988): 7-14; B. Bensaude-Vincent, "In the Name of Science," in Science in the Twentieth Century, eds. J. Krige and D. Pestre (Harwood Academic Publishers, 1997) 319-338.
72. See "Vulgariser les sciences (1919-1939)," Cahiers d'histoire et de philosophie des sciences, No 24, eds. B. Bensaude-Vincent and C. Blondel (1988): 7-14; B. Bensaude-Vincent, "In the Name of Science," in Science in the Twentieth Century, eds. J. Krige and D. Pestre (Harwood Academic Publishers, 1997) 319-338.
73. R. Sudre, "La vulgarisation scientifique," Encyclopédie française, T. XVIII "La civilisation écrite," (Paris: Larousse, 1939) section 16, 11-13; S. Poirot-Delpech, "L'Encyclopédie française" in Vulgariser les sciences (1919-1939), Cahiers d'histoire et de philosophie des sciences, No 24 (1988): 7-14.
74. R. Sudre, "La vulgarisation scientifique," Encyclopédie française, T. XVIII "La civilisation écrite," (Paris: Larousse, 1939) section 16, 11-13; S. Poirot-Delpech, "L'Encyclopédie française" in Vulgariser les sciences (1919-1939), Cahiers d'histoire et de philosophie des sciences, No 24 (1988): 7-14.
75. R. Caillois, L'homme et le sacré (Paris: PUF, 1939); M. Eliade, Das Heilige und das Profane, Rowohlt Taschenbuchverlag GmbH (Hamburg, 1957).
76. R. Caillois, L'homme et le sacré (Paris: PUF, 1939); M. Eliade, Das Heilige und das Profane, Rowohlt Taschenbuchverlag GmbH (Hamburg, 1957).
77. L. Caro, Science & Vie (March 1958): 19.
78. On heroic images see M. C. LaFollette, Making Science Our Own, Public Images of Science 1910-1955 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1990).
79. A. Irwin, Citizen Science, A Study of People, Expertise and Sustainable Development (London and New York: Routledge, 1995); S. Epstein, Impure Science. Aids, Activism and the Politics of Knowledge (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1996).
80. A. Irwin, Citizen Science, A Study of People, Expertise and Sustainable Development (London and New York: Routledge, 1995); S. Epstein, Impure Science. Aids, Activism and the Politics of Knowledge (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1996).