The Internationalisation of European Universities: A return to medieval roots

Minerva

Volumn 36, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 253-270

  Geuna, Aldo ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0002736619     PISSN: 00264695     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1004391922122     Document Type: Article

References (51)

1. On the percolation process, see David, Paul A. and Foray, Dominique, Accessing and Expanding the Science and Technology Knowledge-base, DSTI/STP/TIP 94(4) (Paris: OECD, 1994).
2. Gibbons, M., et al., The New Production of Knowledge: The Dynamics of Science and Research in Contemporary Societies (London: Sage, 1994), p. 85.
3. See also Hague, D., Beyond Universities: A New Republic of the Intellect, Horbart paper 115 (London: IEA, 1991);
4. Scott, Peter, The Crisis of the University (London: Croom Helm, 1984).
5. Perkin, Harold, "The Historical Perspective", in Clark, B.R. (ed.), Perspectives on Higher Education (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), p.18.
6. On the unintended consequences of market-oriented policies in the British context, see Geuna, Aldo, "Allocation of Funds and Research Output: The Case of UK Universities", Revue d'Economie Industrielle, LXXIX, 1 (1997), pp. 143-162.
7. IAU, International Handbook of Universities (New York: Stockton Press, 1991, 1993).
8. Tertiary education and ISCED classification are defined in OECD, Education at a Glance (Paris: OECD, 1995), pp. 366-369.
9. To calculate the number of PSI we used an estimate of the PSI in the United Kingdom. For the selection criteria of the 379 institutions classified as universities, see Appendix, pp. 268-270.
10. See David, Paul A., "Reputation and Agency in the Historical Emergence of the Institutions of the Open Science", Research Memoranda, no. 2/94-006 (Maastricht: MERIT, 1994).
11. On the role of norms, incentives and organisational structure in the creation of knowledge, see Dasgupta, Partha and David, Paul A., "Information Disclosure and the Economics of Science and Technology", in Feiwel, G. (ed.), Arrow and the Ascent of Modem Economic Theory (New York: New York University Press, 1987), ch. 16;
12. Dasgupta, Partha and David, Paul A., "Towards a New Economics of Science", Research Policy, XXIII, 5 (September 1994).
13. On governmental expectations of discoveries generated by the war, see Geiger, Roger L., Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities Since World War II (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), chs 1, 2.
14. For the British case, see HMSO, Higher Education (Robbins Committee) (London: HMSO, 1963).
15. Robbins ' achievement is analysed in Scott, P., The Crisis of the University, 1963 op. cit., ch. 5.
16. Trow, Martin A., "The Analysis of Status", in Clark, B. R. (ed.), Perspectives on Higher Education, 1963 op. cit.;
17. Simone, Raffaele, L'università del Tre Tradimenti (Roma: Laterza, 1993).
18. Trow, M. A., "The Analysis of Status", L'università del Tre Tradimenti (1993). op. cit.
19. On recent changes in British higher education funding, see Geuna, Aldo, "Allocation of Funds and Research Output: The Case of UK Universities", L'università del Tre Tradimenti (1993). op. cit.;
20. Webster, Andrew, "UK Government's White Paper (1993): A Critical Commentary on Measures of Exploitation of Scientific Research", Technology Analysis and Strategic Management, VI, 2 (1994).
21. Gibbons, M., et al., The New Production of Knowledge, VI, 2 (1994). op. cit.
22. On the scientific network, see Callon, Michel, "Techno-economic Networks and Irreversibility", in Law, J. (ed.), A Sociology of Monsters: Essays on Power, Technology and Domination (London: Routledge, 1991).
23. On international scientific collaboration, see Luukkonen, Terttu, Persson, Olle and Sivertsen, Gunnar, "Understanding Patterns of International Scientific Collaboration", Science, Technology, and Human Values, XVII, 1 (1992).
24. On transdisciplinary and public-private collaboration, see Hicks, Diana, "Published Papers, Tacit Competencies and Corporate Management of the Public/ Private Character of Knowledge", Industrial and Corporate Change, IV, 2 (1995).
25. The development of information and communication technologies and the forecasted fall in telecommunication costs, down to the level of simple access cost, can have a crucial impact on the higher education system, for example, in terms of interactive video-teaching at zero variable costs.
26. More detailed subdivisions, including non-European universities, can be found in the historical literature. See, e.g., Wittrock, Björn, "The Modern University: The Three Transformations", in Rothblatt, S. and Wittrock, B. (eds), The European and American University since 1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
27. See Appendix below for data specification and variable definition, pp. 268-270.
28. All variables show a high kurtosis and a positive skewness.
29. E.g., the number of researchers has minimum value of 15, maximum value of 7,330 with a mean of 887 and a standard deviation of 946.
30. The sociology of science, and recent empirical studies in the new economics of science, have used bibliometric analysis. In particular, paper or citation counts are used to indicate the underlying productivity of the researcher. So the scientific research productivity of a university can be depicted as the ratio between one year's publications and the number of researchers attached to the institution.
31. See Appendix below for the econometric techniques used, p. 270.
32. Wittrock, Björn, The Modern University: The Three Transformations 1993 See ibid. for data specification and variable definition, pp. 268-270.
33. Due to data-gathering problems the French universities tend to be of large dimension, with low research output, low productivity of scientific research productivity and low orientation towards research.
34. A frequency analysis was also done. The variables were transformed into categorical variables at the quartile so as to build five indexes: one of dimension, two of research output, one of research intensity, and one of scientific research productivity. The association of these indexes with the institutions in the four clusters confirms our observations.
35. For an economic analysis of the Matthew Effect and its implications for resource allocation, see Arora, Ashish, David, Paul A. and Gambardella, Alfonso, "Increasing Returns to Knowledge Capital in Scientific Research", paper presented to the NBER Summer Workshop on Industrial Organization, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Summer 1994;
36. Dasgupta, P. and David, P.A., "Information Disclosure and the Economics of Science and Technology", NBER Summer Workshop on Industrial Organization, 1994; op. cit.;
37. Dasgupta, P. and David, P.A., "Towards a New Economics of Science", NBER Summer Workshop on Industrial Organization, 1994; op. cit.;
38. and David, Paul A., "Positive Feedbacks and Research Productivity in Science: Reopening Another Black Box", in Granstand, O. (ed.), The Economics of Technology (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1994).
39. For its implications on university status, see Trow, M.A., "The Analysis of Status", The Economics of Technology (1994). op. cit.
40. For its original definition, see Merton, Robert K., "The Matthew Effect in Science", Science, CLIX (5 January, 1968).
41. One strategy used by the new universities which have successfully raised their status has been to focus on particular fields. Instead of competing over the whole spectrum, they train their financial effort on only a few scientific fields. Because of the transdisciplinary character of the process, developing high-quality research and teaching in a limited number of scientific fields originates positive externalities that benefit research in other fields in the university.
42. See Geuna, Aldo, "Resource Allocation and Knowledge Production: Studies in the Economics of University Research", doctoral dissertation, Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Maastricht University, forthcoming.
43. IAU, International Handbook of Universities, op. cit.
44. London: Europa Publications, 1995.
45. University Founding Council, University Statistics 1992-93 (Cheltenham: Universities' Statistical Record, 1994).
46. Researchers includes all full-time academic staff plus, when present, 50 per cent of part-time academic staff.
47. For analysis of data-collection problems, see European Commission, The European Report on Science and Technology Indicators 1994, EUR 15897 EN (Luxembourg: EC, 1994), pp. 38-40. The peculiar role played by hospitals means weight in the presence count is not just overestimated because of co-authorship: it is also often unclear whether hospitals are linked to a university and publication may be counted as university or hospital. Practice varies among European countries.
48. The CNRS is the principal site where publicly funded scientific research is carried out. Moreover, engineering sciences are primarily studied at the grande écoles, which are not included in the category university.
49. See Geuna, Aldo, "The Participation of Higher Education Institutions in European Community Framework Programmes", Science and Public Policy, XXXIII, 5 (1996).
50. For a clear description of the methodology, see Dunteman, George, H., Principal Components Analysis (London: Sage, 1989).
51. See Aldenderfer, Mark, S. and Blashfield, Roger, K., Cluster Analysis (London: Sage, 1984).