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3
-
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0003474484
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-
Hart reports that between 1945 and 1985, for example, the sheer amount of presidential rhetoric increased significantly, with approximately 75% of this discourse being addressed specifically to local audiences, specific interest groups, or the press. Similar quantitative analysis of presidential speech from 1900 to 1945 and from 1985 to the present is currently unavailable
-
See Hart, The Sound of Leadership: Presidential Communication in the Modern Age, 228. Hart reports that between 1945 and 1985, for example, the sheer amount of presidential rhetoric increased significantly, with approximately 75% of this discourse being addressed specifically to local audiences, specific interest groups, or the press. Similar quantitative analysis of presidential speech from 1900 to 1945 and from 1985 to the present is currently unavailable.
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The Sound of Leadership: Presidential Communication in the Modern Age
, pp. 228
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Hart1
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4
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85015125972
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note
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I have chosen this time period purposefully. I have started in 1885 in order to include the peak immigration years of the late nineteenth century, when ethnic and socioeconomic differences were of great concern to the citizenry, and I have ended in 1992, a year plagued with post-Rodney King concerns about diversity, in order to include the most recent complete presidential term. In addition, by "local address," I mean a speech given to a specific subgroup of citizens. These speeches typically occur in one of three settings: the group's own locale (i.e., the president visits a particular community or site), a neutral location (the president speaks at a group's meeting at a hotel or conference center), or the White House (as a result of a presidential invitation). Regardless of their ostensible purposes (as party fund-raisers, stump speeches, etc.), these addresses are unlike other presidential talks because they imply a greater degree of intimacy between the speaker and audience. Although some of these speeches are broadcast to the general public, I have excluded informal remarks made to the press alone from my data.
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5
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84935594342
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New Haven: Yale University Press
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Robert Dahl, Democracy and Its Critics (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 1.
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(1989)
Democracy and Its Critics
, pp. 1
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Dahl, R.1
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6
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84952909148
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Dahl muses that "if a fifth-century Athenian citizen were suddenly to appear in our midst he (being a citizen of Athens, it would necessarily be he, not she) would probably find what we call democracy unrecognizable, unattractive, and undemocratic." See Dahl, Democracy and Its Critics, 235. Furthermore, here I use the term demos to suggest a "citizen body" of people capable of self-rule and eligible to participate in the democracy as voters, a definition that I take from Dahl, Democracy and Its Critics, 4.
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Democracy and Its Critics
, pp. 235
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Dahl1
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7
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84952909148
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Dahl muses that "if a fifth-century Athenian citizen were suddenly to appear in our midst he (being a citizen of Athens, it would necessarily be he, not she) would probably find what we call democracy unrecognizable, unattractive, and undemocratic." See Dahl, Democracy and Its Critics, 235. Furthermore, here I use the term demos to suggest a "citizen body" of people capable of self-rule and eligible to participate in the democracy as voters, a definition that I take from Dahl, Democracy and Its Critics, 4.
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Democracy and Its Critics
, pp. 4
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Dahl1
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12
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0041606552
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Freedom, pluralism, and federalism: An enigmatic trio?
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Sarah Baumgartner Thurow, ed. Lanham: University Press of America
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James L. Gibson, "Freedom, Pluralism, and Federalism: An Enigmatic Trio?" in Sarah Baumgartner Thurow, ed. E Pluribus Unum: Constitutional Principles and the Institutions of Government (Lanham: University Press of America, 1988), 222.
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(1988)
E Pluribus Unum: Constitutional Principles and the Institutions of Government
, pp. 222
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Gibson, J.L.1
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18
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0003462380
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London: Verso Books
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I use the term "imagined communities" in the sense offered by Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (London: Verso Books, 1983).
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(1983)
Imagined Communities
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Anderson, B.1
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21
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0003770529
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Princeton: Princeton University Press
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Sanford Levinson, Constitutional Faith (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), 61.
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(1988)
Constitutional Faith
, pp. 61
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Levinson, S.1
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22
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85198260252
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Princeton: Princeton University Press
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Jeffrey K. Tulis, The Rhetorical Presidency (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987), 18.
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(1987)
The Rhetorical Presidency
, pp. 18
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Tulis, J.K.1
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23
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0042107463
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Rhetorical fiction and the presidency
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April
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Walter Fisher, "Rhetorical Fiction and the Presidency," The Quarterly Journal of Speech, April 1980, 120.
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(1980)
The Quarterly Journal of Speech
, pp. 120
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Fisher, W.1
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26
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0003474484
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Chicago: The University of Chicago Press
-
For documentation of the overall rise of presidential speech to the public in the modern argue, see Hart, The Sound of Leadership: Presidential Communication in the Modern Age (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1987). For a comparison of speaking rates of twentieth century chief executives with their nineteenth-century forebears, see Jeffrey K. Tulis, The Rhetorical Presidency (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987).
-
(1987)
The Sound of Leadership: Presidential Communication in the Modern Age
-
-
Hart1
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27
-
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85198260252
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Princeton: Princeton University Press
-
For documentation of the overall rise of presidential speech to the public in the modern argue, see Hart, The Sound of Leadership: Presidential Communication in the Modern Age (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1987). For a comparison of speaking rates of twentieth century chief executives with their nineteenth-century forebears, see Jeffrey K. Tulis, The Rhetorical Presidency (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987).
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(1987)
The Rhetorical Presidency
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Tulis, J.K.1
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36
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0042608527
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Quot;leaderless government," address before the Virginia Bar Association, August 4, 1897
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Ray Standard Baker and William E. Dodd, eds., New York: Harper & Brothers
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Woodrow Wilson, "Leaderless Government," Address before the Virginia Bar Association, August 4, 1897, in Ray Standard Baker and William E. Dodd, eds., College and State (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1925), 339. Quoted in Tulis, The Rhetorical Presidency, 117.
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(1925)
College and State
, pp. 339
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Wilson, W.1
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37
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84875848687
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Woodrow Wilson, "Leaderless Government," Address before the Virginia Bar Association, August 4, 1897, in Ray Standard Baker and William E. Dodd, eds., College and State (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1925), 339. Quoted in Tulis, The Rhetorical Presidency, 117.
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The Rhetorical Presidency
, pp. 117
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Tulis1
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39
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85015122702
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-
note
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Here I define "presidential term" as the tenure of any sitting president, beginning with either an election or appointment and ending with another election, impeachment, or death. By this definition, there were 31 terms, complete and incomplete, from 1885-1992, resulting in a total of 310 speeches in my collection. For presidents with multiple terms, I collected a separate set of speeches for each term; in other words, in the case of FDR, I read forty speeches to correspond with his four terms, ten for each one, even though his last executive term was cut short.
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40
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0003827187
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New York: New American Library, Federalist #10
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Madison's definition continues by adding that these groups' interests are "adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community." From Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, The Federalist Papers (New York: New American Library, 1961), Federalist #10, 78.
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(1961)
The Federalist Papers
, pp. 78
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-
Hamilton, A.1
Madison, J.2
John, J.3
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41
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85015125523
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-
note
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Yet some people and places are not visited. No president has spoken specifically to members of the American Communist Party, for example, nor have chief executives clamored to address groups of atheists or nudists. These omissions are hardly surprising, as most critics would classify local addresses as epideictic speeches in which common values are affirmed and celebrated. Indeed, my analysis suggests that presidents tend to talk to groups unlikely to challenge their "safe" definitions of American pluralities (and thus identity). A quantitative review of all local addresses would be necessary to provide further support for this claim.
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42
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0042608528
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Address at Idaho Falls, Idaho, on June 28, 1923
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Washington, D.C.: U.S. Senate
-
Warren Harding, "Address at Idaho Falls, Idaho, on June 28, 1923," The Last Speeches of President Warren G. Harding (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Senate, 1923), 170.
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(1923)
The Last Speeches of President Warren G. Harding
, pp. 170
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Harding, W.1
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44
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84928507325
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Civil religion in America
-
Winter
-
For the classic description of what the American civil religions entails, see Robert N. Bellah, "Civil Religion in America," Daedalus (Winter 1967), reprinted in Robert N. Bellah, Beyond Belief: Essays on Religion in a Post-Traditional World(New York: Harper & Row, 1970), 168-189.
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(1967)
Daedalus
-
-
Bellah, R.N.1
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45
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0004039517
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reprinted New York: Harper & Row
-
For the classic description of what the American civil religions entails, see Robert N. Bellah, "Civil Religion in America," Daedalus (Winter 1967), reprinted in Robert N. Bellah, Beyond Belief: Essays on Religion in a Post-Traditional World(New York: Harper & Row, 1970), 168-189.
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(1970)
Beyond Belief: Essays on Religion in a Post-traditional World
, pp. 168-189
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Bellah, R.N.1
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46
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0042107462
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Address at City Hall Park, Fresno, California, at a union religious service
-
New York: Doubleday, Page and Company
-
William H. Taft, "Address at City Hall Park, Fresno, California, at a Union Religious Service," Presidential Addresses and State Papers (New York: Doubleday, Page and Company, 1910), 335.
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(1910)
Presidential Addresses and State Papers
, pp. 335
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Taft, W.H.1
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47
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0042107460
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Remarks at the Vermont State Dairy Festival, Rutland, Vermont, June 22, 1955
-
Dwight Eisenhower, "Remarks at the Vermont State Dairy Festival, Rutland, Vermont, June 22, 1955," Public Papers of the Presidents, 616.
-
Public Papers of the Presidents
, pp. 616
-
-
Eisenhower, D.1
-
48
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0041606549
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An existentialist looks at Americans
-
May 25
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Simone de Beauvoir, "An Existentialist Looks at Americans," New York Times Magazine, May 25, 1947.
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(1947)
New York Times Magazine
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-
De Beauvoir, S.1
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49
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0043109283
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At the Jewelers' Association annual dinner
-
New York, November 21, George Parker, ed. New York: Cassell Publishing Company
-
Grover Cleveland, "At the Jewelers' Association Annual Dinner," New York, November 21, 1890, The Writings and Speeches of Grover Cleveland, George Parker, ed. (New York: Cassell Publishing Company, 1892), 168.
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(1890)
The Writings and Speeches of Grover Cleveland
, pp. 168
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-
Cleveland, G.1
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50
-
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0042107458
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Speech to normal school students at Cheney, Washington
-
July 2
-
Warren G. Harding, "Speech to Normal School Students at Cheney, Washington," July 2, 1923, Last Speeches, 170.
-
(1923)
Last Speeches
, pp. 170
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Harding, W.G.1
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51
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0042107459
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Address to the American Institute of Architects
-
April 25
-
Herbert Hoover, "Address to the American Institute of Architects," April 25, 1929, PPP, 121.
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(1929)
PPP
, pp. 121
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Hoover, H.1
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52
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0043109333
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Remarks at the breakfast of National Cartoonists Association, November 6, 1951
-
Harry S. Truman, "Remarks at the Breakfast of National Cartoonists Association, November 6, 1951," PPP, 620.
-
PPP
, pp. 620
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-
Truman, H.S.1
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53
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0042107456
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Remarks to the national legislative conference, building and construction trade department
-
June 12
-
Lyndon B. Johnson, "Remarks to the National Legislative Conference, Building and Construction Trade Department," June 12, 1967, PPP, 607.
-
(1967)
PPP
, pp. 607
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-
Johnson, L.B.1
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54
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0042608530
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Address to the American federation of labor
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Boston, Massachusetts, October 6
-
Herbert Hoover, "Address to the American Federation of Labor," Boston, Massachusetts, October 6, 1930, PPP, 411-415.
-
(1930)
PPP
, pp. 411-415
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Hoover, H.1
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58
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0003433436
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Chicago: The University of Chicago Press
-
John H. Aldrich, Why Parties?(Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1995), 3.
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(1995)
Why Parties?
, pp. 3
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-
Aldrich, J.H.1
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59
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0043109334
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Chicago: Nelson Hall Publishers
-
John Bibby writes that even "early leaders like Washington, Hamilton, Madison and Jefferson believed that parties would be divisive and undermine the public interest," with Washington forewarning in his 1796 Farewell Address that they would "always … distract the Public" and "agitate the community." See John F. Bibby, Politics, Parties and Elections in America (Chicago: Nelson Hall Publishers, 1987), 21.
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(1987)
Politics, Parties and Elections in America
, pp. 21
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Bibby, J.F.1
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60
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0003752162
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Chicago: The University of Chicago Press
-
Karlyn Kohrs Campbell and Kathleen Hall Jamieson have noted that in inaugural addresses, presidents typically make explicit attempts at "creating a single people out of partisan division." Indeed, they note, inaugurals remembered as "truly great" are successful at framing the citizenry as a "people able to transcend political differences." See Deeds Done in Words: Presidential Rhetoric and the Genres of Governance (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1990), 16-17.
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(1990)
Deeds Done in Words: Presidential Rhetoric and the Genres of Governance
, pp. 16-17
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-
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61
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0041606551
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At a reception given by the democratic club, New York, April 27, 1889
-
Grover Cleveland, "At a Reception Given by the Democratic Club, New York, April 27, 1889," The Writings and Speeches of Grover Cleveland, 245.
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The Writings and Speeches of Grover Cleveland
, pp. 245
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Cleveland, G.1
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63
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85015127514
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Address at the Lincoln birthday banquet of the republican club of the City of New York
-
February 12, New York: Doubleday, Page & Company
-
William Taft, "Address at the Lincoln Birthday Banquet of the Republican Club of the City of New York," February 12, 1910, in Presidential Addresses and State Papers, Vol. I(New York: Doubleday, Page & Company), 583.
-
(1910)
Presidential Addresses and State Papers
, vol.1
, pp. 583
-
-
Taft, W.1
-
64
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0042107461
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Remarks at a fund-raising dinner for senatorial candidate Bob Kasten in Milwaukee, Wisconsin
-
June 17
-
George Bush, "Remarks at a Fund-raising Dinner for Senatorial Candidate Bob Kasten in Milwaukee, Wisconsin," June 17, 1991, PPP, 684-685.
-
(1991)
PPP
, pp. 684-685
-
-
Bush, G.1
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66
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0007125794
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New York: United States Book Company
-
Charles Hedges, ed., Speeches of Benjamin Harrison (New York: United States Book Company, 1892), 369.
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(1892)
Speeches of Benjamin Harrison
, pp. 369
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-
Hedges, C.1
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67
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0001778197
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The politics of recognition
-
Amy Gutmann, ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press
-
See Charles Taylor, "The Politics of Recognition," in Amy Gutmann, ed. Multiculturalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 25-73.
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(1994)
Multiculturalism
, pp. 25-73
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Taylor, C.1
|