Structural pluralism, corporate newspaper structure, and news source perceptions: Another test of the editorial vigor hypothesis

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 75, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 572-592

  Demers, David K ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0001704578     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769909807500311     Document Type: Article

References (118)

1. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (New York: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (New York: Longman, 1988); George A. Donohue, Phillip J. Tichenor, and Clarice N. Olien, "Media Evaluations and Group Power," in The News Media in National and International Conflict, ed. Andrew Arno and Wimal Dissanayake (Boulder: Westview Press, 1984), 203-215; Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness. Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (New York: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky, Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (NY: Pantheon, 1988); David L. Paletz, Peggy Reichert, and Barbara McIntyre, "How the Media Support Local Government Authority," Public Opinion Quarterly 35 (spring 1971): 80-92; Leon Sigal, Reporters and Officials (Lexington, MA: Heath, 1973); David L. Paletz and Robert N. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: Macmillan, 1981); Phillip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice N. Olien, Community Conflict and the Press (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1980); and Gaye Tuchman, Making News (New York: Free Press, 1978).
2. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (New York: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (New York: Longman, 1988); George A. Donohue, Phillip J. Tichenor, and Clarice N. Olien, "Media Evaluations and Group Power," in The News Media in National and International Conflict, ed. Andrew Arno and Wimal Dissanayake (Boulder: Westview Press, 1984), 203-215; Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness. Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (New York: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky, Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (NY: Pantheon, 1988); David L. Paletz, Peggy Reichert, and Barbara McIntyre, "How the Media Support Local Government Authority," Public Opinion Quarterly 35 (spring 1971): 80-92; Leon Sigal, Reporters and Officials (Lexington, MA: Heath, 1973); David L. Paletz and Robert N. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: Macmillan, 1981); Phillip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice N. Olien, Community Conflict and the Press (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1980); and Gaye Tuchman, Making News (New York: Free Press, 1978).
3. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (New York: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (New York: Longman, 1988); George A. Donohue, Phillip J. Tichenor, and Clarice N. Olien, "Media Evaluations and Group Power," in The News Media in National and International Conflict, ed. Andrew Arno and Wimal Dissanayake (Boulder: Westview Press, 1984), 203-215; Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness. Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (New York: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky, Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (NY: Pantheon, 1988); David L. Paletz, Peggy Reichert, and Barbara McIntyre, "How the Media Support Local Government Authority," Public Opinion Quarterly 35 (spring 1971): 80-92; Leon Sigal, Reporters and Officials (Lexington, MA: Heath, 1973); David L. Paletz and Robert N. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: Macmillan, 1981); Phillip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice N. Olien, Community Conflict and the Press (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1980); and Gaye Tuchman, Making News (New York: Free Press, 1978).
4. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (New York: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (New York: Longman, 1988); George A. Donohue, Phillip J. Tichenor, and Clarice N. Olien, "Media Evaluations and Group Power," in The News Media in National and International Conflict, ed. Andrew Arno and Wimal Dissanayake (Boulder: Westview Press, 1984), 203-215; Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness. Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (New York: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky, Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (NY: Pantheon, 1988); David L. Paletz, Peggy Reichert, and Barbara McIntyre, "How the Media Support Local Government Authority," Public Opinion Quarterly 35 (spring 1971): 80-92; Leon Sigal, Reporters and Officials (Lexington, MA: Heath, 1973); David L. Paletz and Robert N. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: Macmillan, 1981); Phillip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice N. Olien, Community Conflict and the Press (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1980); and Gaye Tuchman, Making News (New York: Free Press, 1978).
5. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (New York: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (New York: Longman, 1988); George A. Donohue, Phillip J. Tichenor, and Clarice N. Olien, "Media Evaluations and Group Power," in The News Media in National and International Conflict, ed. Andrew Arno and Wimal Dissanayake (Boulder: Westview Press, 1984), 203-215; Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness. Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (New York: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky, Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (NY: Pantheon, 1988); David L. Paletz, Peggy Reichert, and Barbara McIntyre, "How the Media Support Local Government Authority," Public Opinion Quarterly 35 (spring 1971): 80-92; Leon Sigal, Reporters and Officials (Lexington, MA: Heath, 1973); David L. Paletz and Robert N. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: Macmillan, 1981); Phillip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice N. Olien, Community Conflict and the Press (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1980); and Gaye Tuchman, Making News (New York: Free Press, 1978).
6. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (New York: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (New York: Longman, 1988); George A. Donohue, Phillip J. Tichenor, and Clarice N. Olien, "Media Evaluations and Group Power," in The News Media in National and International Conflict, ed. Andrew Arno and Wimal Dissanayake (Boulder: Westview Press, 1984), 203-215; Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness. Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (New York: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky, Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (NY: Pantheon, 1988); David L. Paletz, Peggy Reichert, and Barbara McIntyre, "How the Media Support Local Government Authority," Public Opinion Quarterly 35 (spring 1971): 80-92; Leon Sigal, Reporters and Officials (Lexington, MA: Heath, 1973); David L. Paletz and Robert N. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: Macmillan, 1981); Phillip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice N. Olien, Community Conflict and the Press (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1980); and Gaye Tuchman, Making News (New York: Free Press, 1978).
7. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (New York: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (New York: Longman, 1988); George A. Donohue, Phillip J. Tichenor, and Clarice N. Olien, "Media Evaluations and Group Power," in The News Media in National and International Conflict, ed. Andrew Arno and Wimal Dissanayake (Boulder: Westview Press, 1984), 203-215; Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness. Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (New York: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky, Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (NY: Pantheon, 1988); David L. Paletz, Peggy Reichert, and Barbara McIntyre, "How the Media Support Local Government Authority," Public Opinion Quarterly 35 (spring 1971): 80-92; Leon Sigal, Reporters and Officials (Lexington, MA: Heath, 1973); David L. Paletz and Robert N. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: Macmillan, 1981); Phillip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice N. Olien, Community Conflict and the Press (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1980); and Gaye Tuchman, Making News (New York: Free Press, 1978).
8. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (New York: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (New York: Longman, 1988); George A. Donohue, Phillip J. Tichenor, and Clarice N. Olien, "Media Evaluations and Group Power," in The News Media in National and International Conflict, ed. Andrew Arno and Wimal Dissanayake (Boulder: Westview Press, 1984), 203-215; Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness. Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (New York: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky, Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (NY: Pantheon, 1988); David L. Paletz, Peggy Reichert, and Barbara McIntyre, "How the Media Support Local Government Authority," Public Opinion Quarterly 35 (spring 1971): 80-92; Leon Sigal, Reporters and Officials (Lexington, MA: Heath, 1973); David L. Paletz and Robert N. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: Macmillan, 1981); Phillip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice N. Olien, Community Conflict and the Press (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1980); and Gaye Tuchman, Making News (New York: Free Press, 1978).
9. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (New York: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (New York: Longman, 1988); George A. Donohue, Phillip J. Tichenor, and Clarice N. Olien, "Media Evaluations and Group Power," in The News Media in National and International Conflict, ed. Andrew Arno and Wimal Dissanayake (Boulder: Westview Press, 1984), 203-215; Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness. Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (New York: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky, Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (NY: Pantheon, 1988); David L. Paletz, Peggy Reichert, and Barbara McIntyre, "How the Media Support Local Government Authority," Public Opinion Quarterly 35 (spring 1971): 80-92; Leon Sigal, Reporters and Officials (Lexington, MA: Heath, 1973); David L. Paletz and Robert N. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: Macmillan, 1981); Phillip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice N. Olien, Community Conflict and the Press (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1980); and Gaye Tuchman, Making News (New York: Free Press, 1978).
10. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (New York: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (New York: Longman, 1988); George A. Donohue, Phillip J. Tichenor, and Clarice N. Olien, "Media Evaluations and Group Power," in The News Media in National and International Conflict, ed. Andrew Arno and Wimal Dissanayake (Boulder: Westview Press, 1984), 203-215; Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness. Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (New York: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky, Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (NY: Pantheon, 1988); David L. Paletz, Peggy Reichert, and Barbara McIntyre, "How the Media Support Local Government Authority," Public Opinion Quarterly 35 (spring 1971): 80-92; Leon Sigal, Reporters and Officials (Lexington, MA: Heath, 1973); David L. Paletz and Robert N. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: Macmillan, 1981); Phillip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice N. Olien, Community Conflict and the Press (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1980); and Gaye Tuchman, Making News (New York: Free Press, 1978).
11. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (New York: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (New York: Longman, 1988); George A. Donohue, Phillip J. Tichenor, and Clarice N. Olien, "Media Evaluations and Group Power," in The News Media in National and International Conflict, ed. Andrew Arno and Wimal Dissanayake (Boulder: Westview Press, 1984), 203-215; Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness. Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (New York: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky, Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (NY: Pantheon, 1988); David L. Paletz, Peggy Reichert, and Barbara McIntyre, "How the Media Support Local Government Authority," Public Opinion Quarterly 35 (spring 1971): 80-92; Leon Sigal, Reporters and Officials (Lexington, MA: Heath, 1973); David L. Paletz and Robert N. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: Macmillan, 1981); Phillip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice N. Olien, Community Conflict and the Press (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1980); and Gaye Tuchman, Making News (New York: Free Press, 1978).
12. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (New York: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (New York: Longman, 1988); George A. Donohue, Phillip J. Tichenor, and Clarice N. Olien, "Media Evaluations and Group Power," in The News Media in National and International Conflict, ed. Andrew Arno and Wimal Dissanayake (Boulder: Westview Press, 1984), 203-215; Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness. Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (New York: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky, Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (NY: Pantheon, 1988); David L. Paletz, Peggy Reichert, and Barbara McIntyre, "How the Media Support Local Government Authority," Public Opinion Quarterly 35 (spring 1971): 80-92; Leon Sigal, Reporters and Officials (Lexington, MA: Heath, 1973); David L. Paletz and Robert N. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: Macmillan, 1981); Phillip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice N. Olien, Community Conflict and the Press (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1980); and Gaye Tuchman, Making News (New York: Free Press, 1978).
13. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (New York: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (New York: Longman, 1988); George A. Donohue, Phillip J. Tichenor, and Clarice N. Olien, "Media Evaluations and Group Power," in The News Media in National and International Conflict, ed. Andrew Arno and Wimal Dissanayake (Boulder: Westview Press, 1984), 203-215; Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness. Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (New York: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky, Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (NY: Pantheon, 1988); David L. Paletz, Peggy Reichert, and Barbara McIntyre, "How the Media Support Local Government Authority," Public Opinion Quarterly 35 (spring 1971): 80-92; Leon Sigal, Reporters and Officials (Lexington, MA: Heath, 1973); David L. Paletz and Robert N. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: Macmillan, 1981); Phillip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice N. Olien, Community Conflict and the Press (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1980); and Gaye Tuchman, Making News (New York: Free Press, 1978).
14. For a more thorough treatment of this criticism, see David Pearce Demers, The Menace of the Corporate Newspaper: Fact or Fiction? (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1996).
15. Corporate newspapers are more profitable because they benefit from economies of scale. For a comprehensive review of studies on this topic and other studies of organizational structure, see Demers, The Menace of the Corporate Newspaper.
16. David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Structure and Emphasis on Profits and Product Quality at U.S. Daily Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring/summer 1991): 15-26; David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure, Profits and Organizational Goals," The Journal of Media Economics 9 (spring 1996): 1-23; David Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Profits Revisited: Was I Wrong?" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Chicago, 28 July to 2 August 1997); and David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure, Editorial Page Vigor, and Social Change," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (winter 1996): 857-77.
17. David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Structure and Emphasis on Profits and Product Quality at U.S. Daily Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring/summer 1991): 15-26; David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure, Profits and Organizational Goals," The Journal of Media Economics 9 (spring 1996): 1-23; David Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Profits Revisited: Was I Wrong?" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Chicago, 28 July to 2 August 1997); and David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure, Editorial Page Vigor, and Social Change," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (winter 1996): 857-77.
18. David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Structure and Emphasis on Profits and Product Quality at U.S. Daily Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring/summer 1991): 15-26; David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure, Profits and Organizational Goals," The Journal of Media Economics 9 (spring 1996): 1-23; David Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Profits Revisited: Was I Wrong?" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Chicago, 28 July to 2 August 1997); and David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure, Editorial Page Vigor, and Social Change," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (winter 1996): 857-77.
19. David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Structure and Emphasis on Profits and Product Quality at U.S. Daily Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring/summer 1991): 15-26; David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure, Profits and Organizational Goals," The Journal of Media Economics 9 (spring 1996): 1-23; David Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Profits Revisited: Was I Wrong?" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Chicago, 28 July to 2 August 1997); and David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure, Editorial Page Vigor, and Social Change," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (winter 1996): 857-77.
20. Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 4th ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); James Fallows, Breaking the News: How the Media Undermine American Democracy (NY: Pantheon Books, 1996); Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); James D. Squires, Read All About It! The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1994); and Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1985).
21. Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 4th ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); James Fallows, Breaking the News: How the Media Undermine American Democracy (NY: Pantheon Books, 1996); Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); James D. Squires, Read All About It! The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1994); and Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1985).
22. Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 4th ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); James Fallows, Breaking the News: How the Media Undermine American Democracy (NY: Pantheon Books, 1996); Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); James D. Squires, Read All About It! The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1994); and Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1985).
23. Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 4th ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); James Fallows, Breaking the News: How the Media Undermine American Democracy (NY: Pantheon Books, 1996); Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); James D. Squires, Read All About It! The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1994); and Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1985).
24. Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 4th ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); James Fallows, Breaking the News: How the Media Undermine American Democracy (NY: Pantheon Books, 1996); Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); James D. Squires, Read All About It! The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1994); and Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1985).
25. Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 4th ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); James Fallows, Breaking the News: How the Media Undermine American Democracy (NY: Pantheon Books, 1996); Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); James D. Squires, Read All About It! The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1994); and Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1985).
26. Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 4th ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); James Fallows, Breaking the News: How the Media Undermine American Democracy (NY: Pantheon Books, 1996); Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); James D. Squires, Read All About It! The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1994); and Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1985).
27. The assumption here is that those in power are more likely to be moved to instituting social change when criticized by other mainstream institutions. A pure structuralist might argue that source awareness is not a necessary factor for social change to occur, but a model that does not incorporate social action has a more difficult time specifying the linkage between organizational structure and social change.
28. The first six items in this list are adapted from Peter M. Blau and Marshall W. Meyer, Bureaucracy in Modern Society, 3d ed. (New York: Random House, 1987), 19-22; Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (New York: The Free Press, 1964); and H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds., From Max Weber (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946). The seventh is taken from Demers, The Menace of the Corporate Newspaper.
29. The first six items in this list are adapted from Peter M. Blau and Marshall W. Meyer, Bureaucracy in Modern Society, 3d ed. (New York: Random House, 1987), 19-22; Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (New York: The Free Press, 1964); and H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds., From Max Weber (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946). The seventh is taken from Demers, The Menace of the Corporate Newspaper.
30. The first six items in this list are adapted from Peter M. Blau and Marshall W. Meyer, Bureaucracy in Modern Society, 3d ed. (New York: Random House, 1987), 19-22; Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (New York: The Free Press, 1964); and H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds., From Max Weber (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946). The seventh is taken from Demers, The Menace of the Corporate Newspaper.
31. The first six items in this list are adapted from Peter M. Blau and Marshall W. Meyer, Bureaucracy in Modern Society, 3d ed. (New York: Random House, 1987), 19-22; Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (New York: The Free Press, 1964); and H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds., From Max Weber (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946). The seventh is taken from Demers, The Menace of the Corporate Newspaper.
32. Max Weber coined the term "ideal type," which is a theoretical rather than empirical concept that is useful for theorizing or discussing theories about social phenomena.
33. A comprehensive review is available in Demers, The Menace of the Corporate Newspaper.
34. Structural pluralism may be defined as the number and variety of groups and organizations in a social system. See Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien, Community Conflict and the Press, 16.
35. Warren Breed, "Mass Communication and Sociocultural Integration," Social Forces 37 (February 1958): 109-116; George A. Donohue, Clarice N. Olien, and Phillip J. Tichenor, "Reporting Conflict by Pluralism, Newspaper Type and Ownership," Journalism Quarterly 62 (autumn 1985): 489-99, 507; Morris Janowitz, The Community Press in an Urban Setting (New York: Free Press, 1952); and Arthur J. Vidich and Joseph Bensman, Small Town in Mass Society (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1968).
36. Warren Breed, "Mass Communication and Sociocultural Integration," Social Forces 37 (February 1958): 109-116; George A. Donohue, Clarice N. Olien, and Phillip J. Tichenor, "Reporting Conflict by Pluralism, Newspaper Type and Ownership," Journalism Quarterly 62 (autumn 1985): 489-99, 507; Morris Janowitz, The Community Press in an Urban Setting (New York: Free Press, 1952); and Arthur J. Vidich and Joseph Bensman, Small Town in Mass Society (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1968).
37. Warren Breed, "Mass Communication and Sociocultural Integration," Social Forces 37 (February 1958): 109-116; George A. Donohue, Clarice N. Olien, and Phillip J. Tichenor, "Reporting Conflict by Pluralism, Newspaper Type and Ownership," Journalism Quarterly 62 (autumn 1985): 489-99, 507; Morris Janowitz, The Community Press in an Urban Setting (New York: Free Press, 1952); and Arthur J. Vidich and Joseph Bensman, Small Town in Mass Society (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1968).
38. Warren Breed, "Mass Communication and Sociocultural Integration," Social Forces 37 (February 1958): 109-116; George A. Donohue, Clarice N. Olien, and Phillip J. Tichenor, "Reporting Conflict by Pluralism, Newspaper Type and Ownership," Journalism Quarterly 62 (autumn 1985): 489-99, 507; Morris Janowitz, The Community Press in an Urban Setting (New York: Free Press, 1952); and Arthur J. Vidich and Joseph Bensman, Small Town in Mass Society (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1968).
39. Wilson has shown that as population increases, heterogeneity increases, partly because the probability that there will be enough people (i.e., critical mass) to form a group that exhibits alternative views increases. Thomas C. Wilson, "Community Population Size and Social Heterogeneity: An Empirical Test," American Journal of Sociology 91 (March 1986): 1154-69.
40. The corporate form of organization is itself a product of a pluralistic environment. See, e.g., David Pearce Demers, Structural Pluralism, Intermedia Competition and the Growth of the Corporate Newspaper in the United States, Journalism Monographs, no. 145 (Columbia, SC: AEJMC, June 1994).
41. See, e.g., Wilson, "Community Population Size and Social Heterogeneity: An Empirical Test."
42. As Donohue, Tichenor, and Olien point out: "Conflict control may include the generation of conflict situations as well as the direct dissipation of tension. This principle is widely recognized in the political realm . . . . Media reporting of a clash between scientific opinion on supersonic transports and governmental policies regarding such technology represents a generating of conflict. From a systems perspective, such reporting is functional for maintenance of the total system. See George A. Donohue, Phillip J. Tichenor, and Clarice N. Olien, "Mass Media Functions, Knowledge and Social Control," Journalism Quarterly 50 (winter 1973): 653-54. Also see Lewis Coser, The functions of Social Conflict (New York: Free Press, 1956) for a discussion how conflict may contribute to social stability.
43. As Donohue, Tichenor, and Olien point out: "Conflict control may include the generation of conflict situations as well as the direct dissipation of tension. This principle is widely recognized in the political realm . . . . Media reporting of a clash between scientific opinion on supersonic transports and governmental policies regarding such technology represents a generating of conflict. From a systems perspective, such reporting is functional for maintenance of the total system. See George A. Donohue, Phillip J. Tichenor, and Clarice N. Olien, "Mass Media Functions, Knowledge and Social Control," Journalism Quarterly 50 (winter 1973): 653-54. Also see Lewis Coser, The functions of Social Conflict (New York: Free Press, 1956) for a discussion how conflict may contribute to social stability.
44. Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure, Editorial Page Vigor, and Social Control."
45. Byron St. Dizier, "Editorial Page Editors and Endorsements: Chain-Owned vs. Independent Newspapers," Newspaper Research Journal 8 (fall 1986): 63-68; Ralph Thrift Jr., "How Chain Ownership Affects Editorial Vigor of Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 54 (summer 1977): 327-31; Daniel B. Wackman, Donald M. Gillmor, Cecilie Gaziano, and Everette E. Dennis, "Chain Newspaper Autonomy as Reflected in Presidential Campaign Endorsements," Journalism Quarterly 52 (autumn 1975): 411-20.
46. Byron St. Dizier, "Editorial Page Editors and Endorsements: Chain-Owned vs. Independent Newspapers," Newspaper Research Journal 8 (fall 1986): 63-68; Ralph Thrift Jr., "How Chain Ownership Affects Editorial Vigor of Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 54 (summer 1977): 327-31; Daniel B. Wackman, Donald M. Gillmor, Cecilie Gaziano, and Everette E. Dennis, "Chain Newspaper Autonomy as Reflected in Presidential Campaign Endorsements," Journalism Quarterly 52 (autumn 1975): 411-20.
47. Byron St. Dizier, "Editorial Page Editors and Endorsements: Chain-Owned vs. Independent Newspapers," Newspaper Research Journal 8 (fall 1986): 63-68; Ralph Thrift Jr., "How Chain Ownership Affects Editorial Vigor of Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 54 (summer 1977): 327-31; Daniel B. Wackman, Donald M. Gillmor, Cecilie Gaziano, and Everette E. Dennis, "Chain Newspaper Autonomy as Reflected in Presidential Campaign Endorsements," Journalism Quarterly 52 (autumn 1975): 411-20.
48. Gerald H. Borstel, "Ownership, Competition and Comment," Journalism Quarterly 33 (spring 1956): 220-22; John C. Busterna and Kathleen A. Hansen, "Presidential Endorsement Patterns by Chain-Owned Papers, 1976-84," Journalism Quarterly 67 (summer 1990): 286-94; Cecilie Gaziano, "Chain Newspaper Homogeneity and Presidential Endorsements, 1972-1980," Journalism Quarterly 66 (winter 1989): 844-45; Loren Ghiglione, The Buying and Selling of America's Newspapers (Indianapolis, IN: R. J. Berg, 1984); Gerald L. Grotta, "Consolidation of Newspapers: What Happens to the Consumer," Journalism Quarterly 48 (summer 1971): 245-50; F. Dennis Hale, "Editorial Diversity and Concentration," in Press Concentration and Monopoly, ed. Robert G. Picard, Maxwell E. McCombs, James P. Winter, and Stephen Lacy (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1988), 161-76; Ronald H. Wagenberg and Walter C. Soderlund, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on Editorial Comment in Canada," Journalism Quarterly 52 (spring 1975): 93-98.
49. Gerald H. Borstel, "Ownership, Competition and Comment," Journalism Quarterly 33 (spring 1956): 220-22; John C. Busterna and Kathleen A. Hansen, "Presidential Endorsement Patterns by Chain-Owned Papers, 1976-84," Journalism Quarterly 67 (summer 1990): 286-94; Cecilie Gaziano, "Chain Newspaper Homogeneity and Presidential Endorsements, 1972-1980," Journalism Quarterly 66 (winter 1989): 844-45; Loren Ghiglione, The Buying and Selling of America's Newspapers (Indianapolis, IN: R. J. Berg, 1984); Gerald L. Grotta, "Consolidation of Newspapers: What Happens to the Consumer," Journalism Quarterly 48 (summer 1971): 245-50; F. Dennis Hale, "Editorial Diversity and Concentration," in Press Concentration and Monopoly, ed. Robert G. Picard, Maxwell E. McCombs, James P. Winter, and Stephen Lacy (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1988), 161-76; Ronald H. Wagenberg and Walter C. Soderlund, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on Editorial Comment in Canada," Journalism Quarterly 52 (spring 1975): 93-98.
50. Gerald H. Borstel, "Ownership, Competition and Comment," Journalism Quarterly 33 (spring 1956): 220-22; John C. Busterna and Kathleen A. Hansen, "Presidential Endorsement Patterns by Chain-Owned Papers, 1976-84," Journalism Quarterly 67 (summer 1990): 286-94; Cecilie Gaziano, "Chain Newspaper Homogeneity and Presidential Endorsements, 1972-1980," Journalism Quarterly 66 (winter 1989): 844-45; Loren Ghiglione, The Buying and Selling of America's Newspapers (Indianapolis, IN: R. J. Berg, 1984); Gerald L. Grotta, "Consolidation of Newspapers: What Happens to the Consumer," Journalism Quarterly 48 (summer 1971): 245-50; F. Dennis Hale, "Editorial Diversity and Concentration," in Press Concentration and Monopoly, ed. Robert G. Picard, Maxwell E. McCombs, James P. Winter, and Stephen Lacy (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1988), 161-76; Ronald H. Wagenberg and Walter C. Soderlund, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on Editorial Comment in Canada," Journalism Quarterly 52 (spring 1975): 93-98.
51. Gerald H. Borstel, "Ownership, Competition and Comment," Journalism Quarterly 33 (spring 1956): 220-22; John C. Busterna and Kathleen A. Hansen, "Presidential Endorsement Patterns by Chain-Owned Papers, 1976-84," Journalism Quarterly 67 (summer 1990): 286-94; Cecilie Gaziano, "Chain Newspaper Homogeneity and Presidential Endorsements, 1972-1980," Journalism Quarterly 66 (winter 1989): 844-45; Loren Ghiglione, The Buying and Selling of America's Newspapers (Indianapolis, IN: R. J. Berg, 1984); Gerald L. Grotta, "Consolidation of Newspapers: What Happens to the Consumer," Journalism Quarterly 48 (summer 1971): 245-50; F. Dennis Hale, "Editorial Diversity and Concentration," in Press Concentration and Monopoly, ed. Robert G. Picard, Maxwell E. McCombs, James P. Winter, and Stephen Lacy (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1988), 161-76; Ronald H. Wagenberg and Walter C. Soderlund, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on Editorial Comment in Canada," Journalism Quarterly 52 (spring 1975): 93-98.
52. Gerald H. Borstel, "Ownership, Competition and Comment," Journalism Quarterly 33 (spring 1956): 220-22; John C. Busterna and Kathleen A. Hansen, "Presidential Endorsement Patterns by Chain-Owned Papers, 1976-84," Journalism Quarterly 67 (summer 1990): 286-94; Cecilie Gaziano, "Chain Newspaper Homogeneity and Presidential Endorsements, 1972-1980," Journalism Quarterly 66 (winter 1989): 844-45; Loren Ghiglione, The Buying and Selling of America's Newspapers (Indianapolis, IN: R. J. Berg, 1984); Gerald L. Grotta, "Consolidation of Newspapers: What Happens to the Consumer," Journalism Quarterly 48 (summer 1971): 245-50; F. Dennis Hale, "Editorial Diversity and Concentration," in Press Concentration and Monopoly, ed. Robert G. Picard, Maxwell E. McCombs, James P. Winter, and Stephen Lacy (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1988), 161-76; Ronald H. Wagenberg and Walter C. Soderlund, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on Editorial Comment in Canada," Journalism Quarterly 52 (spring 1975): 93-98.
53. Gerald H. Borstel, "Ownership, Competition and Comment," Journalism Quarterly 33 (spring 1956): 220-22; John C. Busterna and Kathleen A. Hansen, "Presidential Endorsement Patterns by Chain-Owned Papers, 1976-84," Journalism Quarterly 67 (summer 1990): 286-94; Cecilie Gaziano, "Chain Newspaper Homogeneity and Presidential Endorsements, 1972-1980," Journalism Quarterly 66 (winter 1989): 844-45; Loren Ghiglione, The Buying and Selling of America's Newspapers (Indianapolis, IN: R. J. Berg, 1984); Gerald L. Grotta, "Consolidation of Newspapers: What Happens to the Consumer," Journalism Quarterly 48 (summer 1971): 245-50; F. Dennis Hale, "Editorial Diversity and Concentration," in Press Concentration and Monopoly, ed. Robert G. Picard, Maxwell E. McCombs, James P. Winter, and Stephen Lacy (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1988), 161-76; Ronald H. Wagenberg and Walter C. Soderlund, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on Editorial Comment in Canada," Journalism Quarterly 52 (spring 1975): 93-98.
54. Gerald H. Borstel, "Ownership, Competition and Comment," Journalism Quarterly 33 (spring 1956): 220-22; John C. Busterna and Kathleen A. Hansen, "Presidential Endorsement Patterns by Chain-Owned Papers, 1976-84," Journalism Quarterly 67 (summer 1990): 286-94; Cecilie Gaziano, "Chain Newspaper Homogeneity and Presidential Endorsements, 1972-1980," Journalism Quarterly 66 (winter 1989): 844-45; Loren Ghiglione, The Buying and Selling of America's Newspapers (Indianapolis, IN: R. J. Berg, 1984); Gerald L. Grotta, "Consolidation of Newspapers: What Happens to the Consumer," Journalism Quarterly 48 (summer 1971): 245-50; F. Dennis Hale, "Editorial Diversity and Concentration," in Press Concentration and Monopoly, ed. Robert G. Picard, Maxwell E. McCombs, James P. Winter, and Stephen Lacy (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1988), 161-76; Ronald H. Wagenberg and Walter C. Soderlund, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on Editorial Comment in Canada," Journalism Quarterly 52 (spring 1975): 93-98.
55. Roya Akhavan-Majid and Timothy Boudreau, "Chain Ownership, Organizational Prominence, and Editorial Role Perceptions" (paper delivered at AEJMC annual convention, Atlanta, 1994); Roya Akhavan-Majid, Anita Rife, and Sheila Gopinath, "Chain Ownership and Editorial Independence: A Case Study of Gannett Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring/summer 1991): 59-66; David Bruce Daugherty, "Group-Owned Newspapers vs. Independently Owned Newspapers: An Analysis of the Difference and Similarities" (Ph.D. diss., University of Texas, 1983); Mark Lee Goodman, "Newspaper Ownership and the Weekly Editorial in Illinois" (M.A. thesis, South Dakota State University, 1982); "News and Editorial Independence: A Survey of Group and Independent Editors," American Society of Newspaper Editors, April 1980; Walter I. Romanow and Walter C. Soderlund, "Thomson Newspapers' Acquisition of The Globe and Mail': A Case Study of Content Change," Gazette 41 (1988): 517; Kenneth Rystrom, "The Impact of Newspaper Endorsements," Newspaper Research Journal 4 (winter 1986): 19-28; and G. Cleveland Wilhoit and Dan G. Drew, Editorial Writers on American Daily Newspapers: A 20-Year Portrait, Journalism Monographs, no. 129 (Columbia, SC: AEJMC, October 1991), 31.
56. Roya Akhavan-Majid and Timothy Boudreau, "Chain Ownership, Organizational Prominence, and Editorial Role Perceptions" (paper delivered at AEJMC annual convention, Atlanta, 1994); Roya Akhavan-Majid, Anita Rife, and Sheila Gopinath, "Chain Ownership and Editorial Independence: A Case Study of Gannett Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring/summer 1991): 59-66; David Bruce Daugherty, "Group-Owned Newspapers vs. Independently Owned Newspapers: An Analysis of the Difference and Similarities" (Ph.D. diss., University of Texas, 1983); Mark Lee Goodman, "Newspaper Ownership and the Weekly Editorial in Illinois" (M.A. thesis, South Dakota State University, 1982); "News and Editorial Independence: A Survey of Group and Independent Editors," American Society of Newspaper Editors, April 1980; Walter I. Romanow and Walter C. Soderlund, "Thomson Newspapers' Acquisition of The Globe and Mail': A Case Study of Content Change," Gazette 41 (1988): 517; Kenneth Rystrom, "The Impact of Newspaper Endorsements," Newspaper Research Journal 4 (winter 1986): 19-28; and G. Cleveland Wilhoit and Dan G. Drew, Editorial Writers on American Daily Newspapers: A 20-Year Portrait, Journalism Monographs, no. 129 (Columbia, SC: AEJMC, October 1991), 31.
57. Roya Akhavan-Majid and Timothy Boudreau, "Chain Ownership, Organizational Prominence, and Editorial Role Perceptions" (paper delivered at AEJMC annual convention, Atlanta, 1994); Roya Akhavan-Majid, Anita Rife, and Sheila Gopinath, "Chain Ownership and Editorial Independence: A Case Study of Gannett Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring/summer 1991): 59-66; David Bruce Daugherty, "Group-Owned Newspapers vs. Independently Owned Newspapers: An Analysis of the Difference and Similarities" (Ph.D. diss., University of Texas, 1983); Mark Lee Goodman, "Newspaper Ownership and the Weekly Editorial in Illinois" (M.A. thesis, South Dakota State University, 1982); "News and Editorial Independence: A Survey of Group and Independent Editors," American Society of Newspaper Editors, April 1980; Walter I. Romanow and Walter C. Soderlund, "Thomson Newspapers' Acquisition of The Globe and Mail': A Case Study of Content Change," Gazette 41 (1988): 517; Kenneth Rystrom, "The Impact of Newspaper Endorsements," Newspaper Research Journal 4 (winter 1986): 19-28; and G. Cleveland Wilhoit and Dan G. Drew, Editorial Writers on American Daily Newspapers: A 20-Year Portrait, Journalism Monographs, no. 129 (Columbia, SC: AEJMC, October 1991), 31.
58. Roya Akhavan-Majid and Timothy Boudreau, "Chain Ownership, Organizational Prominence, and Editorial Role Perceptions" (paper delivered at AEJMC annual convention, Atlanta, 1994); Roya Akhavan-Majid, Anita Rife, and Sheila Gopinath, "Chain Ownership and Editorial Independence: A Case Study of Gannett Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring/summer 1991): 59-66; David Bruce Daugherty, "Group-Owned Newspapers vs. Independently Owned Newspapers: An Analysis of the Difference and Similarities" (Ph.D. diss., University of Texas, 1983); Mark Lee Goodman, "Newspaper Ownership and the Weekly Editorial in Illinois" (M.A. thesis, South Dakota State University, 1982); "News and Editorial Independence: A Survey of Group and Independent Editors," American Society of Newspaper Editors, April 1980; Walter I. Romanow and Walter C. Soderlund, "Thomson Newspapers' Acquisition of The Globe and Mail': A Case Study of Content Change," Gazette 41 (1988): 517; Kenneth Rystrom, "The Impact of Newspaper Endorsements," Newspaper Research Journal 4 (winter 1986): 19-28; and G. Cleveland Wilhoit and Dan G. Drew, Editorial Writers on American Daily Newspapers: A 20-Year Portrait, Journalism Monographs, no. 129 (Columbia, SC: AEJMC, October 1991), 31.
59. Roya Akhavan-Majid and Timothy Boudreau, "Chain Ownership, Organizational Prominence, and Editorial Role Perceptions" (paper delivered at AEJMC annual convention, Atlanta, 1994); Roya Akhavan-Majid, Anita Rife, and Sheila Gopinath, "Chain Ownership and Editorial Independence: A Case Study of Gannett Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring/summer 1991): 59-66; David Bruce Daugherty, "Group-Owned Newspapers vs. Independently Owned Newspapers: An Analysis of the Difference and Similarities" (Ph.D. diss., University of Texas, 1983); Mark Lee Goodman, "Newspaper Ownership and the Weekly Editorial in Illinois" (M.A. thesis, South Dakota State University, 1982); "News and Editorial Independence: A Survey of Group and Independent Editors," American Society of Newspaper Editors, April 1980; Walter I. Romanow and Walter C. Soderlund, "Thomson Newspapers' Acquisition of The Globe and Mail': A Case Study of Content Change," Gazette 41 (1988): 517; Kenneth Rystrom, "The Impact of Newspaper Endorsements," Newspaper Research Journal 4 (winter 1986): 19-28; and G. Cleveland Wilhoit and Dan G. Drew, Editorial Writers on American Daily Newspapers: A 20-Year Portrait, Journalism Monographs, no. 129 (Columbia, SC: AEJMC, October 1991), 31.
60. Roya Akhavan-Majid and Timothy Boudreau, "Chain Ownership, Organizational Prominence, and Editorial Role Perceptions" (paper delivered at AEJMC annual convention, Atlanta, 1994); Roya Akhavan-Majid, Anita Rife, and Sheila Gopinath, "Chain Ownership and Editorial Independence: A Case Study of Gannett Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring/summer 1991): 59-66; David Bruce Daugherty, "Group-Owned Newspapers vs. Independently Owned Newspapers: An Analysis of the Difference and Similarities" (Ph.D. diss., University of Texas, 1983); Mark Lee Goodman, "Newspaper Ownership and the Weekly Editorial in Illinois" (M.A. thesis, South Dakota State University, 1982); "News and Editorial Independence: A Survey of Group and Independent Editors," American Society of Newspaper Editors, April 1980; Walter I. Romanow and Walter C. Soderlund, "Thomson Newspapers' Acquisition of The Globe and Mail': A Case Study of Content Change," Gazette 41 (1988): 517; Kenneth Rystrom, "The Impact of Newspaper Endorsements," Newspaper Research Journal 4 (winter 1986): 19-28; and G. Cleveland Wilhoit and Dan G. Drew, Editorial Writers on American Daily Newspapers: A 20-Year Portrait, Journalism Monographs, no. 129 (Columbia, SC: AEJMC, October 1991), 31.
61. Roya Akhavan-Majid and Timothy Boudreau, "Chain Ownership, Organizational Prominence, and Editorial Role Perceptions" (paper delivered at AEJMC annual convention, Atlanta, 1994); Roya Akhavan-Majid, Anita Rife, and Sheila Gopinath, "Chain Ownership and Editorial Independence: A Case Study of Gannett Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring/summer 1991): 59-66; David Bruce Daugherty, "Group-Owned Newspapers vs. Independently Owned Newspapers: An Analysis of the Difference and Similarities" (Ph.D. diss., University of Texas, 1983); Mark Lee Goodman, "Newspaper Ownership and the Weekly Editorial in Illinois" (M.A. thesis, South Dakota State University, 1982); "News and Editorial Independence: A Survey of Group and Independent Editors," American Society of Newspaper Editors, April 1980; Walter I. Romanow and Walter C. Soderlund, "Thomson Newspapers' Acquisition of The Globe and Mail': A Case Study of Content Change," Gazette 41 (1988): 517; Kenneth Rystrom, "The Impact of Newspaper Endorsements," Newspaper Research Journal 4 (winter 1986): 19-28; and G. Cleveland Wilhoit and Dan G. Drew, Editorial Writers on American Daily Newspapers: A 20-Year Portrait, Journalism Monographs, no. 129 (Columbia, SC: AEJMC, October 1991), 31.
62. Roya Akhavan-Majid and Timothy Boudreau, "Chain Ownership, Organizational Prominence, and Editorial Role Perceptions" (paper delivered at AEJMC annual convention, Atlanta, 1994); Roya Akhavan-Majid, Anita Rife, and Sheila Gopinath, "Chain Ownership and Editorial Independence: A Case Study of Gannett Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring/summer 1991): 59-66; David Bruce Daugherty, "Group-Owned Newspapers vs. Independently Owned Newspapers: An Analysis of the Difference and Similarities" (Ph.D. diss., University of Texas, 1983); Mark Lee Goodman, "Newspaper Ownership and the Weekly Editorial in Illinois" (M.A. thesis, South Dakota State University, 1982); "News and Editorial Independence: A Survey of Group and Independent Editors," American Society of Newspaper Editors, April 1980; Walter I. Romanow and Walter C. Soderlund, "Thomson Newspapers' Acquisition of The Globe and Mail': A Case Study of Content Change," Gazette 41 (1988): 517; Kenneth Rystrom, "The Impact of Newspaper Endorsements," Newspaper Research Journal 4 (winter 1986): 19-28; and G. Cleveland Wilhoit and Dan G. Drew, Editorial Writers on American Daily Newspapers: A 20-Year Portrait, Journalism Monographs, no. 129 (Columbia, SC: AEJMC, October 1991), 31.
63. Patrick Parsons, John Finnegan Jr., and William Benham, "Editors and Their Roles," in Press Concentration and Monopoly, ed. Robert G. Picard, Maxwell E. McCombs, James P. Winter, and Stephen Lacy (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1988), 91-104.
64. See Demers, The Menace of the Corporate Newspaper, ch. 4, and Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure, Editorial Page Vigor, and Social Control."
65. See Demers, The Menace of the Corporate Newspaper, ch. 4, and Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure, Editorial Page Vigor, and Social Control."
66. David Demers, "Corporate News Structure and Control of Editorial Content: An Empirical Test of the Managerial Revolution Hypothesis" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Montreal, May 1997).
67. Demers, The Menace of the Corporate Newspaper, ch. 4.
68. David K. Demers, "Corporate News Structure, Social Control and Social Change," in Mass Media, Social Control and Social Change, ed. David K. Demers and K. Viswanath (Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1998).
69. Roya Akhavan-Majid, Anita Rife, and Sheila Gopinath, "Chain Ownership and Editorial Independence: A Case Study of Gannett Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring/summer 1991): 59-66.
70. Demers, The Menace of the Corporate Newspaper, ch. 7 and ch 10.
71. George Gladney, "Newspaper Excellence: How Editors of Small and Large Papers Judge Quality," Newspaper Research Journal 11 (spring 1990): 59-71.
72. Stephen Lacy and James Berstein, "Daily Newspaper's Relationship to Publication Cycle and Newspaper Size," Newspaper Research Journal 9 (spring 1988): 49-58.
73. Stephen Lacy, "Effects of Groups Ownership on Daily Newspaper Content," Journal of Media Economics 4 (spring 1991): 35-47.
74. Roya Akhavan-Majid and Timothy Boudreau, "Chain Ownership, Organizational Size, and Editorial Role Perceptions," Journalism Quarterly 72 (winter 1995): 863-73.
75. See endnote 1.
76. George A. Donohue, Phillip J. Tichenor, and Clarice N. Olien, "A Guard Dog Perspective on the Role of the Media," Journal of Communication 45 (spring 1995): 115-32.
77. For a historical treatment of this transition, see Demers, The Menace of the Corporate Newspaper, ch. 2.
78. See Parsons, Finnegan, and Benham, "Editors and Their Roles," and Demers, The Menace of the Corporate Newspaper, ch. 4.
79. See Parsons, Finnegan, and Benham, "Editors and Their Roles," and Demers, The Menace of the Corporate Newspaper, ch. 4.
80. Talcott Parsons, taking issue with Karl Marx, argued that values play a major role is social control and are highly resistant to change. Marx argued that the economic institutions were more difficult to change - values were, for the most part, epiphenomena.
81. Some media observers also believe the media initiate social movements and social change. But rarely is this the case. The environmental movement is a case in point. Mainstream media ignored for many years the concerns raised by biologists about the effects of DDT. Rather, it was the publication of Rachael Carson's Silent Spring in the early 1960s that played a pivotal role in mobilizing people and resources for the environmental movement. Media coverage came afterward. Nevertheless, the notion that mainstream media can promote social change is supported in Fred J. Cook, The Muckrakers: Crusading Journalists Who Changed America (Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, 1972); David Halberstam, The Children (New York: Random House, 1998); Mark Neuzil and William Kovarik, Mass Media & Environmental Conflict: America's Green Crusades (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996); Elihu Katz and Tamas Szecsko, eds., Mass Media and Social Change (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1981); and David L. Protess, Fay Lomax Cook, Jack C. Doppelt, James S. Ettema, Margaret T. Gordon, Donna R. Leff, and Peter Miller, The Journalism of Outrage: Investigative Reporting and Agenda-Building in America (New York: Guilford Press, 1991).
82. Some media observers also believe the media initiate social movements and social change. But rarely is this the case. The environmental movement is a case in point. Mainstream media ignored for many years the concerns raised by biologists about the effects of DDT. Rather, it was the publication of Rachael Carson's Silent Spring in the early 1960s that played a pivotal role in mobilizing people and resources for the environmental movement. Media coverage came afterward. Nevertheless, the notion that mainstream media can promote social change is supported in Fred J. Cook, The Muckrakers: Crusading Journalists Who Changed America (Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, 1972); David Halberstam, The Children (New York: Random House, 1998); Mark Neuzil and William Kovarik, Mass Media & Environmental Conflict: America's Green Crusades (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996); Elihu Katz and Tamas Szecsko, eds., Mass Media and Social Change (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1981); and David L. Protess, Fay Lomax Cook, Jack C. Doppelt, James S. Ettema, Margaret T. Gordon, Donna R. Leff, and Peter Miller, The Journalism of Outrage: Investigative Reporting and Agenda-Building in America (New York: Guilford Press, 1991).
83. Some media observers also believe the media initiate social movements and social change. But rarely is this the case. The environmental movement is a case in point. Mainstream media ignored for many years the concerns raised by biologists about the effects of DDT. Rather, it was the publication of Rachael Carson's Silent Spring in the early 1960s that played a pivotal role in mobilizing people and resources for the environmental movement. Media coverage came afterward. Nevertheless, the notion that mainstream media can promote social change is supported in Fred J. Cook, The Muckrakers: Crusading Journalists Who Changed America (Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, 1972); David Halberstam, The Children (New York: Random House, 1998); Mark Neuzil and William Kovarik, Mass Media & Environmental Conflict: America's Green Crusades (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996); Elihu Katz and Tamas Szecsko, eds., Mass Media and Social Change (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1981); and David L. Protess, Fay Lomax Cook, Jack C. Doppelt, James S. Ettema, Margaret T. Gordon, Donna R. Leff, and Peter Miller, The Journalism of Outrage: Investigative Reporting and Agenda-Building in America (New York: Guilford Press, 1991).
84. Some media observers also believe the media initiate social movements and social change. But rarely is this the case. The environmental movement is a case in point. Mainstream media ignored for many years the concerns raised by biologists about the effects of DDT. Rather, it was the publication of Rachael Carson's Silent Spring in the early 1960s that played a pivotal role in mobilizing people and resources for the environmental movement. Media coverage came afterward. Nevertheless, the notion that mainstream media can promote social change is supported in Fred J. Cook, The Muckrakers: Crusading Journalists Who Changed America (Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, 1972); David Halberstam, The Children (New York: Random House, 1998); Mark Neuzil and William Kovarik, Mass Media & Environmental Conflict: America's Green Crusades (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996); Elihu Katz and Tamas Szecsko, eds., Mass Media and Social Change (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1981); and David L. Protess, Fay Lomax Cook, Jack C. Doppelt, James S. Ettema, Margaret T. Gordon, Donna R. Leff, and Peter Miller, The Journalism of Outrage: Investigative Reporting and Agenda-Building in America (New York: Guilford Press, 1991).
85. Some media observers also believe the media initiate social movements and social change. But rarely is this the case. The environmental movement is a case in point. Mainstream media ignored for many years the concerns raised by biologists about the effects of DDT. Rather, it was the publication of Rachael Carson's Silent Spring in the early 1960s that played a pivotal role in mobilizing people and resources for the environmental movement. Media coverage came afterward. Nevertheless, the notion that mainstream media can promote social change is supported in Fred J. Cook, The Muckrakers: Crusading Journalists Who Changed America (Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, 1972); David Halberstam, The Children (New York: Random House, 1998); Mark Neuzil and William Kovarik, Mass Media & Environmental Conflict: America's Green Crusades (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996); Elihu Katz and Tamas Szecsko, eds., Mass Media and Social Change (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1981); and David L. Protess, Fay Lomax Cook, Jack C. Doppelt, James S. Ettema, Margaret T. Gordon, Donna R. Leff, and Peter Miller, The Journalism of Outrage: Investigative Reporting and Agenda-Building in America (New York: Guilford Press, 1991).
86. Some media observers also believe the media initiate social movements and social change. But rarely is this the case. The environmental movement is a case in point. Mainstream media ignored for many years the concerns raised by biologists about the effects of DDT. Rather, it was the publication of Rachael Carson's Silent Spring in the early 1960s that played a pivotal role in mobilizing people and resources for the environmental movement. Media coverage came afterward. Nevertheless, the notion that mainstream media can promote social change is supported in Fred J. Cook, The Muckrakers: Crusading Journalists Who Changed America (Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, 1972); David Halberstam, The Children (New York: Random House, 1998); Mark Neuzil and William Kovarik, Mass Media & Environmental Conflict: America's Green Crusades (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996); Elihu Katz and Tamas Szecsko, eds., Mass Media and Social Change (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1981); and David L. Protess, Fay Lomax Cook, Jack C. Doppelt, James S. Ettema, Margaret T. Gordon, Donna R. Leff, and Peter Miller, The Journalism of Outrage: Investigative Reporting and Agenda-Building in America (New York: Guilford Press, 1991).
87. The author of this paper thought the response rate for the police reporter group would have been the lowest because the mailings were not personally addressed. This was not the case.
88. To conduct such an analysis, the findings were aggregated when more than one respondent at a newspaper or in the community responded to the survey. For continuous measures (i.e., ordinal, interval, and ratio level measures) and dichotomous nominal measures, the final value used in the analysis represented the mean of the ratings given. (Note: For dichotomous measures, the proportion is just a special case of the mean when the values are zero and one.) For example, if a police chief and mayor in the same city gave a value of "5" and "3," respectively, to a particular measure, the actual value used in the analysis was "4." In cases where the values for one of the respondents was missing (e.g., failure to answer a question), the values of the other respondent(s) were substituted. No nominal variables containing more than three values were included in this analysis.
89. Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, trans. A. M. Henderson and Talcott Parsons (New York: The Free Press, 1964 [1947]), and H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds., From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946).
90. Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, trans. A. M. Henderson and Talcott Parsons (New York: The Free Press, 1964 [1947]), and H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds., From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946).
91. See, e.g., Blau and Meyer, Bureaucracy in Modern Society.
92. Circulation also is a good indicator of the division of labor and organizational complexity, but it was not used in the index here because it also measures consumer demand.
93. The first two measures were worded as follows: "How many full-time reporters and editors and how many full-time employees are employed at your newspaper? (Please estimate if exact number not known)."
94. "In which of the following beats or areas does your newspaper employ at least one full-time reporter? (Please check all that apply): business, sports, book reviews, arts, real estate, health, national, state, food, home, science, technology, metro, international, lifestyles, travel, fashion, and education."
95. "For a general assignment reporter to become the top editor of the newspaper, how many promotions typically would he or she have to receive? (For example, if a newspaper employs assistant city editors, a city editor, and an editor-in-chief, the total number of promotions needed to become the top editor is three.)"
96. Respondents were asked to rate 22 items in terms of the amount of importance top management places on them. Responses were recorded on a 7-point scale ranging from "not very important" to "extremely important."
97. "Is your newspaper owned by a chain or group, or is it independently owned?" Chain ownership was coded "1"; independent ownership, "0." The value for this measure (67%) was slightly lower than the estimate in Editor & Publisher International "Yearbook (about 80%). The discrepancy may stem from sampling error or measurement error. With respect to the latter, the error could stem from an under-reporting of chain ownership; that is, some publishers and journalists who work for small chains that are family owned do not appear to see their newspapers as chains because that term connotes a large, impersonal organization. In terms of measurement error, this would not appear to pose a major problem, however, since many small chains come closer to matching the characteristics of the entrepreneurial than the corporate model.
98. "Is your newspaper owned privately or can the public through the purchase of stock or other means own part or all of your newspaper?" Public ownership coded "1"; all others "0."
99. "Is your newspaper a sole proprietorship, a partnership or a corporation?" Corporation coded "1"; all others a "0."
100. "Does one individual or family own or control more than a 50 percent interest in your newspaper?" A "no" response was coded "1"; a "yes" was "0."
101. This item was coded from Editor & Publisher International Yearbook.
102. Oblique rotation was used because it was expected that corporate structure is a multidimensional concept whose dimensions are not orthogonal. In other words, it was not expected that the items for division of labor would load on the same factor as the items for rules and procedures; however, these two factors should be positively correlated to some extent. Many researchers also prefer oblique rotation to varimax, especially in exploratory analysis, because if all of the factors identified are orthogonal, the results of the oblique rotation will be very similar to a varimax rotation. A factor loading of .60 was used as a rule of thumb for determining whether a measure should be included with a particular factor, and measures that had two or more loadings greater than .30 and less than .60 were considered problematic. Some of the ownership measures are dichotomous. Although factor analysis technically requires continuous measures, like regression analysis it is a very robust technique and there is no evidence to suggest that the analysis distorted the data. For a discussion of factor analysis, see Jae-On Kim and Charles W. Mueller, Introduction to Factor Analysis (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1978) and Factor Analysis. Statistical Methods and Practical Issues (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1978).
103. Oblique rotation was used because it was expected that corporate structure is a multidimensional concept whose dimensions are not orthogonal. In other words, it was not expected that the items for division of labor would load on the same factor as the items for rules and procedures; however, these two factors should be positively correlated to some extent. Many researchers also prefer oblique rotation to varimax, especially in exploratory analysis, because if all of the factors identified are orthogonal, the results of the oblique rotation will be very similar to a varimax rotation. A factor loading of .60 was used as a rule of thumb for determining whether a measure should be included with a particular factor, and measures that had two or more loadings greater than .30 and less than .60 were considered problematic. Some of the ownership measures are dichotomous. Although factor analysis technically requires continuous measures, like regression analysis it is a very robust technique and there is no evidence to suggest that the analysis distorted the data. For a discussion of factor analysis, see Jae-On Kim and Charles W. Mueller, Introduction to Factor Analysis (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1978) and Factor Analysis. Statistical Methods and Practical Issues (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1978).
104. David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Structure and Emphasis on Profits and Product Quality at U.S. Daily Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring 1991): 15-26. Historically, though, this has not always been the case. Previous research has shown that chain ownership and circulation have been moderately correlated; that is, larger papers are more likely than smaller ones to be part of a chain. See, e.g., John E. Polich, "Predicting Newspaper Staff Size from Circulation: A New Look," Journalism Quarterly 51 (autumn 1974): 515-17. However, chain ownership has become so diffused in the newspaper industry (about 80 percent are now owned by chains) that it no longer appears to be a sensitive measure of corporate complexity in cross-sectional studies. Chain ownership is still a useful measure in longitudinal studies, however, since the variance is being measured over time. See David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Editorial-Page Vigor" (paper presented to the International Communication Association, Albuquerque, May 1995) .
105. David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Structure and Emphasis on Profits and Product Quality at U.S. Daily Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring 1991): 15-26. Historically, though, this has not always been the case. Previous research has shown that chain ownership and circulation have been moderately correlated; that is, larger papers are more likely than smaller ones to be part of a chain. See, e.g., John E. Polich, "Predicting Newspaper Staff Size from Circulation: A New Look," Journalism Quarterly 51 (autumn 1974): 515-17. However, chain ownership has become so diffused in the newspaper industry (about 80 percent are now owned by chains) that it no longer appears to be a sensitive measure of corporate complexity in cross-sectional studies. Chain ownership is still a useful measure in longitudinal studies, however, since the variance is being measured over time. See David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Editorial-Page Vigor" (paper presented to the International Communication Association, Albuquerque, May 1995) .
106. David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Structure and Emphasis on Profits and Product Quality at U.S. Daily Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring 1991): 15-26. Historically, though, this has not always been the case. Previous research has shown that chain ownership and circulation have been moderately correlated; that is, larger papers are more likely than smaller ones to be part of a chain. See, e.g., John E. Polich, "Predicting Newspaper Staff Size from Circulation: A New Look," Journalism Quarterly 51 (autumn 1974): 515-17. However, chain ownership has become so diffused in the newspaper industry (about 80 percent are now owned by chains) that it no longer appears to be a sensitive measure of corporate complexity in cross-sectional studies. Chain ownership is still a useful measure in longitudinal studies, however, since the variance is being measured over time. See David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Editorial-Page Vigor" (paper presented to the International Communication Association, Albuquerque, May 1995) .
107. Roger Mansfield, "Bureaucracy and Centralization: An Examination of Organizational Structure," Administrative Science Quarterly 18 (winter 1973): 477-8 8.
108. See, e.g., Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien, Community Conflict and the Press, or Demers, The Menace of the Corporate Newspaper: Fact or Fiction?
109. See, e.g., Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien, Community Conflict and the Press, or Demers, The Menace of the Corporate Newspaper: Fact or Fiction?
110. See, e.g., Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien, Community Conflict and the Press, or Demers, The Menace of the Corporate Newspaper: Fact or Fiction? Overall, population usually is the single best measure because it is correlated with all these measures.
111. See, e.g., Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien, Community Conflict and the Press, or Demers, The Menace of the Corporate Newspaper: Fact or Fiction? Overall, population usually is the single best measure because it is correlated with all these measures.
112. George E. Hall and Deirdre A. Gaquin, eds., 1997 County and City Extra: Annual Metro, City, and County Data Book (Lanham, MD: Bernan Press, 1997). The column numbers for the six measures are 4, 54, 57, 104, and 107. City population was taken from the Editor & Publisher International Yearbook.
113. The exact question was: "Would you consider the publisher a personal friend? Yes or No?" About 23% of the sources said "yes." Note that this percentage is a mean value, since the responses of the sources are averaged in communities where more than one public official responded.
114. Demers, The Menace of the Corporate Newspaper: Fact or Fiction?
115. The model was also tested for interaction effects (interaction between structural pluralism and structural complexity), but the interaction term was not a significant predictor.
116. Demers, The Menace of the Corporate Newspaper: Fact or Fiction?
117. See, e.g., Protess et al., The Journalism of Outrage.
118. A plethora of research exists on individual effects, but communication researchers have sorely neglected group and social processes. One exception is Protess et al., The Journalism of Outrage.