Governing Anarchy: A Research Agenda for the Study of Security Communities

Ethics and International Affairs

Volumn 10, Issue , 1996, Pages 63-98

  Adler, Emanuel ^a   Barnett, Michael N ^b  

^a HEBREW UNIVERSITY OF JERUSALEM   (Israel)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0001840496     PISSN: 08926794     EISSN: 17477093     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1747-7093.1996.tb00004.x     Document Type: Article

References (120)

1. Karl Deutsch, Sidney A. Burrell, Robert A. Kann, Maurice Lee, Jr., Martin Lichterman, Raymond E. Lindgren, Francis L. Loewenheim, and Richard W. Van Wagenen, Political Community and the North Atlantic Area (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957).
2. Emanuel Adler, “Europe's New Security Order: A Pluralistic Security Community,” in Beverly Crawford, ed., The Future of European Security (Berkeley: University of California, 1992), 287–326
3. Adler, “Seasons of Peace: Progress in Postwar International Security,” Adler and Crawford, eds., Progress in Postwar International Relations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 133–134
4. Peter Katzenstein, ed., The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996)
5. Patrick Morgan, “Multilateralism and Security: Prospects in Europe,” in John Ruggie, ed., Multilateralism Matters (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 327–364
6. Steve Weber, “Shaping the Postwar Balance of Power: Multilateralism in NATO,” in Multilateralism Matters, 233–292
7. Paul Schroeder, “The New World Order: A Historical Perspective,” Washington Quarterly 17 (1994), 25–43.
8. See Donald J. Puchala, International Politics Today (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1971), 165.
9. Deutsch et al., Political Community, 6.
10. Political Community
11. see also the following works by Deutsch: Nationalism and Social Communication (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1953)
12. Political Community at the International Level: Problems of Measurement and Definition (New York: Doubleday, 1954)
13. Politics and Government (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970)
14. his essays in Philip E. Jacob and James V. Toscano, eds., The Integration of Political Communities (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1964)
15. “Communication Theory and Political Integration,” 46–74
16. “Transaction Flows as Indicators of Political Cohesion,” 75–97
17. “The Price of Integration,” 143–178
18. “Integration and the Social System,” 179–208.
19. Deutsch et al., Political Community, 30–31.
20. Ernst Haas similarly argues that “modern nation-states” can be thought of “as communities whose basic consensus is restricted to agreement on the procedure for maintaining order and settling disputes among groups, for carrying out well-understood functions.” Haas, Beyond the Nation-State (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1964), 39.
21. Norbert Wiener as cited in Karl W. Deutsch, The Nerves of Government (New York: The Free Press, 1966), 77.
22. Deutsch et al., Political Community, 36.
23. This is consistent with Robert Powell's observation that whether states are or are not relative-gains seekers is an effect of the structure. Powell, “Anarchy in International Relations Theory: The Neorealist-Neoliberal Debate,” International Organization 48 (Spring 1994), 337–338.
24. As exemplified in Joseph Nye, Peace in Parts: Integration and Conflict in Regional Organization (Boston: Little, Brown, 1971), there was an emerging sense that self-identified regions might organize their relations to promote their self-interests and a sense of collective interest and even perhaps collective identity.
25. See also Ernst B. Haas, The Uniting of Europe (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1958)
26. Leon Lindberg and Stuart Scheingold, eds., Regional Integration: Theory and Research, special issue of International Organization (Vol. 24, Autumn 1970).
27. Deutsch himself concluded that European integration had effectively stopped by 1958. See his “Integration and Arms Control in the European Political Environment: A Summary Report,” American Political Science Review 60 (June 1966), 354–365.
28. Most accounts of structure in international relations theory are exhaustively material. See, for instance, Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979).
29. We, on the other hand, take a structurationist view of the social world as comprising both material and normative elements. See Anthony Giddens, Constitution of a Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984)
30. William Sewall, “A Theory of Structure: Duality, Agency, and Transformation,” American Journal of Sociology 98 (July 1992), 1–29.
31. The seminal work is, of course, Waltz, Theory of International Politics. Some realists have also stressed the notion that diplomatic prudence may momentarily achieve a truce.
32. See Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations, 4th. ed. (New York: Knopf, 1968). Yet one influential realist, Reinhold Niebuhr, saw the creation of a world community realized through daily practices and actions rather than through discourse and lofty ideals and imagined that it would come into existence when there was mutual loyalty and trust rather than mutual dependence.
33. See Niebuhr, The World Crisis and American Responsibility (New York: Association Press, 1950), 80–86.
34. Stephen Walt, “Commentary: Is There a Logic of the West?” World Policy Journal 11 (Spring 1994), 118.
35. The outstanding works are, respectively, Stephen Krasner, ed., International Regimes (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983)
36. Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977).
37. For example, see Richard N. Rosecrance, “Trading States in a New Concert of Europe,” in Helga Haftendorn and Christian Tuschhoff, eds., America and Europe in an Era of Change (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), 127–146.
38. Hedley Bull, “The Theory of International Politics, 1919–1969,” in Brian Porter, ed., The Aberystwyth Papers: International Politics, 1919–1969 (London: Oxford University Press, 1972), 42–43.
39. Barry Buzan, “From International System to International Society: Structural Realism and Regime Theory Meet the English School,” International Organization 47 (Summer 1993), 327–352.
40. Michael W. Doyle, “Kant, Liberal Legacies, and Foreign Affairs,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 12 (Spring 1983), 205–35 and (Summer 1983), 323–53
41. Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).
42. Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace, 42.
43. See Alex Wendt, “Anarchy Is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics,” International Organization 46 (Spring 1992), 391–425
44. Wendt, “Collective Identity Formation,” 386
45. Emanuel Adler, “Cognitive Evolution: A Dynamic Approach for the Study of International Relations and Their Progress,” in Adler and Crawford, Progress in Postwar International Relations, 43–88
46. Ernst B. Haas, When Knowledge is Power (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990)
47. John Gerard Ruggie, “Territoriality and Beyond: Problematizing Modernity in International Relations,” International Organization 47 (Winter 1993), 161, 174.
48. For overviews see Emanuel Adler, “Seizing the Middle Ground” (unpublished manuscript)
49. Emanuel Adler, “Cognitive Evolution”
50. Alex Wendt, “Collective Identity Formation and the International State,” American Political Science Review 88 (June 1994), 384–396
51. Alex Wendt, “Constructing International Politics,” International Security 20 (Summer 1995), 71–81.
52. The most accessible introduction to a social constructionist view is John Searle's The Construction of Social Reality (New York: Free Press, 1995).
53. On this point see Andrew Linklater, “The Problem of Community in International Relations Theory,” Alternatives 2 (Spring 1990), 135–153
54. Andrew Hurrell, “International Society and the Study of Regimes: A Reflective Approach,” in Volker Rittberger, ed., Regime Theory and International Relations (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), 61–65.
55. For fuller critiques of Deutsch, see Emanuel Adler and Michael Barnett, “Pluralistic Security Communities: Past, Present, Future,” Working Paper on Regional Security, no. 1 (Madison: Global Studies Research Program, University of Wisconsin, 1994)
56. Emanuel Adler and Michael Barnett, “Security Communities in Comparative and Historical Perspective,” paper presented at a conference on “Security Communities in Comparative Perspective,” sponsored by the Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs, New York, December 1–2, 1995.
57. Also see Arend Lijphart, “Karl W. Deutsch and the New Paradigm in International Relations,” in Richard L. Merritt and Bruce M. Russett, eds., From National Development to Global Community: Essays in Honor of Karl W. Deutsch (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1981), 246
58. Donald J. Puchala, “Integration Theory and the Study of International Relations,” in From National Development to Global Community: Essays in Honor of Karl W. Deutsch, 157.
59. Ruggie, “Territoriality,” 172.
60. In recent years, sociologists have generally eschewed the slippery and value-packed concept of communities in favor of “networks.” See, for instance, Barry Wellman, Peter Carrington, and Alan Hall, “Networks as Personal Communities,” in Barry Wellman and S. D. Berkowitz, eds., Social Structures: A Network Approach (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 130–184.
61. Briefly, networks have two basic components: a set of objects, referred to as nodes, positions, or actors, and a set of relations among these objects, variously labeled edges, ties, or links. David Knoke, Political Networks: The Structural Perspective (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
62. Michael Taylor, Community, Anarchy, and Liberty (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 25–33.
63. Charles Taylor, “Interpretation and the Sciences of Man,” in Paul Rabinow and William Sullivan, eds., Interpretative Social Science: A Reader (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), 51.
64. This is consistent with a variety of perspectives and suggests a Gemeinschaft rather than a Gesellschaft conception; the former refers to an organic community involving bonds generated by tradition and culture while the latter sees society as a more contractual arrangement that emerges from self-interested behavior. Ferdinand Tonnies, Community and Association (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955).
65. Max Weber's definition of community borrows from Tonnies and is in many respects consistent with the definition of security community. Weber, Economy and Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), 901–904.
66. See Buzan, “From International System,” for a related treatment of these two concepts of community as it applies to international relations.
67. For related conceptions of communities, see Deutsch et al., Political Community, 3
68. Peter Hamilton, “Editor's Forward,” in Anthony P. Cohen, The Symbolic Construction of Community (New York: Tavistock, 1985), 9
69. R. M. MacIver, Community, A Sociological Study (London: Macmillan Press, 1917)
70. Reinhard Bendix, “Definitions of Community in Western Civilization,” in his Unsettled Affinities (New Brunswick: Transactions Press, 1993), chap. 3, for a discussion of how the concept of community varies from culture to culture.
71. See Marc Howard Ross, Conflict in Cultures (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993).
72. See Martin Hollis, The Cunning of Reason (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 137–141, for a discussion of the distinction between regulative and constitutive norms.
73. Michael Barnett, “Identity and Alliances in the Middle East,” in Peter Katzenstein, ed., The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 400–447.
74. Deutsch confused the matter by suggesting that peaceful change means avoiding “large-scale physical force.” Deutsch et al., Political Community, 5. That states might engage in “small-scale” physical force or periodically threaten the use of force stretches most understandings of a pluralistic security community. Yet he has a point: a dyad within the community might go to war without necessarily leading the researcher to declare the end of the community; after all, murders occur within communities without necessarily defining their end.
75. Political Community, 6.
76. Emanuel Adler, “Imagined (Security) Communities: Cognitive Regions in International Relations,” Working Paper on Political Relations and Institutions (Center for German and European Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 1995). The sociological literature on communities and networks similarly recognizes that communities need not be tied to physical space but rather are dependent on ties and relations.
77. See Wellman, Carrington, and Hall, “Networks as Personal Communities.”
78. For the U.S.-Israeli case, see Barnett, “Identity and Alliances in the Middle East”
79. for the Australian case, see Richard Higgott and Kim Richard Nossal, “Australia as a Liminal State,” paper presented at a conference on “Security Communities in Comparative Perspective,” sponsored by the Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs, New York, December 1–2, 1995.
80. James Rosenau, “Governance, Order, and Change in World Politics,” in James Rosenau and Ernst-Otto Czempiel, Governance Without Government: Order and Change in World Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 4.
81. Thomas Franck, The Power of Legitimacy Among Nations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 196
82. Adler, “Imagined (Security) Communities.”
83. Adler, “Imagined (Security) Communities,” 39.
84. Charles Tilly, “Durable Inequality,” Center for Studies of Social Change, Working Paper Series No. 224 (New York: New School for Social Research), 20.
85. John Gerard Ruggie, “Continuity and Transformation in the World Polity: Toward a Neorealist Synthesis,” World Politics 35 (January 1983), 148.
86. The concept derives from Emile Durkheim, The Division of Labor in Society (New York: Free Press, 1984).
87. Oran Young, International Cooperation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989), 32.
88. See W. Richard Scott, Institutions and Organizations (Thousand Oaks: Sage Press, 1995) for a good overview of the institutions literature.
89. See Richard Burt and Marc Knez, “Kinds of Third-Party Effects on Trust,” Rationality and Society 7 (July 1995), 255–292, for a discussion of organizations and trust.
90. By trust we mean “committing to an exchange before you know how the other person will reciprocate.” Burt and Knez, “Kinds of Third-Party Effects on Trust,” 256.
91. Bull, Anarchical Society, chap. 5.
92. John Hall argues that while “the creation of new social identities by intellectuals-that is, their capacity to link people across space as to form a new community-is necessarily a rare historical phenomenon,” it is one that scholars of international relations need to take seriously. “Ideas and the Social Sciences,” in J. Goldstein and R. Keohane, eds., Ideas and Foreign Policy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993), 51.
93. Similarly, Iver Neumann claims that identity is inextricably linked to a “region-building approach,” where the existence of regions of common identity are preceded by region-builders who imagine spatial and chronological identities and who, by means of discourse, talk and write these regions into existence within a permissive political context. “A Region-Building Approach to Northern Europe,” Review of International Studies 20 (1994), 53–74.
94. See Emanuel Adler, “Seeds of Peaceful Change: The OSCE as a Pluralistic Security Community-Making Institution,”
95. Bruce Russett, “The Role of the United Nations in Developing Norms for Security Cooperation and Regional Security Communities.” Both are papers presented at the conference on “Security Communities in Comparative Perspective” sponsored by the Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs, New York, December 1–2, 1995.
96. Deutsch et al., Political Community, 38.
97. For discussions of national and state identities that build on this definition, see Lowell D. Dittmer and Samuel Kim, “In Search of a Theory of National Identity,” in Kim and Dittmer, eds., China's Quest for National Identity (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993), 1–31
98. Anthony Smith, National Identity (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1991)
99. Wendt, “Collective Identity Formation.”
100. Stephen Krasner, “Sovereignty: An Institutional Perspective,” Comparative Political Studies 21 (April 1988), 83.
101. Also see Stephen Jay Gould, Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History (New York: W. W. Norton, 1989).
102. See Janne E. Nolan, ed., Global Engagement: Cooperation and Security in the 21st Century (Washington: The Brookings Institution, 1994).
103. H. Field Haviland, “Building a Political Community,” International Organization 17 (Summer 1963), 735.
104. Michael N. Barnett, “Nationalism, Sovereignty, and Regional Order in Arab Politics,” International Organization (Summer 1995) 479–510.
105. This is akin to the concept of complex interdependence, in which there are multiple channels connecting societies and an absence of hierarchy among issues. See Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, Power and Interdependence (Boston: Little, Brown, 1977), 24–25.
106. Neumann, “A Region-Building Approach to Northern Europe.”
107. This is consistent with James Caporaso's concept of “k-groups.” See Caporaso, “International Relations Theory and Multilateralism: The Search for Foundations,” in John Ruggie, ed., Multilateralism Matters, 58–59.
108. Adler and Crawford, Progress in Postwar International Relations.
109. Adler, “Seeds of Peaceful Change.”
110. Karl Schiebe, “Self-Narratives and Adventure,” in Theodore Sabine, ed., Narrative Psychology: The Storied Nature of Human Conduct (New York: Praeger Press, 1986), 131.
111. Also see Donald Polkinghome, Narrative Knowing and the Human Sciences (Albany: SUNY Press, 1986)
112. W. J. T. Mitchell, ed., On Narrative (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980).
113. Ole Weaver, “Security Community in Western Europe,” paper presented at a conference on “Security Communities in Comparative Perspective,” sponsored by the Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs, New York, December 1–2, 1995.
114. See John Ruggie, “Multilateralism: The Anatomy of an Institution,” in Ruggie, Multilateralism Matters, 3–47
115. Thomas Risse-Kappen, Cooperation Among Democracies: Norms, Transnational Relations, and the European Influence on U.S. Foreign Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995).
116. Deutsch et al., Political Community, 34–35.
117. Ruggie, “Territoriality and Beyond.”
118. Van Wagenen, “The Concept of Community and the Future of the United Nations,” International Organization 19 (Summer 1965), 812–827.
119. Adler, “Europe's New Security Order,” 289.
120. Puchala, “Integration Theory and the Study of International Relations,” 151.