Defining the Range: The Development of Carrying Capacity in Management Practice

Journal of the History of Biology

Volumn 31, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 61-83

  Young, Christian C ^a  

^a Mount Angel Seminary   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0001952898     PISSN: 00225010     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1004205522191     Document Type: Article

References (97)

1. For example, "The constant K is used for more than just mathematical convenience. It has a ready biological interpretation as the carrying capacity of the environment." Nicholas J. Gotelli, A Primer of Ecology (Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates, 1995), boldface emphasis in original.
2. Edwin T. Layton, Jr., "Technology as Knowledge," Tech. Cult., 15 (1974), 31. Layton was overturning the model that had served earlier historians of science. On the history of the various models of the science-technology relationship, particularly in physics and engineering, see John M. Staudenmaier, Technology's Storytellers: Reweaving the Human Fabric (Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1985), especially chap. 3. For an especially useful review of these models, see Barry Barnes, "The Science-Technology Relationship: A Model and a Query," Soc. Stud. Sci., 12 (1982), 166-172. (Thank-you to Ed Layton for alerting me to this article.) More recently, Ronald Kline has undertaken an effort to understand the continued use of the terms "pure science" and "applied science" in science and engineering from 1880 to 1945. Like most discussion of this subject, Kline's analysis of science focuses only on physics. Ronald Kline, "Constructing 'Technology' as 'Applied Science': Public Rhetoric of Scientists and Engineers in the United States, 1880-1945," Isis, 86 (1995), 194-221.
3. Edwin T. Layton, Jr., "Technology as Knowledge," Tech. Cult., 15 (1974), 31. Layton was overturning the model that had served earlier historians of science. On the history of the various models of the science-technology relationship, particularly in physics and engineering, see John M. Staudenmaier, Technology's Storytellers: Reweaving the Human Fabric (Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1985), especially chap. 3. For an especially useful review of these models, see Barry Barnes, "The Science-Technology Relationship: A Model and a Query," Soc. Stud. Sci., 12 (1982), 166-172. (Thank-you to Ed Layton for alerting me to this article.) More recently, Ronald Kline has undertaken an effort to understand the continued use of the terms "pure science" and "applied science" in science and engineering from 1880 to 1945. Like most discussion of this subject, Kline's analysis of science focuses only on physics. Ronald Kline, "Constructing 'Technology' as 'Applied Science': Public Rhetoric of Scientists and Engineers in the United States, 1880-1945," Isis, 86 (1995), 194-221.
4. Edwin T. Layton, Jr., "Technology as Knowledge," Tech. Cult., 15 (1974), 31. Layton was overturning the model that had served earlier historians of science. On the history of the various models of the science-technology relationship, particularly in physics and engineering, see John M. Staudenmaier, Technology's Storytellers: Reweaving the Human Fabric (Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1985), especially chap. 3. For an especially useful review of these models, see Barry Barnes, "The Science-Technology Relationship: A Model and a Query," Soc. Stud. Sci., 12 (1982), 166-172. (Thank-you to Ed Layton for alerting me to this article.) More recently, Ronald Kline has undertaken an effort to understand the continued use of the terms "pure science" and "applied science" in science and engineering from 1880 to 1945. Like most discussion of this subject, Kline's analysis of science focuses only on physics. Ronald Kline, "Constructing 'Technology' as 'Applied Science': Public Rhetoric of Scientists and Engineers in the United States, 1880-1945," Isis, 86 (1995), 194-221.
5. Edwin T. Layton, Jr., "Technology as Knowledge," Tech. Cult., 15 (1974), 31. Layton was overturning the model that had served earlier historians of science. On the history of the various models of the science-technology relationship, particularly in physics and engineering, see John M. Staudenmaier, Technology's Storytellers: Reweaving the Human Fabric (Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1985), especially chap. 3. For an especially useful review of these models, see Barry Barnes, "The Science-Technology Relationship: A Model and a Query," Soc. Stud. Sci., 12 (1982), 166-172. (Thank-you to Ed Layton for alerting me to this article.) More recently, Ronald Kline has undertaken an effort to understand the continued use of the terms "pure science" and "applied science" in science and engineering from 1880 to 1945. Like most discussion of this subject, Kline's analysis of science focuses only on physics. Ronald Kline, "Constructing 'Technology' as 'Applied Science': Public Rhetoric of Scientists and Engineers in the United States, 1880-1945," Isis, 86 (1995), 194-221.
6. Historians of entomology, range management, and especially agriculture have followed suit more recently. On entomology, see Paulo Palladino, Entomology, Ecology, and Agriculture: The Making of Scientific Careers in North America, 1885-1985 (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1996); and Richard Sawyer, To Make a Spotless Orange: Biological Control in California (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1996). For an excellent study with an unprecedented approach to the way "pure" and "applied" science was practiced in recognition of different audiences, see Maarten Heyboer, "Grass-counters, Stock-feeders, and the Dual Orientation of Applied Science: The History of Range Science, 1895-1960" (Ph.D. diss., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1992). On agriculture, see Barbara Kimmelman, "A Progressive Era Discipline: Genetics at American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, 1890-1920" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1987); Deborah Fitzgerald, The Business of Breeding: Hybrid Corn in Illinois, 1890-1940 (Ithaca: Cornell University, 1990); and Kathy Cooke, "From Science to Practice, or Practice to Science? Chickens and Eggs in Raymond Pearl's Agricultural Breeding Research, 1907-1916," Isis, 88: 1 (March 1997), 62-86.
7. Historians of entomology, range management, and especially agriculture have followed suit more recently. On entomology, see Paulo Palladino, Entomology, Ecology, and Agriculture: The Making of Scientific Careers in North America, 1885-1985 (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1996); and Richard Sawyer, To Make a Spotless Orange: Biological Control in California (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1996). For an excellent study with an unprecedented approach to the way "pure" and "applied" science was practiced in recognition of different audiences, see Maarten Heyboer, "Grass-counters, Stock-feeders, and the Dual Orientation of Applied Science: The History of Range Science, 1895-1960" (Ph.D. diss., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1992). On agriculture, see Barbara Kimmelman, "A Progressive Era Discipline: Genetics at American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, 1890-1920" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1987); Deborah Fitzgerald, The Business of Breeding: Hybrid Corn in Illinois, 1890-1940 (Ithaca: Cornell University, 1990); and Kathy Cooke, "From Science to Practice, or Practice to Science? Chickens and Eggs in Raymond Pearl's Agricultural Breeding Research, 1907-1916," Isis, 88: 1 (March 1997), 62-86.
8. Historians of entomology, range management, and especially agriculture have followed suit more recently. On entomology, see Paulo Palladino, Entomology, Ecology, and Agriculture: The Making of Scientific Careers in North America, 1885-1985 (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1996); and Richard Sawyer, To Make a Spotless Orange: Biological Control in California (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1996). For an excellent study with an unprecedented approach to the way "pure" and "applied" science was practiced in recognition of different audiences, see Maarten Heyboer, "Grass-counters, Stock-feeders, and the Dual Orientation of Applied Science: The History of Range Science, 1895-1960" (Ph.D. diss., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1992). On agriculture, see Barbara Kimmelman, "A Progressive Era Discipline: Genetics at American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, 1890-1920" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1987); Deborah Fitzgerald, The Business of Breeding: Hybrid Corn in Illinois, 1890-1940 (Ithaca: Cornell University, 1990); and Kathy Cooke, "From Science to Practice, or Practice to Science? Chickens and Eggs in Raymond Pearl's Agricultural Breeding Research, 1907-1916," Isis, 88: 1 (March 1997), 62-86.
9. Historians of entomology, range management, and especially agriculture have followed suit more recently. On entomology, see Paulo Palladino, Entomology, Ecology, and Agriculture: The Making of Scientific Careers in North America, 1885-1985 (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1996); and Richard Sawyer, To Make a Spotless Orange: Biological Control in California (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1996). For an excellent study with an unprecedented approach to the way "pure" and "applied" science was practiced in recognition of different audiences, see Maarten Heyboer, "Grass-counters, Stock-feeders, and the Dual Orientation of Applied Science: The History of Range Science, 1895-1960" (Ph.D. diss., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1992). On agriculture, see Barbara Kimmelman, "A Progressive Era Discipline: Genetics at American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, 1890-1920" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1987); Deborah Fitzgerald, The Business of Breeding: Hybrid Corn in Illinois, 1890-1940 (Ithaca: Cornell University, 1990); and Kathy Cooke, "From Science to Practice, or Practice to Science? Chickens and Eggs in Raymond Pearl's Agricultural Breeding Research, 1907-1916," Isis, 88: 1 (March 1997), 62-86.
10. Historians of entomology, range management, and especially agriculture have followed suit more recently. On entomology, see Paulo Palladino, Entomology, Ecology, and Agriculture: The Making of Scientific Careers in North America, 1885-1985 (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1996); and Richard Sawyer, To Make a Spotless Orange: Biological Control in California (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1996). For an excellent study with an unprecedented approach to the way "pure" and "applied" science was practiced in recognition of different audiences, see Maarten Heyboer, "Grass-counters, Stock-feeders, and the Dual Orientation of Applied Science: The History of Range Science, 1895-1960" (Ph.D. diss., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1992). On agriculture, see Barbara Kimmelman, "A Progressive Era Discipline: Genetics at American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, 1890-1920" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1987); Deborah Fitzgerald, The Business of Breeding: Hybrid Corn in Illinois, 1890-1940 (Ithaca: Cornell University, 1990); and Kathy Cooke, "From Science to Practice, or Practice to Science? Chickens and Eggs in Raymond Pearl's Agricultural Breeding Research, 1907-1916," Isis, 88: 1 (March 1997), 62-86.
11. Historians of entomology, range management, and especially agriculture have followed suit more recently. On entomology, see Paulo Palladino, Entomology, Ecology, and Agriculture: The Making of Scientific Careers in North America, 1885-1985 (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1996); and Richard Sawyer, To Make a Spotless Orange: Biological Control in California (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1996). For an excellent study with an unprecedented approach to the way "pure" and "applied" science was practiced in recognition of different audiences, see Maarten Heyboer, "Grass-counters, Stock-feeders, and the Dual Orientation of Applied Science: The History of Range Science, 1895-1960" (Ph.D. diss., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1992). On agriculture, see Barbara Kimmelman, "A Progressive Era Discipline: Genetics at American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, 1890-1920" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1987); Deborah Fitzgerald, The Business of Breeding: Hybrid Corn in Illinois, 1890-1940 (Ithaca: Cornell University, 1990); and Kathy Cooke, "From Science to Practice, or Practice to Science? Chickens and Eggs in Raymond Pearl's Agricultural Breeding Research, 1907-1916," Isis, 88: 1 (March 1997), 62-86.
12. This traditional model persists in histories of ecology and resource management for the period beyond the end of World War II and up to the present day. In two bibliographic essays on the history of ecology, historian Frank Egerton explicitly divides his topic along the line now considered ambiguous by so many historians of science and technology. The first essay dealt with "pure ecology" and the second with "applied ecology." See Frank N. Egerton, "The History of Ecology: Achievements and Opportunities, Part One," J. Hist. Biol., 16 (1983), 259-310; and Frank N. Egerton, "The History of Ecology: Achievements and Opportunities, Part Two," J. Hist. Biol., 18 (1985), 103-143.
13. This traditional model persists in histories of ecology and resource management for the period beyond the end of World War II and up to the present day. In two bibliographic essays on the history of ecology, historian Frank Egerton explicitly divides his topic along the line now considered ambiguous by so many historians of science and technology. The first essay dealt with "pure ecology" and the second with "applied ecology." See Frank N. Egerton, "The History of Ecology: Achievements and Opportunities, Part One," J. Hist. Biol., 16 (1983), 259-310; and Frank N. Egerton, "The History of Ecology: Achievements and Opportunities, Part Two," J. Hist. Biol., 18 (1985), 103-143.
14. For Clements, see Ronald C. Tobey, Saving the Prairies: The Life Cycle of the Founding School of American Plant Ecology, 1895-1955 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981); and Robert A. Croker, Pioneer Ecologist: The Life and Work of Victor Ernest Shelford, 1877-1968 (Washington, D.C. Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991), especially chap. 4; and Donald Worster, Nature's Economy: A History of Ecological Ideas, 2d ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). For Shelford, see Croker, Pioneer Ecologist; and Worster, Nature's Economy. For Allee, see Gregg Mitman, The State of Nature: Ecology, Community, and American Social Thought, 1900-1950 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Leopold's status as an ecologist continues to raise questions in the minds of historians of ecology. He was not an ecologist by training and at least on occasion denied the suitability of the label himself. Still, he is generally acknowledged as a significant ecological thinker and deserves examination in this respect. See Susan L. Flader, Thinking Like a Mountain: Aldo Leopold and the Evolution of an Ecological Attitude toward Deer, Wolves, and Forests, 2d ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994); and Curt Meine, Aldo Leopold: His Life and Work (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988).
15. For Clements, see Ronald C. Tobey, Saving the Prairies: The Life Cycle of the Founding School of American Plant Ecology, 1895-1955 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981); and Robert A. Croker, Pioneer Ecologist: The Life and Work of Victor Ernest Shelford, 1877-1968 (Washington, D.C. Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991), especially chap. 4; and Donald Worster, Nature's Economy: A History of Ecological Ideas, 2d ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). For Shelford, see Croker, Pioneer Ecologist; and Worster, Nature's Economy. For Allee, see Gregg Mitman, The State of Nature: Ecology, Community, and American Social Thought, 1900-1950 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Leopold's status as an ecologist continues to raise questions in the minds of historians of ecology. He was not an ecologist by training and at least on occasion denied the suitability of the label himself. Still, he is generally acknowledged as a significant ecological thinker and deserves examination in this respect. See Susan L. Flader, Thinking Like a Mountain: Aldo Leopold and the Evolution of an Ecological Attitude toward Deer, Wolves, and Forests, 2d ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994); and Curt Meine, Aldo Leopold: His Life and Work (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988).
16. For Clements, see Ronald C. Tobey, Saving the Prairies: The Life Cycle of the Founding School of American Plant Ecology, 1895-1955 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981); and Robert A. Croker, Pioneer Ecologist: The Life and Work of Victor Ernest Shelford, 1877-1968 (Washington, D.C. Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991), especially chap. 4; and Donald Worster, Nature's Economy: A History of Ecological Ideas, 2d ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). For Shelford, see Croker, Pioneer Ecologist; and Worster, Nature's Economy. For Allee, see Gregg Mitman, The State of Nature: Ecology, Community, and American Social Thought, 1900-1950 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Leopold's status as an ecologist continues to raise questions in the minds of historians of ecology. He was not an ecologist by training and at least on occasion denied the suitability of the label himself. Still, he is generally acknowledged as a significant ecological thinker and deserves examination in this respect. See Susan L. Flader, Thinking Like a Mountain: Aldo Leopold and the Evolution of an Ecological Attitude toward Deer, Wolves, and Forests, 2d ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994); and Curt Meine, Aldo Leopold: His Life and Work (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988).
17. For Clements, see Ronald C. Tobey, Saving the Prairies: The Life Cycle of the Founding School of American Plant Ecology, 1895-1955 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981); and Robert A. Croker, Pioneer Ecologist: The Life and Work of Victor Ernest Shelford, 1877-1968 (Washington, D.C. Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991), especially chap. 4; and Donald Worster, Nature's Economy: A History of Ecological Ideas, 2d ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). For Shelford, see Croker, Pioneer Ecologist; and Worster, Nature's Economy. For Allee, see Gregg Mitman, The State of Nature: Ecology, Community, and American Social Thought, 1900-1950 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Leopold's status as an ecologist continues to raise questions in the minds of historians of ecology. He was not an ecologist by training and at least on occasion denied the suitability of the label himself. Still, he is generally acknowledged as a significant ecological thinker and deserves examination in this respect. See Susan L. Flader, Thinking Like a Mountain: Aldo Leopold and the Evolution of an Ecological Attitude toward Deer, Wolves, and Forests, 2d ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994); and Curt Meine, Aldo Leopold: His Life and Work (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988).
18. For Clements, see Ronald C. Tobey, Saving the Prairies: The Life Cycle of the Founding School of American Plant Ecology, 1895-1955 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981); and Robert A. Croker, Pioneer Ecologist: The Life and Work of Victor Ernest Shelford, 1877-1968 (Washington, D.C. Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991), especially chap. 4; and Donald Worster, Nature's Economy: A History of Ecological Ideas, 2d ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). For Shelford, see Croker, Pioneer Ecologist; and Worster, Nature's Economy. For Allee, see Gregg Mitman, The State of Nature: Ecology, Community, and American Social Thought, 1900-1950 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Leopold's status as an ecologist continues to raise questions in the minds of historians of ecology. He was not an ecologist by training and at least on occasion denied the suitability of the label himself. Still, he is generally acknowledged as a significant ecological thinker and deserves examination in this respect. See Susan L. Flader, Thinking Like a Mountain: Aldo Leopold and the Evolution of an Ecological Attitude toward Deer, Wolves, and Forests, 2d ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994); and Curt Meine, Aldo Leopold: His Life and Work (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988).
19. For Clements, see Ronald C. Tobey, Saving the Prairies: The Life Cycle of the Founding School of American Plant Ecology, 1895-1955 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981); and Robert A. Croker, Pioneer Ecologist: The Life and Work of Victor Ernest Shelford, 1877-1968 (Washington, D.C. Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991), especially chap. 4; and Donald Worster, Nature's Economy: A History of Ecological Ideas, 2d ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). For Shelford, see Croker, Pioneer Ecologist; and Worster, Nature's Economy. For Allee, see Gregg Mitman, The State of Nature: Ecology, Community, and American Social Thought, 1900-1950 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Leopold's status as an ecologist continues to raise questions in the minds of historians of ecology. He was not an ecologist by training and at least on occasion denied the suitability of the label himself. Still, he is generally acknowledged as a significant ecological thinker and deserves examination in this respect. See Susan L. Flader, Thinking Like a Mountain: Aldo Leopold and the Evolution of an Ecological Attitude toward Deer, Wolves, and Forests, 2d ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994); and Curt Meine, Aldo Leopold: His Life and Work (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988).
20. For Clements, see Ronald C. Tobey, Saving the Prairies: The Life Cycle of the Founding School of American Plant Ecology, 1895-1955 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981); and Robert A. Croker, Pioneer Ecologist: The Life and Work of Victor Ernest Shelford, 1877-1968 (Washington, D.C. Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991), especially chap. 4; and Donald Worster, Nature's Economy: A History of Ecological Ideas, 2d ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). For Shelford, see Croker, Pioneer Ecologist; and Worster, Nature's Economy. For Allee, see Gregg Mitman, The State of Nature: Ecology, Community, and American Social Thought, 1900-1950 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Leopold's status as an ecologist continues to raise questions in the minds of historians of ecology. He was not an ecologist by training and at least on occasion denied the suitability of the label himself. Still, he is generally acknowledged as a significant ecological thinker and deserves examination in this respect. See Susan L. Flader, Thinking Like a Mountain: Aldo Leopold and the Evolution of an Ecological Attitude toward Deer, Wolves, and Forests, 2d ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994); and Curt Meine, Aldo Leopold: His Life and Work (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988).
21. For Clements, see Ronald C. Tobey, Saving the Prairies: The Life Cycle of the Founding School of American Plant Ecology, 1895-1955 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981); and Robert A. Croker, Pioneer Ecologist: The Life and Work of Victor Ernest Shelford, 1877-1968 (Washington, D.C. Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991), especially chap. 4; and Donald Worster, Nature's Economy: A History of Ecological Ideas, 2d ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). For Shelford, see Croker, Pioneer Ecologist; and Worster, Nature's Economy. For Allee, see Gregg Mitman, The State of Nature: Ecology, Community, and American Social Thought, 1900-1950 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Leopold's status as an ecologist continues to raise questions in the minds of historians of ecology. He was not an ecologist by training and at least on occasion denied the suitability of the label himself. Still, he is generally acknowledged as a significant ecological thinker and deserves examination in this respect. See Susan L. Flader, Thinking Like a Mountain: Aldo Leopold and the Evolution of an Ecological Attitude toward Deer, Wolves, and Forests, 2d ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994); and Curt Meine, Aldo Leopold: His Life and Work (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988).
22. For forestry, see Nancy Langston, Forest Dreams, Forest Nightmares: The Paradox of Old Growth in the Inland West (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995). For wildlife management, see Thomas R. Dunlap, Saving America's Wildlife: Ecology and the American Mind, 1850-1990 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988). For fisheries management, see Arthur F. McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problem: Ecology and Law in the History of California's Fisheries, 1850-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); Tim D. Smith, Scaling Fisheries: The Science of Measuring the Effects of Fishing, 1855-1955 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); and Richard White, The Organic Machine: The Remaking of the Columbia River (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995).
23. For forestry, see Nancy Langston, Forest Dreams, Forest Nightmares: The Paradox of Old Growth in the Inland West (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995). For wildlife management, see Thomas R. Dunlap, Saving America's Wildlife: Ecology and the American Mind, 1850-1990 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988). For fisheries management, see Arthur F. McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problem: Ecology and Law in the History of California's Fisheries, 1850-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); Tim D. Smith, Scaling Fisheries: The Science of Measuring the Effects of Fishing, 1855-1955 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); and Richard White, The Organic Machine: The Remaking of the Columbia River (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995).
24. For forestry, see Nancy Langston, Forest Dreams, Forest Nightmares: The Paradox of Old Growth in the Inland West (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995). For wildlife management, see Thomas R. Dunlap, Saving America's Wildlife: Ecology and the American Mind, 1850-1990 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988). For fisheries management, see Arthur F. McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problem: Ecology and Law in the History of California's Fisheries, 1850-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); Tim D. Smith, Scaling Fisheries: The Science of Measuring the Effects of Fishing, 1855-1955 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); and Richard White, The Organic Machine: The Remaking of the Columbia River (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995).
25. For forestry, see Nancy Langston, Forest Dreams, Forest Nightmares: The Paradox of Old Growth in the Inland West (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995). For wildlife management, see Thomas R. Dunlap, Saving America's Wildlife: Ecology and the American Mind, 1850-1990 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988). For fisheries management, see Arthur F. McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problem: Ecology and Law in the History of California's Fisheries, 1850-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); Tim D. Smith, Scaling Fisheries: The Science of Measuring the Effects of Fishing, 1855-1955 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); and Richard White, The Organic Machine: The Remaking of the Columbia River (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995).
26. For forestry, see Nancy Langston, Forest Dreams, Forest Nightmares: The Paradox of Old Growth in the Inland West (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995). For wildlife management, see Thomas R. Dunlap, Saving America's Wildlife: Ecology and the American Mind, 1850-1990 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988). For fisheries management, see Arthur F. McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problem: Ecology and Law in the History of California's Fisheries, 1850-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); Tim D. Smith, Scaling Fisheries: The Science of Measuring the Effects of Fishing, 1855-1955 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); and Richard White, The Organic Machine: The Remaking of the Columbia River (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995).
27. Sharon E. Kingsland, Modeling Nature: Episodes in the History of Population Ecology, 2d ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 6.
28. Kingsland describes Pearl as "captivated by the experimental approach," and by a "positivistic approach" based on the work of Karl Pearson. Ibid., 56-83.
29. Ibid., 106-109.
30. See, for example, Raymond Pearl and Lowell J. Reed, "On the Rate of Growth of the Population of the United States since 1790 and Its Mathematical Representation," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 6: 6 (June 15, 1920), 275-288; and Raymond Pearl, The Biology of Populations (New York: Knopf, 1925), 24, 35, 40, 65, 70.
31. See, for example, Raymond Pearl and Lowell J. Reed, "On the Rate of Growth of the Population of the United States since 1790 and Its Mathematical Representation," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 6: 6 (June 15, 1920), 275-288; and Raymond Pearl, The Biology of Populations (New York: Knopf, 1925), 24, 35, 40, 65, 70.
32. See also Alfred J. Lotka, Elements of Physical Biology (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1925), 64-71 ; Raymond Pearl, "The Growth of Populations," Quart. Rev. Biol., 2: 4 (December 1927), 532-548; G. F. Gause, "Ecology of Populations," Quart. Rev. Biol., 7: 1 (March 1932), 27-46; and G. F. Gause, The Struggle for Existence (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1934), 35, 37, 38.
33. See also Alfred J. Lotka, Elements of Physical Biology (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1925), 64-71 ; Raymond Pearl, "The Growth of Populations," Quart. Rev. Biol., 2: 4 (December 1927), 532-548; G. F. Gause, "Ecology of Populations," Quart. Rev. Biol., 7: 1 (March 1932), 27-46; and G. F. Gause, The Struggle for Existence (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1934), 35, 37, 38.
34. See also Alfred J. Lotka, Elements of Physical Biology (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1925), 64-71 ; Raymond Pearl, "The Growth of Populations," Quart. Rev. Biol., 2: 4 (December 1927), 532-548; G. F. Gause, "Ecology of Populations," Quart. Rev. Biol., 7: 1 (March 1932), 27-46; and G. F. Gause, The Struggle for Existence (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1934), 35, 37, 38.
35. See also Alfred J. Lotka, Elements of Physical Biology (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1925), 64-71 ; Raymond Pearl, "The Growth of Populations," Quart. Rev. Biol., 2: 4 (December 1927), 532-548; G. F. Gause, "Ecology of Populations," Quart. Rev. Biol., 7: 1 (March 1932), 27-46; and G. F. Gause, The Struggle for Existence (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1934), 35, 37, 38.
36. A slightly earlier reference to carrying capacity that associates some theoretical work with field practice comes in a textbook coauthored by Allee, which refers to the work of Paul Errington. This reference addresses the concept of carrying capacity with research on predation. An examination of predator-prey relations (an area of intensive practical and theoretical research in the 1930s) lies beyond the scope of this paper. However, in preliminary investigations I have found that practical work preceded theoretical work, and this was followed by a fruitful integration of practice and theory that undermines the primacy of theoretical contributions. Errington, after all, worked in the practical tradition of Aldo Leopold and Herbert L. Stoddard. See W. C. Allee, Alfred E. Emerson, Orlando Park, Thomas Parkm Karl P. Schmidt, Principles of Animal Ecology (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1949), 368-377.
37. An extensive search of ecological texts and literature has uncovered no earlier connections. Eugene P. Odum, Fundamentals of Ecology (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1953), 122.
38. The history of the logistic curve has already been admirably described by Sharon Kingsland. That history does not consider the practical component of such concepts as carrying capacity, and justifiably, since the theoretical population biologists studied by Kingsland never considered the connection of their work to the practical considerations of range managers and wildlife biologists. Kingsland, Modeling Nature (above, n. 7).
39. H. L. Bentley was the first to use the term explicitly in a USDA publication. No earlier uses have been found. H. L. Bentley, "Cattle Ranges of the Southwest: A History of the Exhaustion of the Pasturage and Suggestions for Its Restoration," USDA, Farmers' Bulletin No. 72 (1898), 7. The depletion of rangeland by cattle took place somewhat earlier in certain areas of the West, and often cattle were replaced by sheep in those situations. The present account, however, is primarily concerned with the response of the USDA, which came in the late 1890s.
40. On the early days of plant ecology and the community of botanists, see Eugene Cittadino, "Ecology and the Professionalization of Botany in America, 1890-1905," Stud. Hist. Biol., 4 (1980), 171-198.
41. Heyboer, "Grass-counters" (above, n. 3).
42. While the most widely celebrated example of this situation took place on the Kaibab Plateau, it occurred on other preserves throughout the West, including Yellowstone National Park, Gila National Forest in New Mexico, and on several preserves in California. It was on the Kaibab that overpopulation of a game species gave rise to the most prolific and unprecedented studies of wildlife biology, as well as the most intensive efforts toward game management. An anonymous reviewer of this article suggested that examining the history of the Jackson Hole elk might provide even earlier insight into the use of carrying capacity in game management. Actually, the Jackson Hole elk are famous for competing with livestock for food on their winter range and to this day often need to be fed hay in order that some might survive. The elk on the northern end of Yellowstone National Park suffered a period of overpopulation and starvation, which resulted in scientific study. These studies paralleled those on the Kaibab in the 1920s and 1930s but did not precede them. Alston Chase, Playing God in Yellowstone: The Destruction of America's First National Park (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1986), 14-91; George M. Wright and Ben H. Thompson, Fauna of the National Parks of the United States, Fauna Series No. 2 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1935), 75-87.
43. While the most widely celebrated example of this situation took place on the Kaibab Plateau, it occurred on other preserves throughout the West, including Yellowstone National Park, Gila National Forest in New Mexico, and on several preserves in California. It was on the Kaibab that overpopulation of a game species gave rise to the most prolific and unprecedented studies of wildlife biology, as well as the most intensive efforts toward game management. An anonymous reviewer of this article suggested that examining the history of the Jackson Hole elk might provide even earlier insight into the use of carrying capacity in game management. Actually, the Jackson Hole elk are famous for competing with livestock for food on their winter range and to this day often need to be fed hay in order that some might survive. The elk on the northern end of Yellowstone National Park suffered a period of overpopulation and starvation, which resulted in scientific study. These studies paralleled those on the Kaibab in the 1920s and 1930s but did not precede them. Alston Chase, Playing God in Yellowstone: The Destruction of America's First National Park (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1986), 14-91; George M. Wright and Ben H. Thompson, Fauna of the National Parks of the United States, Fauna Series No. 2 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1935), 75-87.
44. In many cases, these preserves came to be seen as natural laboratories, for good reason as the case of the Kaibab deer well illustrates. For an extended discussion of this thesis, see Gregg Mitman, "When Nature Is the Zoo: Vision and Power in the Art and Science of Natural History," Osiris, 11 (1996), 117-143.
45. The history of the Kaibab deer has been described by historians but so far has not received a thorough examination considering scientific, political, and social issues in concert with environmental factors. For examples of the history of the Kaibab deer, see Robert P. McIntosh, The Background of Ecology: Concept and Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 168; Joel B. Hagen, An Entangled Bank: The Origins of Ecosystem Ecology (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1992), 57; Thomas R. Dunlap, "That Kaibab Myth," J. For. Hist., 32: 2 (April 1988), 60-68; Dunlap, Saving America's Wildlife (above, n. 6), 65-70, 90-91; and Worster, Nature's Economy (above, n. 5), 270-273.
46. The history of the Kaibab deer has been described by historians but so far has not received a thorough examination considering scientific, political, and social issues in concert with environmental factors. For examples of the history of the Kaibab deer, see Robert P. McIntosh, The Background of Ecology: Concept and Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 168; Joel B. Hagen, An Entangled Bank: The Origins of Ecosystem Ecology (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1992), 57; Thomas R. Dunlap, "That Kaibab Myth," J. For. Hist., 32: 2 (April 1988), 60-68; Dunlap, Saving America's Wildlife (above, n. 6), 65-70, 90-91; and Worster, Nature's Economy (above, n. 5), 270-273.
47. The history of the Kaibab deer has been described by historians but so far has not received a thorough examination considering scientific, political, and social issues in concert with environmental factors. For examples of the history of the Kaibab deer, see Robert P. McIntosh, The Background of Ecology: Concept and Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 168; Joel B. Hagen, An Entangled Bank: The Origins of Ecosystem Ecology (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1992), 57; Thomas R. Dunlap, "That Kaibab Myth," J. For. Hist., 32: 2 (April 1988), 60-68; Dunlap, Saving America's Wildlife (above, n. 6), 65-70, 90-91; and Worster, Nature's Economy (above, n. 5), 270-273.
48. The history of the Kaibab deer has been described by historians but so far has not received a thorough examination considering scientific, political, and social issues in concert with environmental factors. For examples of the history of the Kaibab deer, see Robert P. McIntosh, The Background of Ecology: Concept and Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 168; Joel B. Hagen, An Entangled Bank: The Origins of Ecosystem Ecology (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1992), 57; Thomas R. Dunlap, "That Kaibab Myth," J. For. Hist., 32: 2 (April 1988), 60-68; Dunlap, Saving America's Wildlife (above, n. 6), 65-70, 90-91; and Worster, Nature's Economy (above, n. 5), 270-273.
49. The history of the Kaibab deer has been described by historians but so far has not received a thorough examination considering scientific, political, and social issues in concert with environmental factors. For examples of the history of the Kaibab deer, see Robert P. McIntosh, The Background of Ecology: Concept and Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 168; Joel B. Hagen, An Entangled Bank: The Origins of Ecosystem Ecology (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1992), 57; Thomas R. Dunlap, "That Kaibab Myth," J. For. Hist., 32: 2 (April 1988), 60-68; Dunlap, Saving America's Wildlife (above, n. 6), 65-70, 90-91; and Worster, Nature's Economy (above, n. 5), 270-273.
50. For example, see Allee et al., Principles of Animal Ecology (above, n. 12); Odum, Fundamentals of Ecology (above, n. 13); George Gaylord Simpson, Colin S. Pittendrigh, and Lewis H. Tiffany, Life: An Introduction to Biology (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1957); Jeffrey J. W. Baker, and Garland E. Allen, The Study of Biology (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1967); and Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac: With Essays on Conservation from Round River (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1949). The Kaibab case has most recently been called a "hallmark" in the indoctrination of several generations of wildlife professionals. H. Brian Underwood and William F. Porter, "Reconsidering Paradigms of Overpopulation in Ungulates: White-Tailed Deer at Saratoga National Historical Park," in The Science of Overabundance: Deer Ecology and Population Management, ed. William J. McShea, H. Brian Underwood, and John H. Rappole (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1997), 185.
51. For example, see Allee et al., Principles of Animal Ecology (above, n. 12); Odum, Fundamentals of Ecology (above, n. 13); George Gaylord Simpson, Colin S. Pittendrigh, and Lewis H. Tiffany, Life: An Introduction to Biology (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1957); Jeffrey J. W. Baker, and Garland E. Allen, The Study of Biology (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1967); and Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac: With Essays on Conservation from Round River (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1949). The Kaibab case has most recently been called a "hallmark" in the indoctrination of several generations of wildlife professionals. H. Brian Underwood and William F. Porter, "Reconsidering Paradigms of Overpopulation in Ungulates: White-Tailed Deer at Saratoga National Historical Park," in The Science of Overabundance: Deer Ecology and Population Management, ed. William J. McShea, H. Brian Underwood, and John H. Rappole (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1997), 185.
52. For example, see Allee et al., Principles of Animal Ecology (above, n. 12); Odum, Fundamentals of Ecology (above, n. 13); George Gaylord Simpson, Colin S. Pittendrigh, and Lewis H. Tiffany, Life: An Introduction to Biology (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1957); Jeffrey J. W. Baker, and Garland E. Allen, The Study of Biology (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1967); and Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac: With Essays on Conservation from Round River (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1949). The Kaibab case has most recently been called a "hallmark" in the indoctrination of several generations of wildlife professionals. H. Brian Underwood and William F. Porter, "Reconsidering Paradigms of Overpopulation in Ungulates: White-Tailed Deer at Saratoga National Historical Park," in The Science of Overabundance: Deer Ecology and Population Management, ed. William J. McShea, H. Brian Underwood, and John H. Rappole (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1997), 185.
53. For example, see Allee et al., Principles of Animal Ecology (above, n. 12); Odum, Fundamentals of Ecology (above, n. 13); George Gaylord Simpson, Colin S. Pittendrigh, and Lewis H. Tiffany, Life: An Introduction to Biology (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1957); Jeffrey J. W. Baker, and Garland E. Allen, The Study of Biology (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1967); and Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac: With Essays on Conservation from Round River (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1949). The Kaibab case has most recently been called a "hallmark" in the indoctrination of several generations of wildlife professionals. H. Brian Underwood and William F. Porter, "Reconsidering Paradigms of Overpopulation in Ungulates: White-Tailed Deer at Saratoga National Historical Park," in The Science of Overabundance: Deer Ecology and Population Management, ed. William J. McShea, H. Brian Underwood, and John H. Rappole (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1997), 185.
54. For example, see Allee et al., Principles of Animal Ecology (above, n. 12); Odum, Fundamentals of Ecology (above, n. 13); George Gaylord Simpson, Colin S. Pittendrigh, and Lewis H. Tiffany, Life: An Introduction to Biology (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1957); Jeffrey J. W. Baker, and Garland E. Allen, The Study of Biology (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1967); and Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac: With Essays on Conservation from Round River (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1949). The Kaibab case has most recently been called a "hallmark" in the indoctrination of several generations of wildlife professionals. H. Brian Underwood and William F. Porter, "Reconsidering Paradigms of Overpopulation in Ungulates: White-Tailed Deer at Saratoga National Historical Park," in The Science of Overabundance: Deer Ecology and Population Management, ed. William J. McShea, H. Brian Underwood, and John H. Rappole (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1997), 185.
55. For example, see Allee et al., Principles of Animal Ecology (above, n. 12); Odum, Fundamentals of Ecology (above, n. 13); George Gaylord Simpson, Colin S. Pittendrigh, and Lewis H. Tiffany, Life: An Introduction to Biology (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1957); Jeffrey J. W. Baker, and Garland E. Allen, The Study of Biology (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1967); and Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac: With Essays on Conservation from Round River (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1949). The Kaibab case has most recently been called a "hallmark" in the indoctrination of several generations of wildlife professionals. H. Brian Underwood and William F. Porter, "Reconsidering Paradigms of Overpopulation in Ungulates: White-Tailed Deer at Saratoga National Historical Park," in The Science of Overabundance: Deer Ecology and Population Management, ed. William J. McShea, H. Brian Underwood, and John H. Rappole (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1997), 185.
56. The need for "expert" advice and "expert" study was expressed throughout correspondence relating to the Kaibab deer. More often than not in this period, references to experts were references to Goldman. Goldman had extensive field experience with wildlife, having been employed by the BBS since about 1890.
57. Edward A. Goldman and S. B. Locke, "Report on the Summer and Fall Deer Range Examination: Memorandum Regarding Grand Canyon National Game Preserve," October 19, 1922, W-Management, Kaibab, Mammals, Game and Refuge Inspection, Box 3, files at Kaibab National Forest headquarters, Williams, Arizona (hereafter KNF), 1.
58. Ibid., 6.
59. The use of "carrying capacity" here marked the first time this concept was noted in relation to the Kaibab deer. It was also one of the earliest references to carrying capacity in relation to wildlife issues anywhere.
60. An example of attitudes toward the Kaibab deer had already been expressed in a series of articles published in one of the leading popular magazines of the time. Emerson Hough, "The President's Forest," Saturday Evening Post, January 14, and January 21, 1922.
61. Goldman and Locke, "Report" (above, n. 23), 21-22.
62. Ibid., 30.
63. Ibid., 22.
64. Hough's Saturday Evening Post articles expressed his desire to protect the deer as part of a unified management effort.
65. Examples of Evarts's articles in a publication of the Izaak Walton League of America, included descriptions of the plight of the Jackson Hole elk. See "The Final Rally," Outdoor Amer., 3: 5 (December 1924), 8-12, 42-43; and "Allies Now - The $ and Sentiment," Outdoor Amer., 3: 7 (February 1925), 5-6, 59.
66. Examples of Evarts's articles in a publication of the Izaak Walton League of America, included descriptions of the plight of the Jackson Hole elk. See "The Final Rally," Outdoor Amer., 3: 5 (December 1924), 8-12, 42-43; and "Allies Now - The $ and Sentiment," Outdoor Amer., 3: 7 (February 1925), 5-6, 59.
67. Evarts was sought after by the secretary of agriculture in 1924, when the special investigating committee was convened. Hal G. Evarts, "Report on the Kaibab Deer Herds," July 26, 1924, Kaibab Deer Herd, Committee Members, 1924-1928, R-3, Box 19, RG 95, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereafter NA).
68. Henry C. Wallace to John B. Burnham, February 1, 1924, Kaibab Deer Herd, Committee Members, Special Investigation, Box 17, RG 95, NA. Identical letters sent to other members of the committee.
69. John B. Burnham et al., October 1, 1924, "Report of the Kaibab Deer Investigating Committee," Rachford Compilation, KNF, 5.
70. Ibid., 5.
71. Ibid., 12.
72. The letter was marked: "Withdrawn and matter taken up personally with Solicitor." Signed CER [Christopher E. Rachford] E. A. Sherman to R. W. Williams, September 22, 1924, Kaibab Deer Herd, Hunting, 1924-1925, R-3, Box 16, RG 95, NA.
73. James C. Foster, "The Deer of Kaibab: Federal-State Conflict in Arizona," Arizona and the West, 12 (1970), 255-268.
74. On state ownership of wildlife, see James A. Tober, Who Owns the Wildlife? The Political Economy of Conservation in Nineteenth-Century America (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1981), especially 144-151.
75. Hunt, Governor of Arizona, et al. v. United States, 278 US 96 (November 19, 1928), at 100.
76. Ibid., 99.
77. Forest Service, December 17, 1928, "Solution of Kaibab Deer Problem Now Expected," Press Release, Kaibab, Public Hunt (Regional and Misc. Corres.), 1926-1936, R-3, Box 16, RG 95, NA.
78. Ibid., 3.
79. Christopher E. Rachford to District Forester R. H. Rutledge, June 26, 1929, Kaibab Deer Herd (General) 1926-1930, Box 14, RG 95, NA. On Rachford and grazing, see William D. Rowley, U.S. Forest Service Grazing and Rangelands: A History (College Station: Texas A & M University, 1985).
80. Rachford to Rutledge, June 26, 1929, 3, Kaibab Deer Herd (General) 1926-1930, Box 14, RG 95, NA.
81. David Rasmussen, personal communication, Tempe, Arizona, March 21, 1996.
82. D. Irvin Rasmussen, "Biotic Communities of Kaibab Plateau, Arizona," Ecol. Monogr., 3 (1941), 269.
83. These discussions range from textbook accounts to historical accounts, beginning in the 1940s and continuing up to the present. Placing Rasmussen's work in the broader context of studies done on the Kaibab reveals the fact that his work was done at a time when definite conclusions still could not be drawn regarding the factors responsible for the deer problems. Rasmussen was certainly aware of this, but most of those who cite him seem to have lost sight of that fact.
84. R. N. Dunlap, acting secretary of the Bureau of Animal Industry, to A. Larsson, February 20, 1930, Kaibab Deer Herb (General) 1926-1930, Box 14, RG 95, NA.
85. The symposium was held in Ames, Iowa, January 1, 1930. S. B. Locke, "The Study of Big Game Ranges," Ecology, 11 (1930), 770.
86. S. B. Locke, "Wild Life Management," manuscript read at the American National Livestock Association Meeting, Seattle, January 30, 1931, "Utah Miscellaneous," Box 10, 9/25/10, series 3, Aldo Leopold Papers, University of Wisconsin, Madison (hereafter AL).
87. Christopher, E. Rachford to R. H. Rutledge, January 28, 1931, "W, Management, Kaibab, Mammals, Hunting," Box 2, KNF.
88. This report, titled "Principal Points to be Covered in the Biological and Game Management Investigations on the Kaibab National Forest," was dated May 1, 1931, and found in Kaibab Deer Herd, Investigation 1931 - June 1931, R-3, Box 19, RG 95, NA. No author was listed on this copy. A similar report by A. R. Standing and Walter G. Mann titled "Main Points to Be Covered in the Biological and Game Management Research on the Kaibab National Forest," was dated April 1930, and found in "Deer-Mule, 1922-36," Box 1, 9/25/10, AL. Whether this report was prepared in 1930 or 1931 seems less significant than the fact that it was prepared prior to the 1931 Investigating Committee's visit to the Kaibab. The former copy was filed with other materials relating to that trip.
89. T. Gilbert Pearson et al., "Report of Kaibab Investigative Committee," June 25, 1931, Part 3, File 715-04, Jan. 1931-May 1932, Box 278, RG 79, NA.
90. Ibid., 3.
91. Ibid., 5.
92. Ibid., 7.
93. Ibid., 10.
94. Horace M. Albright to R. Y. Stuart, December 2, 1932, Part 4, File 715-04, Box 279, RG 79, NA.
95. Ibid.
96. Several letters illustrate this point: Stuart to Albright, December 13, 1932; Albright to Stuart, December 23, 1932; Stuart to R. H. Rutledge, January 12, 1933; Stuart to Albright, January 13, 1933, all in Part 4, File 715-04, Box 279, RG 79, NA. Also George M. Wright to Albright, January 24, 1933, Albright to Wild-Life Division, University of California, February 2, 1933; Wright to Albright, March 9, 1933, all in Part 4, File 715-04, Box 1023, RG 79, NA.
97. R. Y. Edwards and C. David Fowle, "The Concept of Carrying Capacity," in Transactions of the Twentieth North American Wildlife Conference, ed. James B. Trefethen (Washington, D.C.: Wildlife Management Institute, 1955), 589-602.