Toxic marine phytoplankton, zooplankton grazers, and pelagic food webs

Limnology and Oceanography

Volumn 42, Issue 5 II, 1997, Pages 1203-1213

  Turner, Jefferson T ^a   Tester, Patricia A ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS DARTMOUTH   (United States)

^b SOUTHEAST FISHERIES SCIENCE CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

FOOD WEB; INTERSPECIFIC INTERACTION; TOXIC PHYTOPLANKTON; ZOOPLANKTON;

EID: 0001687194     PISSN: 00243590     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.4319/lo.1997.42.5_part_2.1203     Document Type: Article

References (152)

1. ABBOTT, B., AND A. WHITE. 1979. Toxigenesis in dinoflagellates, p. 494-496. In Toxic dinoflagellate blooms: Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. Elsevier.
2. ADAMS, J. A., D. D. SEATON, J. B. BUCHANAN, AND M. R. LONGBOTTOM. 1968. Biological observations associated with the toxic phytoplankton bloom off the east coast. Nature 220: 24-25.
3. ADMIRAAL, W., AND L. A. H. VENEKAMP. 1986. Significance of tintinnid grazing during blooms of Phaeocystis pouchetii (Haptophyceae) in Dutch coastal waters. Neth. J. Sea Res. 20: 61-66.
4. ANDERSON, D. M., AND A. W. WHITE. 1992. Marine biotoxins at the top of the food chain. Oceanus 35(3): 55-61.
5. _, D. M. KULIS, G. J. DOUCETTE, J. C. GALLAGHER, AND E. BALECH. 1994. Biogeography of toxic dinoflagellates in the genus Alexandrium from the northeastern United States and Canada. Mar. Biol. 120: 467-478.
6. _, _, J. J. SULLIVAN, S. HALL, AND C. LEE. 1990. Dynamics and physiology of saxitoxin production by the dinoflagellates Alexandrium spp. Mar. Biol. 104: 511-524.
7. BADEN, D. G., T. J. MENDE, AND R. E. BLOCK. 1979. Two similar toxins isolated from Gymnodinium breve, p. 327-334. In Toxic dinoflagellate blooms: Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. Elsevier.
8. _, AND C. R. TOMAS. 1988. Variations in major toxin composition for six clones of Ptychodiscus brevis. Toxicon 26: 961-963.
9. _, AND B. L. TRAINER. 1993. Mode of action of toxins of seafood poisoning, p. 49-47. In I. R. Falconer [ed.], Algal toxins in seafood and drinking water. Academic.
10. BAGØIEN, E., A. MIRANDA, B. REGUERA, AND J. M. FRANCO. 1996. Effects of two paralytic shellfish toxin producing dinoflagellates on the pelagic harpacticoid copepod Euterpina acutifrons. Mar. Biol. 126: 361-369.
11. BATES, S. S., AND OTHERS. 1989. Pennate diatom Nitzschia pungens as the primary source of domoic acid, a toxin in shellfish from eastern Prince Edward Island, Canada. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 46: 1203-1215.
12. _, AND OTHERS. 1991. Controls on domoic acid production by the diatom Nitzschia pungens f. multiseries in culture: Nutrients and irradiance. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 48: 1136-1144.
13. _, J. WORMS, AND J. C. SMITH. 1993. Effects of ammonium and nitrate on growth and domoic acid production by Nitzschia pungens in batch culture. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 50: 1248-1254.
14. BAUTISTA, B., R. P. HARRIS, P. R. C. TRANTER, AND D. HARBOUR. 1992. In situ copepod feeding and grazing rates during a spring bloom dominated by Phaeocystis sp. in the English Channel. J. Plankton Res. 14: 691-703.
15. BOWMAN, T. E. 1971. The distribution of calanoid copepods off the southeastern United States between Cape Hatteras and southern Florida. Smithson. Contrib. Zool. 96: 1-58.
16. BOYER, G. L., J. J. SULLIVAN, M. LEBLANC, AND R. J. ANDERSEN. 1985. The assimilation of PSP toxins by the copepod Tigriopus californicus from dietary Protogonyaulax catenella, p. 407-412. In Toxic dinoflagellates: Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. Elsevier.
17. BRICELJ, V. M., J. EPP, AND R. E. MALOUF. 1987. Intraspecific variation in reproductive and somatic growth cycles of bay scallops Argopecten irradians. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 36: 123-137.
18. BURKHOLDER, J. M., AND H. B. GLASGOW, JR. 1995. Interactions of a toxic estuarine dinoflagellate with microbial predators and prey. Arch. Protistenkd. 145: 177-188.
19. _, _, AND C. W. HOBBS. 1995. Fish kills linked to a toxic ambush-predator dinoflagellate: Distribution and environmental considerations. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 124: 43-61.
20. _, E. J. NOGA, C. W. HOBBS, H. B. GLASGOW, JR., AND S. A. SMITH. 1992. New "phantom" dinoflagellate is the causative agent of major estuarine fish kills. Nature 358: 407-410.
21. BUSKEY, E. J., AND C. J. HYATT. 1995. Effects of the Texas (USA) "brown tide" alga on planktonic grazers. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 126: 285-292.
22. _, AND D. A. STOCKWELL. 1993. Effects of a persistent "brown tide" on Zooplankton populations in the Laguna Madre of south Texas, p. 659-666. In Toxic phytoplankton blooms in the sea. Proc. 5th Int. Conf. on Toxic marine phytoplankton. Elsevier.
23. CARLSSON, P., E. GRANÉLI, AND P. OLSSON. 1990. Grazer elimination through poisoning: One of the mechanisms behind Chrysochromulina polylepis blooms?, p. 116-122. In Toxic marine phytoplankton: Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Elsevier.
24. CARLTON, J. T., AND J. B. GELLER. 1993. Ecological roulette: The global transport of nonindigenous marine organisms. Science 261: 78-82.
25. CARON, D. A., E. L. LIM, H. KUNZE, E. M. COSPER, AND D. M. ANDERSON. 1989. Trophic interactions between nano-microzooplankton and the "brown tide," p. 265-294. In E. M. Cosper et al. [eds.], Novel phytoplankton blooms. Causes and impacts of recurrent brown tides and other unusual blooms. Springer.
26. CARPENTER, E. J. 1983. Physiology and ecology of marine planktonic Oscillatoria (Trichodesmium). Mar. Biol. Lett. 4: 69-85.
27. CEMBELLA, A. D., AND J. C. THERRIAULT. 1989. Population dynamics and toxin composition of Protogonyaulax tamarensis from the St. Lawrence estuary, p. 81-84. In Red tides. Biology, environmental science, and toxicology. Proc. 1st Int. Symp. on Red Tides. Elsevier.
28. _, _, AND P. BELAND. 1988. Toxicity of cultured isolates and natural populations of Protogonyaulax tamarensis from the St. Lawrence estuary. J. Shellfish Res. 7: 611-621.
29. CHOTIYAPUTTA, C., AND K. HIRAYAMA. 1978. Food selectivity of the rotifer Brachionus plicatilis feeding on phytoplankton. Mar. Biol. 45: 105-111.
30. CLAUSTRE, H., AND OTHERS. 1990. A biochemical investigation of a Phaeocystis sp. bloom in the Irish Sea. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 70: 197-207.
31. COSPER, E. M., V. M. BRICELJ, AND E. J. CARPENTER [EDS.]. 1989. Novel phytoplankton blooms. Causes and impacts of recurrent brown tides and other unusual blooms. Springer.
32. _, AND OTHERS. 1987. Recurrent and persistent brown tide blooms perturb coastal marine ecosystem. Estuaries 10: 284-290.
33. DAHL, E., O. LINDAHL, E. PAASCHE, AND J. THRONDSEN. 1989. The Chrysochromulina polylepis bloom in Scandinavian waters during spring 1988, p. 383-405. In E. M. Cosper et al. [eds.], Novel phytoplankton blooms. Causes and impacts of recurrent brown tides and other unusual blooms. Springer.
34. DALE, B., AND C. M. YENTSCH. 1978. Red tide and paralytic shellfish poisoning. Oceanus 21(3): 41-49.
35. DAVIDSON, A. T., AND H. J. MARCHANT. 1992. The biology and ecology of Phaeocystis (Prymnesiophyceae). Prog. Phycol. Res. 8: 1-45.
36. DAVIES, A. G., AND OTHERS. 1992. The ecology of a coastal Phaeocystis bloom in the north-western English Channel in 1990. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 72: 691-708.
37. DEASON, E. E., AND T. J. SMAYDA. 1982. Ctenophore-zooplankton-phytoplankton interactions in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island, during 1972-1977. J. Plankton Res. 4: 203-217.
38. DEBONNEL, G., L. BEAUCHESNE, AND C. DEMONTIGNY. 1989. Domoic acid the alleged "mussel toxin," might produce its neurotoxic effect through kainate receptor activation: An electrophysiological study in the rat dorsal hippocampus. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 67: 29-33.
39. DOUCETTE, G. J. 1995. Interactions between bacteria and harmful algae: A review. Nat. Toxins 3: 65-74.
40. DUGUAY, L. E., D. M. MONTELEONE, AND C.-E. QUAGLIETTA. 1989. Abundance and distribution of zooplankton and ichthyoplankton in Great South Bay, New York during the brown tide outbreaks of 1985 and 1986, p. 599-623. In E. M. Cosper et al. [eds.], Novel phytoplankton blooms. Causes and impacts of recurrent brown tides and other unusual blooms. Springer.
41. DURBIN, A. G., AND E. G. DURBIN. 1989. Effect of the "brown tide" on feeding, size and egg laying rate of adult female Acartia tonsa, p. 625-646. In E. M. Cosper et al. [eds.], Novel phytoplankton blooms. Causes and impacts of recurrent brown tides and other unusual blooms. Springer.
42. EDLER, L., S. FERNÖ, M. G. LIND, R. LUNDBERG, AND P. O. NILSSON. 1985. Mortality of dogs associated with a bloom of the cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena in the Baltic Sea. Ophelia 24: 103-109.
43. EGLOFF, D. A. 1986. Effects of Olisthodiscus luteus on the feeding and reproduction of the marine rotifer Synchaeta cecilia. J. Plankton Res. 8: 263-274.
44. _. 1988. Food and growth relations of the marine microzooplankter, Synchaeta cecilia (Rotifera). Hydrobiologia 157: 129-141.
45. FALCONER, I. R. 1993. Measurement of toxins from blue-green algae in water and foodstuffs, p. 165-175. In I. R. Falconer [ed.], Algal toxins in seafood and drinking water. Academic.
46. FIEDLER, P. C. 1982. Zooplankton avoidance and reduced grazing responses to Gymnodinium splendens (Dinophyceae). Limnol. Oceanogr. 27: 961-965.
47. FLYNN, K. J., AND K. FLYNN. 1995. Dinoflagellate physiology: Nutrient stress and toxicity, p. 541-550. In Harmful marine algal blooms. Proc. 6th Int. Conf. on Toxic Marine Phytoplankton. Lavoisier.
48. FREEBERG, L. R., A. MARSHALL, AND M. HEYL. 1979. Interrelationships of Gymnodinium breve (Florida red tide) within the phytoplankton community, p. 139-144. In Toxic dinoflagellate blooms: Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. Elsevier.
49. FRITZ, L., M. A. QUILLIAM, J. L. C. WRIGHT, A. M. BEALE, AND T. M. WORK. 1992. An outbreak of domoic acid poisoning attributed to the pennate diatom Pseudonitzschia australis. J. Phycol. 28: 439-442.
50. GALLAGHER, S. M., D. K. STOECKER, AND V. M. BRICELJ. 1989. Effects of the brown tide alga on growth, feeding physiology and locomotory behavior of scallop larvae (Argopecten irradians), p. 511-541. In E. M. Cosper et al. [eds.], Novel phytoplankton blooms. Causes and impacts of recurrent brown tides and other unusual blooms. Springer.
51. GERACI, J. R., AND OTHERS. 1989. Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) fatally poisoned by dinoflagellate toxin. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 46: 1895-1898.
52. GILL, C. W. AND R. P. HARRIS. 1987. Behavioural responses of the copepods Calanus helgolandicus and Temora longicornis to dinoflagellate diets. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 67: 785-801.
53. GLASGOW, H. B., JR., J. M. BURKHOLDER, D. E. SCHMECHEL, P. A. TESTER, AND P. A. RUBLEE. 1995. Insidious effects of a toxic estuarine dinoflagellate on fish survival and human health. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 46: 501-522.
54. GOSSELIN, S., L. FORTIER, AND J. A. GAGNÉ. 1989. Vulnerability of marine fish larvae to the toxic dinoflagellate Protogonyaulax tamarensis. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 57: 1-10.
55. GRANÉLI, E., AND OTHERS. 1989. From anoxia to fish poisoning: The last ten years of phytoplankton blooms in Swedish marine waters, p. 407-427. In E. M. Cosper et al. [eds.], Novel phytoplankton blooms. Causes and impacts of recurrent brown tides and other unusual blooms. Springer.
56. _, B. SUNDSTRÖM, L. EDLER, AND D. M. ANDERSON [EDS.]. 1990. Toxic marine phytoplankton: Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Elsevier.
57. GUO, C., AND P. A. TESTER. 1994. Toxic effect of the bloom-forming Trichodesmium sp. (Cyanophyta) to the copepod Acartia tonsa. Nat. Toxins 2: 222-227.
58. HALLEGRAEFF, G. M. 1993. A review of harmful algal blooms and their apparent global increase. Phycologia 32: 79-99.
59. HANSEN, P. J. 1989. The red tide dinoflagellate Alexandrium tamarense: Effects on behaviour and growth of a tintinnid ciliate. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 53: 105-116.
60. _. 1995. Growth and grazing response of a ciliate feeding on the red tide dinoflagellate Gyrodinium aureolum in monoculture and in mixture with a non-toxic alga. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 121: 65-72.
61. _, A. D. CEMBELLA, AND Ø. MOESTRUP. 1992. The marine dinoflagellate Alexandrium ostenfeldii: Paralytic shellfish toxin concentration, composition, and toxicity to a tintinnid ciliate. J. Phycol. 28: 597-603.
62. HAWSER, S. P., J. M. O'NEIL, M. R. ROMAN, AND G. A. CODD. 1992. Toxicity of blooms of the cyanobacterium Trichodesmium to zooplankton. J. Appl. Phycol. 4: 79-86.
63. HAY, M. E. 1991. Marine-terrestrial contrasts in the ecology of plant chemical defenses against herbivores. Trends Ecol. Evol. 6: 362-365.
64. HJORT, J. 1914. Fluctuations in the great fisheries of northern Europe viewed in the light of biological research. Rapp. P.-V. Reun. Cons. Perm. Int. Explor. Mer 20. 228 p.
65. HUNTLEY, M. E. 1982. Yellow water in La Jolla Bay, California, July 1980. 2. Suppression of zooplankton grazing. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 63: 81-91.
66. _. 1989. Larval feeding of northern anchovy, Engraulis mordax, on dinoflagellates: Implications for year class strength. Sci. Mar. 53: 239-245.
67. _, P. CIMINIELLO, AND M. D. G. LOPEZ. 1987a. Importance of food quality in determining development and survival of Calanus pacificus (Copepoda: Calanoida). Mar. Biol. 95: 103-113.
68. _, P. SYKES, S. ROHAN, AND V. MARIN. 1986. Chemically-mediated rejection of dinoflagellate prey by the copepods Calanus pacificus and Paracalanus parvus: Mechanism, occurrence and significance. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 28: 105-120.
69. _, K. TANDE, AND H. C. EILERTSEN. 1987b. On the trophic fate of Phaeocystis pouchetii (Hariot). 2. Grazing rates of Calanus hyperboreus (Krøyer) on diatoms and different size categories of Phaeocystis pouchetii. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 110: 197-212.
70. IVES, J. D. 1985. The relationship between Gonyaulax tamarensis cell toxin levels and copepod ingestion rates, p. 413-418. In Toxic dinoflagellates: Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. Elsevier.
71. _. 1987. Possible mechanisms underlying copepod grazing responses to levels of toxicity in red tide dinoflagellates. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 112: 131-145.
72. JEONG, H. J., AND M. I. LATZ. 1994. Growth and grazing rates of the heterotrophic dinoflagellates Protoperidinium spp. on red tide dinoflagellates. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 106: 173-185.
73. KIM, Y. S., AND D. F. MARTIN. 1974. Effects of salinity on synthesis of DNA, acidic polysaccharide, and ichthyotoxin in Gymnodinium breve. Phytochemistry 13: 533-538.
74. KODAMA, M. 1990. Possible links between bacteria and toxin production in algal blooms, p. 52-61. In Toxic marine phytoplankton: Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Elsevier.
75. LANCELOT, C., AND OTHERS. 1987. Phaeocystis blooms and nutrient enrichment in the continental coastal zones of the North Sea. Ambio 16: 38-46.
76. LASKER, R. 1971. Field criteria for survival of anchovy larvae: The relation between inshore chlorophyll maximum layers and successful first feeding. Fish. Bull. 73: 453-462.
77. LASSUS, P., G. ARZUL, E. ERARD, P. GENTIEN, AND C. MARCAILLOU [EDS.]. 1995. Harmful marine algal blooms. Proc. 6th Int. Conf. on Toxic Marine Phytoplankton. Lavoisier.
78. LISS, P. S., G. MALIN, S. M. TURNER, AND P. M. HOLLIGAN. 1994. Dimethyl sulphide and Phaeocystis: A review. J. Mar. Syst. 5: 41-53.
79. MAESTRINI, S. Y., AND E. GRANÉLI. 1991. Environmental conditions and ecophysiological mechanisms which led to the 1988 Chrysochromulina polylepis bloom: An hypothesis. Oceanol. Acta 14: 397-413.
80. MALLIN, M. M., J. M. BURKHOLDER, L. M. LARSEN, AND H. B. GLASGOW, JR. 1995. Response of two zooplankton grazers to an ichthyotoxic estuarine dinoflagellate. J. Plankton Res. 17: 35-363.
81. MARANDA, L., D. M. ANDERSON, AND Y. SHIMIZU. 1985. Comparison of toxicity between populations of Gonyaulax tamarensis of eastern North American waters. Estuarine Coastal Shelf Sci. 21: 401-410.
82. MILLS, L. J., AND G. KLEIN-MACPHEE. 1979. Toxicity of the New England red tide dinoflagellate to winter flounder larvae, p. 389-394. In Toxic dinoflagellate blooms: Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. Elsevier.
83. NAKAMURA, Y., S.-Y SUZUKI, AND J. HIROMI. 1995. Growth and grazing of a naked heterotrophic dinoflagellate, Gyrodinium dominons. Aquat. Microb. Ecol. 9: 157-164.
84. _, Y. YAMAZAKI, AND J. HIROMI. 1992. Growth and grazing of a heterotrophic dinoflagellate, Gyrodinium dominans, feeding on a red tide flagellate, Chattonella antiqua. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 82: 275-279.
85. NIELSEN, M. V. 1993. Toxic effect of the marine dinoflagellate Gymnodinium galatheanum on juvenile cod Gadus morhua. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 95: 273-277.
86. NIELSEN, T. G., T. KIØRBOE, AND P. K. BJØRNSEN. 1990. Effects of a Chrysochromulina polylepis subsurface bloom on the planktonic community. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 62: 21-35.
87. O'NEIL, J. M., AND M. R. ROMAN. 1992. Grazers and associated organisms of Trichodesmium, p. 61-73. In E. J. Carpenter [ed.], Marine pelagic cyanobacteria: Trichodesmium and other diazotrophs. Kluwer.
88. PAERL, H. W. 1988. Nuisance phytoplankton blooms in coastal, estuarine, and inland waters. Limnol. Oceanogr. 33: 823-847.
89. PERL, T. M., AND OTHERS. 1990. An outbreak of toxic encephalopathy caused by eating mussels contaminated with domoic acid. N. Eng. J. Med. 322: 1775-1780.
90. PRATT, D. M. 1966. Competition between Skeletonema costatum and Olisthodiscus luteus in Narragansett Bay and in culture. Limnol. Oceanogr. 11: 447-455.
91. RILEY, C. M., S. A. HOLT, G. J. HOLT, E. J. BUSKEY, AND C. R. ARNOLD. 1989. Mortality of larval red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) associated with a Ptychodiscus brevis red tide. Contrib. Mar. Sci. 31: 137-146.
92. ROBINEAU, B., L. FORTIER, J. A. GAGNÉ, AND A. D. CEMBELLA. 1991a. Comparison of the response of five larval fish species to the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium excavatum (Braarud) Balech. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 152: 225-242.
93. _, J. A. GAGNÉ, L. FORTIER, AND A. D. CEMBELLA. 1991b. Potential impact of a toxic dinoflagellate (Alexandrium excavatum) bloom on survival of fish and crustacean larvae. Mar. Biol. 108: 293-301.
94. ROSENBERG, R., O. LINDAHL, AND H. BLANCK. 1988. Silent spring in the sea. Ambio 17: 289-290.
95. ROUSSEAU, V., AND OTHERS. 1994. The life cycle of Phaeocystis (Prymnesiophyceae): Evidence and hypotheses. J. Mar. Syst. 5: 23-39.
96. SCHNACK, S. B., V. SMETACEK, B. VON BODUNGEN, AND P. STEGMANN. 1985. Utilization of phytoplankton by copepods in antarctic waters during spring, p. 65-81. In J. S. Gray and M. E. Christiansen [eds.], Marine biology of polar regions and effects of stress on marine organisms. Wiley.
97. SELLNER, K. G. 1992. Trophodynamics of marine cyanobacteria blooms, p. 75-94. In E. J. Carpenter [ed.], Marine pelagic cyanobacteria: Trichodesmium and other diazotrophs. Kluwer.
98. _, AND D. C. BROWNLEE. 1990. Dinoflagellate-microzooplankton interactions in Chesapeake Bay, p. 221-226. In Toxic marine phytoplankton: Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Elsevier.
99. _, R. V. LACOUTURE, S. J. CIBIK, A. BRINDLEY, AND S. G. BROWNLEE. 1991. Importance of a winter dinoflagellate-microflagellate bloom in the Patuxent River estuary. Estuarine Coastal Shelf Sci. 32: 27-42.
100. _, AND M. M. OLSON. 1985. Copepod grazing in red tides of Chesapeake Bay, p. 245-250. In Toxic dinoflagellates: Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. Elsevier.
101. _, _, AND K. KONONEN. 1994. Copepod grazing in a summer cyanobacteria bloom in the Gulf of Finland. Hydrobiologia 292/293: 249-254.
102. SHUMWAY, S. E. 1990. A review of the effects of algal blooms on shellfish and aquaculture. J. World Aquaculture Soc. 21: 65-105.
103. _, AND T. L. CUCCI. 1987. The effects of the toxic dinoflagellate Protogonyaulax tamarensis on the feeding and behavior of the bivalve molluscs. Aquat. Toxicol. 10: 9-27.
104. SIEBURTH, J. MCN. 1960. Acrylic acid, an "antibiotic" principle in Phaeocystis blooms in antarctic waters. Science 132: 676-677.
105. _, P. W. JOHNSON, AND P. E. HARGRAVES. 1988. Ultrastructure and ecology of Aureococcus anophagefferens Gen. et sp. nov. (Chrysophyceae); the dominant picoplankter during a bloom in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island, summer 1985. J. Phycol. 24: 416-425.
106. SMAYDA, T. J. 1989. Primary production and the global epidemic of phytoplankton blooms in the sea: a linkage?, p. 449-483. In E. M. Cosper et al. [eds.], Novel phytoplankton blooms. Causes and impacts of recurrent brown tides and other unusual blooms. Springer.
107. _, AND P. FOFONOFF. 1989. An extraordinary, noxious brown-tide in Narragansett Bay. 2. Inimical effects, p. 133-136. In Red tides. Biology, environmental science, and toxicology. Proc. 1st Int. Symp. on Red Tides. Elsevier.
108. _, AND Y. SHIMIZU [EDS.]. 1993. Toxic phytoplankton blooms in the sea. Proc. 5th Int. Conf. on Toxic Marine Phytoplankton. Elsevier.
109. _, AND T. A. VILLAREAL. 1989a. An extraordinary, noxious brown-tide in Narragansett Bay. 1. The organism and its dynamics, p. 129-132. In Red tides: Biology, environmental science, and toxicology. Proc. 1st Int. Symp. on Red Tides. Elsevier.
110. _, AND _. 1989b. The 1985 "brown-tide" and the open phytoplankton niche in Narragansett Bay during summer, p. 159-187. In E. M. Cosper et al. [eds.], Novel phytoplankton blooms. Causes and impacts of recurrent brown tides and other unusual blooms. Springer.
111. SMITH, J. C., AND OTHERS. 1990. Toxic blooms of the domoic acid containing diatom Nitzschia pungens in the Cardigan River, Prince Edward Island, in 1988, p. 227-232. In Toxic marine phytoplankton: Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Elsevier.
112. STEIDINGER, K. A. 1983. A re-evaluation of toxic dinoflagellate biology and ecology. Prog. Phycol. Res. 2: 147-188.
113. STOCKWELL, D. A., E. J. BUSKEY, AND T. E. WHITLEDGE. 1993. Studies on conditions conducive to the development and maintenance of a persistent "brown tide" in Laguna Madre, Texas, p. 693-698. In Toxic phytoplankton blooms in the sea. Proc. 5th Int. Conf. on Toxic Marine Phytoplankton. Elsevier.
114. STOECKER, D. K., R. R. L. GUILLARD, AND R. M. KAVEE. 1981. Selective predation by Favella ehrenbergii (Tintinnia) on and among dinoflagellates. Biol. Bull. 160: 136-145.
115. SYKES, P. F., AND M. E. HUNTLEY. 1987. Acute physiological reactions of Calanus pacificus to selected dinoflagellates: Direct observations. Mar. Biol. 94: 19-24.
116. TANDE, K. S., AND U. BÅMSTEDT. 1987. On the trophic fate of Phaeocystis pouchetii (Hariot). 1. Copepod feeding rates on solitary cells and colonies of P. pouchetii. Sarsia 72: 313-320.
117. TAYLOR, F. J. R. 1990. Red tides, brown tides and other harmful algal blooms: The view into the 1990's, p. 527-533. In Toxic marine phytoplankton: Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Elsevier.
118. TEEGARDEN, G. J., AND A. D. CEMBELLA. 1996. Grazing of toxic dinoflagellates, Alexandrium spp., by adult copepods of coastal Maine: Implications for the fate of paralytic shellfish toxins in marine food webs. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 196: 145-176.
119. TESTER, P. A., P. K. FOWLER, AND J. T. TURNER. 1989. Gulf Stream transport of the toxic red tide dinoflagellate, Ptychodiscus brevis, from Florida to North Carolina, p. 349-358. In E. M. Cosper et al. [eds.], Novel phytoplankton blooms. Causes and impacts of recurrent brown tides and other unusual blooms. Springer.
120. _, R. P. STUMPF, F. M. VUKOVICH, P. K. FOWLER, AND J. T. TURNER. 1991. An expatriate red tide: Transport, distribution, and persistence. Limnol. Oceanogr. 36: 1053-1061.
121. TODD, E. C. D. 1993. Domoic acid and amnesic shellfish poisoning - a review. J. Food Protect. 56: 69-83.
122. TOMAS, C. R., AND E. E. DEASON. 1981. The influence of grazing by two Acartia species on Olisthodiscus luteus Carter. Mar. Ecol. 2: 215-223.
123. TRACEY, G. A. 1988. Feeding reduction, reproductive failure, and mortality in Mytilus edulis during the 1985 "brown tide" in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 50: 73-81.
124. _, P. W. JOHNSON, R. W. STEELE, P. E. HARGRAVES, AND J. MCN. SIEBURTH. 1988. A shift in photosynthetic picoplankton composition and its effect on bivalve mollusc nutrition: The 1985 "brown tide" in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. J. Shellfish Res. 7: 671-675.
125. TURNER, J. T. 1981. Latitudinal patterns of calanoid and cyclopoid copepod diversity in estuarine waters of eastern North America. J. Biogeogr. 8: 369-382.
126. _. 1984. The feeding ecology of some zooplankters that are important prey items of larval fish. NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 7. 28 p.
127. _. 1994. Planktonic copepods of Boston Harbor, Massachusetts Bay and Cape Cod Bay, 1992. Hydrobiologia 292/293: 405-413.
128. _, AND D. M. ANDERSON. 1983. Zooplankton grazing during dinoflagellate blooms in a Cape Cod embayment, with observations of predation upon tintinnids by copepods. Mar. Ecol. 4: 359-374.
129. _, AND J. C. ROFF. 1993. Trophic levels and trophospecies in marine plankton: Lessons from the microbial food web. Mar. Microb. Food Webs 7: 225-248.
130. _, AND P. A. TESTER. 1989. Zooplankton feeding ecology: Copepod grazing during an expatriate red tide, p. 359-374. In E. M. Cosper et al. [eds.], Novel phytoplankton blooms. Causes and impacts of recurrent brown tides and other unusual blooms. Springer.
131. TURRIFF, N., J. A. RUNGE, AND A. D. CEMBELLA. 1995. Toxin accumulation and feeding behaviour of the planktonic copepod Calanus finmarchicus exposed to the red-tide dinoflagellate Alexandrium excavatum. Mar. Biol. 123: 55-64.
132. UYE, S. 1986. Impact of copepod grazing on the red-tide flagellate Chattonella antiqua. Mar. Biol. 92: 35-43.
133. _, AND K. TAKAMATSU. 1990. Feeding interactions between planktonic copepods and red-tide flagellates from Japanese coastal waters. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 59: 97-107.
134. VAN ALSTYNE, K. L. 1986. Effects of phytoplankton taste and smell on feeding behavior of the copepod Centropages hamatus. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 34: 187-190.
135. VERITY, P. G., AND T. J. SMAYDA. 1989. Nutritional value of Phaeocystis pouchetii (Prymnesiophyceae) and other phytoplankton for Acartia spp. (Copepoda): Ingestion, egg production, and growth of nauplii. Mar. Biol. 100: 161-171.
136. _, AND D. STOECKER. 1982. Effects of Olisthodiscus luteus on the growth and abundance of tintinnids. Mar. Biol. 72: 79-87.
137. VILLAC, M. C., D. L. ROELKE, T. A. VILLAREAL, AND G. A. FRYXELL. 1993. Comparison of two domoic acid-producing diatoms: A review. Hydrobiologia 269/270: 213-224.
138. WATRAS, C. J., V. C. GARCON, R. J. OLSON, S. W. CHISHOLM, AND D. M. ANDERSON. 1985. The effect of zooplankton grazing on estuarine blooms of the toxic dinoflagellate Gonyaulax tamarensis. J. Plankton Res. 7: 891-908.
139. WEIßE, T., AND U. SCHEFFEL-MÖSER. 1990. Growth and grazing loss in single-celled Phaeocystis sp. (Prymnesiophyceae). Mar. Biol. 106: 153-158.
140. _, K. TANDE, P. VERITY, F. HANSEN, AND W. GIESKES. 1994. The trophic significance of Phaeocystis blooms. J. Mar. Syst. 5: 67-79.
141. WHITE, A. W. 1977. Dinoflagellate toxins as probable cause of an Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus harengus) kill, and pteropods as apparent vector. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 34: 2421-2424.
142. _. 1979. Dinoflagellate toxins in phytoplankton and zooplankton fractions during a bloom of Gonyaulax excavata, p. 381-384. In Toxic dinoflagellate blooms: Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. Elsevier.
143. _. 1980. Recurrence of kills of Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus harengus) caused by dinoflagellate toxins transferred through herbivorous zooplankton. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 37: 2262-2265.
144. _. 1981a. Marine zooplankton can accumulate and retain dinoflagellate toxins and cause fish kills. Limnol. Oceanogr. 26: 103-109.
145. _. 1981b. Sensitivity of marine fishes to toxins from the red-tide dinoflagellate Gonyaulax excavata and implications for fish kills. Mar. Biol. 65: 255-260.
146. _, O. FUKUHARA, AND M. ANRAKU. 1989. Mortality of fish larvae from eating toxic dinoflagellates or zooplankton containing dinoflagellate toxins, p. 395-398. In Red tides: Biology, environmental science, and toxicology. Proc. 1st Int. Symp. on Red Tides. Elsevier.
147. WHITLEDGE, T. E. 1993. The nutrient and hydrographic conditions prevailing in Laguna Madre, Texas before and during a brown tide bloom, p. 711-716. In Toxic phytoplankton blooms in the sea. Proc. 5th Int. Conf. on Toxic Marine Phytoplankton. Elsevier.
148. WINDUST, A. 1992. The responses of bacteria, microalgae and zooplankton to the diatom Nitzschia pungens f. multiseries and its toxic metabolite domoic acid. M.S. thesis, Dalhousie Univ. 107 p.
149. _, J. L. C. WRIGHT, AND J. L. MCLACHLAN. 1996. The effects of the diarrhetic shellfish poisoning toxins, okadaic acid and dinophysistoxin-1, on the growth of microalgae. Mar. Biol. 126: 19-25.
150. WORK, T. M., AND OTHERS. 1993. Domoic acid intoxication of brown pelicans and cormorants in Santa Cruz, California, p. 643-649. In Toxic phytoplankton blooms in the sea. Proc. 5th Int. Conf. on Toxic Marine Phytoplankton. Elsevier.
151. YASUMOTO, T. 1990. Marine microorganisms toxins - an overview, p. 3-8. In Toxic marine phytoplankton: Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Elsevier.
152. YENTSCH, C. M. 1981. Flow cytometric analysis of cellular saxitoxin in the dinoflagellate Gonyaualx tamarensis var. excavata. Toxicon 19: 611-621.