Constructing reality: Print media's framing of the women's movement, 1966 to 1986

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 75, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 263-277

  Ashley, Laura ^a   Olson, Beth ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0001602325     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769909807500203     Document Type: Article

References (70)

1. A social movement may be defined as a persistent and organized effort by a relatively large number of people designed to bring about social change and resist the status quo. Guida West and Rhoda Lois Blumberg, eds., Women and Social Protest (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), 5.
2. Robert M. Entman, "Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm," Journal of Communication 43 (autumn 1993): 51-58.
3. B.C. Cohen, The Press and Foreign Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963); Walter Lippman, Public Opinion (NY: Macmillan, 1922).
4. B.C. Cohen, The Press and Foreign Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963); Walter Lippman, Public Opinion (NY: Macmillan, 1922).
5. Denis McQuail, Mass Communication Theory: An Introduction (London: Sage Publications, 1984). See also Todd Gitlin, The Whole World is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1980).
6. Denis McQuail, Mass Communication Theory: An Introduction (London: Sage Publications, 1984). See also Todd Gitlin, The Whole World is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1980).
7. Gitlin, The Whole World; Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci, ed. Q. Hoare and G. Smith (NY: International Publishers, 1971); Pamela J. Shoemaker and Stephen D. Reese, Mediating the Message: Theories of Influences on Mass Media Content (White Plains, NY: Longman, 1991).
8. Gitlin, The Whole World; Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci, ed. Q. Hoare and G. Smith (NY: International Publishers, 1971); Pamela J. Shoemaker and Stephen D. Reese, Mediating the Message: Theories of Influences on Mass Media Content (White Plains, NY: Longman, 1991).
9. Douglas M. McLeod, "Communicating Deviance: The Effects of Television News Coverage of Social Protest," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 39 (winter 1995): 4-19; Pamela J. Shoemaker, "Media Treatment of Deviant Political Groups," Journalism Quarterly 61 (spring 1984): 66-75, 82.
10. Douglas M. McLeod, "Communicating Deviance: The Effects of Television News Coverage of Social Protest," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 39 (winter 1995): 4-19; Pamela J. Shoemaker, "Media Treatment of Deviant Political Groups," Journalism Quarterly 61 (spring 1984): 66-75, 82.
11. McLeod, "Communicating Deviance."
12. Gaye Tuchman, Making News: A Study in the Construction of Reality (NY: Free Press, 1978).
13. Newsworthiness may include such factors as importance, interest, controversy, and unusualness. See Shoemaker and Reese, Mediating the Message.
14. William A. Gamson, "Stable Unrepresentation in American Society," American Behavioral Scientist 12 (November-December 1968): 18.
15. Gitlin, The Whole World, 7. See also William A. Gamson and Andre Modigliani, "Media Discourse and Public Opinion on Nuclear Power: A Constructionist Approach," American Journal of Sociology 95 (July 1989): 137-77; Erving Goffman, Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience (NY: Harper & Row, 1974), 21; and Tuchman, Making News.
16. Gitlin, The Whole World, 7. See also William A. Gamson and Andre Modigliani, "Media Discourse and Public Opinion on Nuclear Power: A Constructionist Approach," American Journal of Sociology 95 (July 1989): 137-77; Erving Goffman, Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience (NY: Harper & Row, 1974), 21; and Tuchman, Making News.
17. Gitlin, The Whole World, 7. See also William A. Gamson and Andre Modigliani, "Media Discourse and Public Opinion on Nuclear Power: A Constructionist Approach," American Journal of Sociology 95 (July 1989): 137-77; Erving Goffman, Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience (NY: Harper & Row, 1974), 21; and Tuchman, Making News.
18. Gitlin, The Whole World, 7. See also William A. Gamson and Andre Modigliani, "Media Discourse and Public Opinion on Nuclear Power: A Constructionist Approach," American Journal of Sociology 95 (July 1989): 137-77; Erving Goffman, Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience (NY: Harper & Row, 1974), 21; and Tuchman, Making News.
19. Doris A. Graber, Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide (NY: Longman, 1988); Sonia M. Livingstone, Making Sense of Television: The Psychology of Audience Interpretation (NY: Pergamon Press, 1990).
20. Doris A. Graber, Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide (NY: Longman, 1988); Sonia M. Livingstone, Making Sense of Television: The Psychology of Audience Interpretation (NY: Pergamon Press, 1990).
21. Michael Parenti, Inventing Reality: The Politics of the Mass Media (NY: St. Martin's Press, 1986).
22. David L. Paletz and Robert M. Entman, Media, Power, Politics (NY: The Free Press, 1981).
23. Gitlin, The Whole World.
24. Zhongdang Pan and Gerald M. Kosicki, "Framing Analysis: An Approach to News Discourse," Political Communication 10 (January-March 1993): 55-75.
25. Jo Freeman, The Politics of Women's Liberation: A Case Study of an Emerging Social Movement and Its Relation to the Policy Process (NY: David McKay Co., Inc., 1975).
26. Arlene S. Skolnick, Embattled Paradise: The American Family in the Age of Uncertainty (NY: Basic Books, 1991).
27. West and Blumberg, Women and Social.
28. West and Blumberg, Women and Social.
29. Pan and Kosicki, "Framing Analysis," 65.
30. Gitlin, The Whole World; Pamela J. Shoemaker, "The Perceived Legitimacy of Deviant Political Groups," Communication Research 9 (April 1982): 249-86; Shoemaker, "Media Treatment"; McLeod, "Communicating Deviance."
31. Gitlin, The Whole World; Pamela J. Shoemaker, "The Perceived Legitimacy of Deviant Political Groups," Communication Research 9 (April 1982): 249-86; Shoemaker, "Media Treatment"; McLeod, "Communicating Deviance."
32. Gitlin, The Whole World; Pamela J. Shoemaker, "The Perceived Legitimacy of Deviant Political Groups," Communication Research 9 (April 1982): 249-86; Shoemaker, "Media Treatment"; McLeod, "Communicating Deviance."
33. Gitlin, The Whole World; Pamela J. Shoemaker, "The Perceived Legitimacy of Deviant Political Groups," Communication Research 9 (April 1982): 249-86; Shoemaker, "Media Treatment"; McLeod, "Communicating Deviance."
34. NOW was placed in the midrange on a scale of legitimate and deviant newspaper coverage in a content analysis from 1980 to 1981, Shoemaker, "Media Treatment."
35. Importance of a social group has been measured by prominence in news coverage (length of article, position of article in newspaper), Shoemaker, "Media Treatment."
36. Hard news, traditionally covered by male reporters, can be seen to be more important than soft news, traditionally covered by female reporters. See Dhyana Ziegler and Alisa White, "Women and Minorities on Network Television News: An Examination of Correspondents and Newsmakers," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 34 (spring 1990): 215-23.
37. Gitlin, The Whole World; McLeod, "Communicating Deviance."
38. Gitlin, The Whole World; McLeod, "Communicating Deviance."
39. Gitlin, The Whole World; Shoemaker, "The Perceived Legitimacy"; Shoemaker, "Media Treatment"; McLeod, "Communicating Deviance."
40. Gitlin, The Whole World; Shoemaker, "The Perceived Legitimacy"; Shoemaker, "Media Treatment"; McLeod, "Communicating Deviance."
41. Gitlin, The Whole World; Shoemaker, "The Perceived Legitimacy"; Shoemaker, "Media Treatment"; McLeod, "Communicating Deviance."
42. Gitlin, The Whole World; Shoemaker, "The Perceived Legitimacy"; Shoemaker, "Media Treatment"; McLeod, "Communicating Deviance."
43. Suzanne Staggenborg, "Critical Events and the Mobilization of the Pro-choice Movement," Research in Political Sociology 6 (1993): 319-45; Richard A. Pride, "How Activists and Media Frame Social Problems: Critical Events Versus Performance Trends for Schools," Political Communication 12 (January-March 1995): 5-26, 7.
44. Suzanne Staggenborg, "Critical Events and the Mobilization of the Pro-choice Movement," Research in Political Sociology 6 (1993): 319-45; Richard A. Pride, "How Activists and Media Frame Social Problems: Critical Events Versus Performance Trends for Schools," Political Communication 12 (January-March 1995): 5-26, 7.
45. Gitlin, The Whole World; McLeod, "Communicating Deviance."
46. Gitlin, The Whole World; McLeod, "Communicating Deviance."
47. Editorials and the Sunday magazine were not included in the sample.
48. Susan J. Douglas, Where the Girls Are: Growing Up Female with the Mass Media (NY: Times Books, 1994), 86. See also Patricia Bosworth, "ABC Special on Women's Lives," Working Woman, August 1986, 110; and Sylvia Ann Hewlett, A Lesser Life: The Myth of Women's Liberation in America (NY: Warner, 1986).
49. Susan J. Douglas, Where the Girls Are: Growing Up Female with the Mass Media (NY: Times Books, 1994), 86. See also Patricia Bosworth, "ABC Special on Women's Lives," Working Woman, August 1986, 110; and Sylvia Ann Hewlett, A Lesser Life: The Myth of Women's Liberation in America (NY: Warner, 1986).
50. Susan J. Douglas, Where the Girls Are: Growing Up Female with the Mass Media (NY: Times Books, 1994), 86. See also Patricia Bosworth, "ABC Special on Women's Lives," Working Woman, August 1986, 110; and Sylvia Ann Hewlett, A Lesser Life: The Myth of Women's Liberation in America (NY: Warner, 1986).
51. Ole R. Holsti, Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1969).
52. It should be noted that the Times is published daily while the news magazines are published weekly. If the average number of stories in the two magazines (53) is multiplied by 7 (number of days in a week), a projected number of articles is produced (371) which is very close to the Times' count of 378. Keeping this in mind, it is possible to make comparisons between the daily and weekly publications.
53. Jane J. Mansbridge, Why We Lost the ERA (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986).
54. Ziegler and White, "Women and Minorities."
55. Tuchman, Making News.
56. Douglas, Where the Girls, 159.
57. M. Junior Bridge, "What's News?" in Women and Media: Content, Careers, Criticism, ed. Cynthia M. Lont (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1995).
58. Betty Friedan, It Changed My Life: Writings on the Women's Movement (NY: Random House, 1976).
59. One method of determining importance of a news event depends on numerical accretion; the more members, the more important the event. Tuchman, Making News.
60. Other research has shown a group becomes deviant when someone else calls it deviant, not because of any inherent vice. Shoemaker, "The Perceived Legitimacy," 256.
61. Skolnick, Embattled Paradise.
62. Betty Friedan, personal interview with Laura Ashley, 2 November 1995.
63. Tuchman, Making News.
64. Douglas, Where the Girls, 156-57.
65. Tuchman, Making News, 138.
66. Schlafly's efforts during a Republican National Convention were reported in metropolitan newspapers as recently as August 1996 (Houston Chronicle Sunday, 5 August 1996, sec. A, p. 21).
67. Part of the problem faced by organizations like NOW was their democratic practice of electing leaders, while Schlafly, on the other hand, was the head of an autocratic organization (Mansbridge, Why We Lost the ERA; see also Johanna Brenner, "The Best of Times, the Worst of Times: U.S. Feminism Today," New Left Review [July/August, 1993]: 101-159; and Flora Davis, Moving the Mountain: The Women's Movement in America Since 1960 [NY: Touchstone, 1991]).
68. Part of the problem faced by organizations like NOW was their democratic practice of electing leaders, while Schlafly, on the other hand, was the head of an autocratic organization (Mansbridge, Why We Lost the ERA; see also Johanna Brenner, "The Best of Times, the Worst of Times: U.S. Feminism Today," New Left Review [July/August, 1993]: 101-159; and Flora Davis, Moving the Mountain: The Women's Movement in America Since 1960 [NY: Touchstone, 1991]).
69. Part of the problem faced by organizations like NOW was their democratic practice of electing leaders, while Schlafly, on the other hand, was the head of an autocratic organization (Mansbridge, Why We Lost the ERA; see also Johanna Brenner, "The Best of Times, the Worst of Times: U.S. Feminism Today," New Left Review [July/August, 1993]: 101-159; and Flora Davis, Moving the Mountain: The Women's Movement in America Since 1960 [NY: Touchstone, 1991]).
70. Bonnie J. Dow, Prime-Time Feminism: Television, Media Culture, and the Women's Movement Since 1970 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996), 27.