An evaluation of the use of dendrochemical analyses in environmental monitoring

Environmental Reviews

Volumn 5, Issue 3-4, 1997, Pages 181-201

  Watmough, Shaun A ^a  

^a TRENT UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

Dendrochemistry; Soil acidification; Trace metals; Tree rings

Indexed keywords

EID: 0001597118     PISSN: 11818700     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1139/a97-010     Document Type: Review

References (156)

1. Amato, I. 1988. Tapping tree rings for the environmental tales they tell. Anal. Chem. 60: 1103A-1107A.
2. Arp, P.A., and Manasc, J. 1988. Red spruce stands downwind from a coal-burning power generator: tree-ring analysis. Can. J. For. Res. 18: 251-264.
3. Ault, W.U., Senechal, R.G., and Erlebach, W.E. 1970. Isotopic composition as a natural tracer of lead in the environment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 4: 305-313.
4. Baes, C.F., III, and McLaughlin, S.B. 1984. Trace elements in tree rings: evidence of recent and historical air pollution. Science (Washington, D.C.), 224: 494-497.
5. Baes, C.F., III, and McLaughlin, S.B. 1987. Trace element uptake and accumulation in trees as affected by environmental pollution. In Effects of atmospheric pollutants on forests, wetlands and agricultural ecosystems. Edited by T.C. Hutchinson and K.M. Meema. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 307-319.
6. Baes, C.F., III, and Ragsdale, H.L. 1981. Age-specific lead distribution in xylem rings of three tree genera in Atlanta, Georgia. Environ. Pollut. Ser. B, 2: 21-35.
7. Bailey, I. W. 1957. The structure of tracheids in relation to the movement of liquids, suspensions and undissolved gasses. In The physiology of forest trees. Edited by K.V. Thimann, W.B. Critchfield, and M.H. Zimmerman. Ronald Press, New York. pp. 71-82.
8. Barnes, D., Hamadah, M.A., and Ottaway, J.M. 1976. The lead, copper and zinc content of tree rings and bark: a measurement of local metallic pollution. Sci. Total Environ. 5: 63-67.
9. Becker, B., Kromer, B., and Trimborn, P. 1991. A stable-isotope tree-ring timescale of the late Glacial/Holocene boundary. Nature (London), 353: 647-649.
10. Benoit, L.F., Skelly, J.M., Moore, L.D., and Dochinger, L.S. 1982. Radial growth reductions of Pinus strobus L. correlated with foliar ozone sensitivity as an indicator of ozone-induced loss in eastern forests. Can. J. For. Res. 12: 673-678.
11. Berg, K., and Steinnes, E. 1993. Tree ring analysis as a monitoring technique of heavy metal pollution history. In International Conference on Heavy Metals in the Environment, Toronto, Ont. Edited by R.J. Allan and J.O. Nriagu. CEP Consultants, Edinburgh. Vol. 2. pp. 582-585.
12. Berish, C.W., and Ragsdale, H.L. 1985. Chronological sequence of element concentrations in wood of Carya spp. in the southern Appalachian Mountains. Can. J. For. Res. 15: 477-483.
13. Berneike, W., Ehlers, W., Knoth, J., and Rademacher, P. 1987. Element patterns in healthy and diseased Norway spruce (Picea abies) measured by inductively-coupled plasma/atomic emission spectrometry and total reflection X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. Anal. Chim. Acta, 195: 289-297.
14. Bernier, B., Pare, D., and Brazeau, M. 1989. Natural stress, nutrient imbalances and forest decline in southeastern Quebec. Water Air Soil Pollut. 48: 239-250.
15. Bondietti, E.A., Baes, C.F., III, and McLaughlin, S.B. 1989. Radial trends in cation ratios in tree rings as indicators of the impact of atmospheric deposition on forests. Can. J. For. Res. 19: 586-594.
16. Bondietti, E.A., Momoshima, N., Shortle, W.C., and Smith, K.T. 1990. A historical perspective on divalent cation trends in red spruce stemwood and the hypothetical relationship to acidic deposition. Can. J. For. Res. 20: 1850-1858.
17. Boutron, C.F. 1995. Historical reconstruction of the earth's past atmospheric environment from Greenland and Antarctic snow and ice cores. Environ. Rev. 3: 1-28.
18. Brackhage, C., Hagemeyer, J., Breckle, S.W., and Greszta, J. 1996. Radial distribution patterns of Cd and Zn in stems of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) trees analysed 12 years after a contamination event. Water Air Soil Pollut. 90: 417-428.
19. 40K in tree stems. J. Plant Nutr. 7: 887-896.
20. Chun, L., and Hui-yi, H. 1992. Tree-ring element analysis of Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis Sieb. Et Zucc.) and Mongolian oak (Quercus mongolica Fisch. Ex Turcz.) from Changbai Mountain, northeast China. Trees, 6: 103-108.
21. Cook, E.R., Johnson, A.H., and Biasing, T.J. 1987. Forest decline: modelling the effect of climate in tree rings. Tree Physiol. 3: 27-40.
22. Cote, B., and Camire, C. 1995. Application of leaf, soil, and tree ring chemistry to determine the nutritional status of sugar maple on sites of different levels of decline. Water Air Soil Pollut. 83: 363-373.
23. Cronan, C.S., and Grigal, D.F. 1995. Use of calcium/aluminum ratios as indicators of stress in forest ecosystems. J. Environ. Qual. 24: 209-226.
24. Cutter, B.E., and Guyette, R.P. 1993. Anatomical, chemical, and ecological factors affecting tree species choice in dendrochemical studies. J. Environ. Qual. 22: 611-619.
25. DeWalle, D.R., Swistock, B.R., Sayre, R.G., and Sharpe, W.E. 1991. Spatial variations of sapwood chemistry with soil acidity in Appalachian forests. J. Environ. Qual. 20: 486-491.
26. Dickinson, N.M., Watmough, S.A., and Turner, A.P. 1996. Ecological impact of 100 years of metal processing at Prescot, northwest England. Environ. Rev. 4: 8-24.
27. Dillon, P.J., and Evans, R.D. 1982. Whole-lake lead burdens in sediments of lakes in southern Ontario, Canada. Hydrobiology, 91: 121-130.
28. Dion, M., Loranger, S., Kennedy, G., Courchesne, F., and Zayed, J. 1993. Evaluation of black spruce (Picea mariana) as a bioindicator of aluminum contamination. Water Air Soil Pollut. 71: 29-41.
29. Dmuchowski, W., and Bytnerowicz, A. 1994. Monitoring environmental pollution in Poland by chemical analysis of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) needles. Environ. Pollut. 87: 87-104.
30. Donnelly, J.R., Shane, J.B., and Schaberg, P.G. 1990. Lead mobility within the xylem of red spruce seedlings: implications for the development of pollution histories. J. Environ. Qual. 19: 268-271.
31. Eckstein, D., Hoogesteger, J., and Holmes, R.L. 1991. Insect-related differences in growth of birch and pine at northern treeline in Swedish Lapland. Holarct. Ecol. 14: 18-23.
32. Eklund, M. 1995. Cadmium and lead deposition around a Swedish battery plant as recorded in oak tree rings. J. Environ. Qual. 24: 126-131.
33. Epstein, S., Thompson, P., and Yapp, C.J. 1977. Oxygen and hydrogen isotope ratios in plant cellulose. Science (Washington, D.C.), 198: 1209-1215.
34. Ettl, G.J., and Peterson, D.L. 1995. Growth response of subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) to climate in the Olympic Mountains, Washington, U.S.A. Global Change Biol. 1: 213-230.
35. Evans, C.A., and Hutchinson, T.C. 1996. Mercury accumulation in transplanted moss and lichens at high elevation sites in Quebec. Water Air Soil Pollut. 90: 475-488.
36. Farmer, J.G., and Baxter, M.S. 1974. Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels as indicated by the stable isotope record in wood. Nature (London), 247: 273-275.
37. Farquhar, G.D., Hubick, K.T., Condon, A.G., and Richards, R.A. 1988. Carbon isotope fractionation and plant water-use efficiency. In Stable isotopes in ecological research. Edited by P.W. Rundel, J.R. Ehleringer, and K.A. Nagy. Springer-Verlag, New York. pp. 21-40.
38. Feng, X., and Epstein, S. 1994. Climatic implications of an 8000-year hydrogen isotope time series from bristlecone pine trees. Science (Washington, D.C.), 265: 1079-1081.
39. Ferretti, M., Udisti, R., and Barbolani, E. 1992. A new approach to experimental data evaluation from tree ring analysis. Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 343: 607-611.
40. Ferretti, M., Udisti, R;, and Barbolani, E. 1993. Mineral nutrients and trace metals in tree rings of Pinus sp. Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 347: 467-470.
41. Ferry, B.W., Baddeley, M.S., and Hawksworth, D.L. 1973. Air pollution and lichens. Athlone Press, University of London, U.K.
42. Fox, C.A., Kincaird, W.B., Nash, T.H., III, Young, D.L., and Fritts, H.C. 1986. Tree-ring variation in western larch (Larix occidentalis) exposed to sulfur dioxide emissions. Can. J. For. Res. 16: 283-292.
43. 12C trends. Nature (London), 290: 232-235.
44. Frelich, L.E., Bockheim, J.G., and Leide, J.E. 1989. Historical trends in tree-ring growth and chemistry across an air-quality gradient in Wisconsin. Can. J. For. Res. 19: 113-121.
45. 2 and tree rings. Nature (London), 293: 679-680.
46. Fritts, H.C. 1976. Tree rings and climate. Academic Press, London, U.K.
47. Fritts, H.C., and Swetnam, T.W. 1986 Dendroecology: a tool for evaluating variations in past and present forest environments. Laboratory of tree-ring research, University of Arizona, Tuscon, Ariz.
48. Gawel, J.E., Ahner, B.A., Friedland, A.J., and Morel, F.M.M. 1996. Role for heavy metals in forest decline indicated by phytochelatin measurement. Nature (London), 381: 64-65.
49. Getz, L.L., Best, L.B., Prather, M. 1977. Lead in urban and rural song birds. Environ. Pollut. 12: 235-238.
50. Gilboy, W.B., Mason, P.I., and Tout, R.E. 1979. Time variations in environmental pollution. J. Radioanal. Chem. 48: 327-335.
51. Gilfrich, J.V., Gilfrich, N.L., Skelton, E.F., Kirkland, J.P., Qadri, S.B., and Nagel, D.J. 1991. X-ray fluorescence analysis of tree rings. X-ray Spectrom. 20: 203-208.
52. 16O ratios of cellulose in tree rings. Nature (London), 262: 481-482.
53. Guyette, R.P., and Cutter, B.E. 1991. Tree-ring analysis of fire history of a post oak savanna in the Missouri Ozarks. Nat. Areas J. 11: 93-99.
54. Guyette, R.P., Cutter, B.E., and Henderson, G.S. 1989. Long-term relationships between molybdenum and sulfur in red cedar tree rings. J. Environ. Qual. 18: 385-389.
55. Guyette, R.P., Cutter, B.E., and Henderson, G.S. 1991. Long-term relationships between mining activity and levels of lead and cadmium in tree-rings of eastern red cedar. J. Environ. Qual. 20: 146-150.
56. Guyette, R.P., Henderson, G.S., and Cutter, B.E. 1992. Reconstructing soil pH from manganese concentrations in tree-rings. For. Sci. 38: 727-737.
57. Hall, G.S., and Naumann, M. 1984. Element analysis of Pinus rigida intra-annual growth rings by photon-induced X-ray emission. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. Lett. 87: 317-330.
58. Hall, G.S., Roach, N., and Naumann. 1984. Trace element analysis of environmental samples by PIXE. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. 83: 431-435.
59. Hall, G.S., Yamaguchi, D.K., and Rettberg, T.M. 1990. Multielemental analyses of tree rings by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. Lett. 146: 255-265.
60. Hasanen, E., and Huttunen, S. 1989. Acid deposition and the element composition of pine tree rings. Chemosphere, 18: 1913-1920.
61. Hegemeyer, J., and Breckle, S.-W. 1986. Cadmium in den jahrringen von eichen: untersuchungen zur aufstellung einer chronologie der immissionen. Angew. Bot. 60: 161-174.
62. Hegemeyer, J., Lulfsmann, A., Perk., M., and Breckle, S.-W. 1992. Are there seasonal variations of trace element concentrations (Cd, Pb, Zn) in wood of Fagus trees in Germany? Vegetatio, 101: 55-63.
63. Hegemeyer, J., Schafer, H., and Breckle, S.-W. 1994. Seasonal variations of nickel concentrations in annual xylem rings of beech trees (Fagus sylvatica L.). Sci. Total Environ. 145: 111-118.
64. Hoffmann, E., Ludke, C., Scholze, H., and Stephanowitz, H. 1994. Analytical investigations of tree rings by laser ablation ICP-MS. J. Anal. Chem. 350: 253-259.
65. Hornbeck, J.W., and Smith, R.B. 1985. Documentation of red spruce growth decline. Can. J. For. Res. 15: 1199-1201.
66. Hupp, C.R., Woodside, M.D., and Yanosky, T.M. 1993. Sediment and trace element trapping in a forested wetland, Chickahominy River, Virginia. Wetlands, 13: 95-104.
67. Hutchinson, T.C., Watmough, S.A., Sager, E.P., and Karagatzides, J.D. 1998a. The impact of simulated acid rain and fertilizer application on a sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.) forest in central Ontario, Canada. Water Air Soil Pollut. In press.
68. Hutchinson, T.C., Watmough, S.A., Sager. E.P., and Karagatzides, J.D. 1998b. The effects of excess nitrogen deposition and soil acidification on sugar maple (Acer saccharum) in Ontario, Canada: an experimental study. Can. J. For. Res. 28. In press.
69. Injuk, J., Nagj, M., and Valkovic, V. 1987. Variations of trace element contents within single tree rings. Anal. Chim. Acta, 195: 299-305.
70. Johnson, A.H., and Siccama, T.G. 1983. Acid deposition and forest decline. Environ. Sci. Technol. 17: 294A-305A.
71. Johnson, A.H., Siccama, T.G., Wang, D., Turner, R.S., and Barringer, T.H. 1981. Recent change in patterns of tree growth rate in the New Jersey Pinelands: a possible effect of acid rain. J. Environ. Qual. 10: 427-430.
72. Jordan, D.N., Wright, L.M., and Lockaby, B.G. 1990. Relationship between xylem trace metals and radial growth of loblolly pine in rural Alabama. J. Environ. Qual. 19: 504-508.
73. Kalisz, P.J., Stringer, J.W., Volpe, J.A., and Clark, D.T. 1988. Trees as monitors in soil water. J. Environ. Qual. 17: 62-70.
74. Kardell, L., and Larsson, J. 1978. Lead and cadmium in oak tree rings (Quercus robur L.). Ambio, 7: 117-121.
75. Kashuba-Hockenberry, L.A., and DeWalle, D.R. 1994. Dendrochemical response to soil liming in scarlet oak. Can. J. For. Res. 24: 564-567.
76. Kask, P. 1992. Climate-radial increment relationships in Estonian conifer stands. Proc. Est. Acad. Sci. Ecol. 2: 22-27.
77. LaMarche, V.C., Jr., and Hirschboeck, K.K. 1984. Frost rings in trees as records of major volcanic eruptions. Nature (London), 307: 121-126.
78. Langlais, D., and Begin, Y. 1993. The effects of recent floods and geomorphic processes on red ash populations, upper St. Lawrence Estuary, Quebec. Estuarine. Coastal Shelf Sci. 37: 525-538.
79. 12C ratios of wood. Climate change in continental isotope records. Geophys. Monogr. 78: 325-331.
80. Leavitt, S.W., and Long, A. 1986. Stable-carbon isotope variability in tree foliage and wood. Ecology, 67: 1002-1010.
81. Leavitt, S.W., and Long, A. 1989. Drought indicated in carbon-13/carbon-12 ratios of southwestern tree rings. Water Resour. Bull. 25: 341-347.
82. LeBlanc, D.C., Raynal, D.J., and White, E.H. 1987. Acidic deposition and tree growth. I. The use of stem analysis to study historical growth patterns. J. Environ. Qual. 16: 325-333.
83. Legge, A.H., Kaufmann, H.C., and Winchester, J.W. 1984. Tree-ring analysis by PIXE for a historical record of soil chemistry response to acidic air pollution. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B3: 507-510.
84. Lepp, N.W. 1975. The potential of tree ring analysis for monitoring heavy metal pollution patterns. Environ. Pollut. 9: 49-61.
85. 210Pb in woody stems: patterns observed in dormant and non-dormant stems. Oecologia, 16: 179-184.
86. Libby, L.M., Pandolfi, L.J., Payton, P.H., Marshall, J., III, Becker, B., and Giertz-Sienbenlist, V. 1976. Isotopic tree thermometers. Nature (London), 261: 284-288.
87. 65Zn applied on foliage and bark surfaces of balsam fir (Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.) Seedlings. Environ. Exp. Bot. 35: 475-183.
88. Long, R.P., and Davis, D.D. 1989. Major and trace element concentrations in surface organic layers, mineral soil and white oak xylem downwind from a coal-fired power plant. Can. J. For. Res. 19: 1603-1615.
89. Lovestam, G., Johanson, E.M., Johanson, S., and Pallon, J. 1990. Elemental micro-patterns in tree rings - a feasibility study using scanning proton microprobe analysis. Ambio, 19: 87-93.
90. Lukaszewski, Z., Siwecki, R., Opydo, J., and Zembrzuski, W. 1988. The effect of industrial pollution on zinc, cadmium and copper concentration in the xylem rings of Scot's pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and in the soil. Trees, 2: 1-6.
91. MaClauchlan, L.E., Borden, J.H., Gackelte, M.R., and D'Auria, J.M. 1987. A rapid, multisample technique for detection of trace elements in trees by energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy. Can. J. For. Res. 17: 1124-1130.
92. Macnicol, R.D., and Beckett, P.H. 1985. Critical tissue concentrations of potentially toxic elements. Plant Soil, 85: 107-129.
93. Martin, R.R., Sylvester, T., Biesinger, M.C. 1994. Secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) in the analysis of elemental micropatterns in tree rings. Can. J. For. Res. 24: 2312-2313.
94. Martin, R.R., Zanin, J.P., Bensette, M.J., Lee, M., and Furimsky, E. 1997. Metals in the annual rings of eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) in southwestern Ontario by secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS). Can. J. For. Res. 27: 76-79.
95. Matusiewicz, H., and Barnes, R.M. 1985. Tree ring wood analysis after hydrogen peroxide pressure decomposition with inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry and electrothermal vaporization. Anal. Chem. 57: 406-411.
96. Mazany, T., Lerman, J.C., and Long, A. 1980. Carbon-13 in tree-ring cellulose as an indicator of past climates. Nature (London), 287: 432-135.
97. McClenahen, J.R., and Dochinger, L.S. 1985. Tree ring responses of white oak to climate and air pollution near the Ohio River Valley. J. Environ. Qual. 14: 274-280.
98. McClenahen, J.R., and Vimmerstedt, J.P. 1993. Soil, climate, and atmospheric deposition with elemental concentrations in annual rings of tuliptree. J. Environ. Qual. 22: 23-32.
99. McClenahen, J.R., Vimmerstedt, J.P., and Scherzer, A.J. 1989. Elemental concentrations in tree rings by PIXE: statistical variability, mobility, and effects of altered soil chemistry. Can. J. For. Res. 19: 880-888.
100. McLaren, B.E., and Peterson, R.O. 1994. Wolves, moose, and tree rings on Isle Royale. Science (Washington, D.C.), 266: 1555-1558.
101. McLaughlin, S.B. 1985. Effects of air pollution on forests: a critical review. J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 35: 512-534.
102. McLaughlin, S.B., Downing, D.J., Biasing, T.J., Cook, E.R., and Adams, H.S. 1987. An analysis of climate and competition as contributors to decline of red spruce in high elevation Appalachian forests of the Eastern United States. Oecologia, 72: 487-501.
103. Meisch, H.U., Kessler, M., Reinle, W., and Wagner, A. 1986. Distribution of metals in annual rings of the beech (Fagus sylvatica) as an expression of environmental changes. Experientia, 42: 537-542.
104. Meredith, M.L., and Hites, R.A. 1987. Polychlorinated biphenyl accumulation in tree bark and wood growth rings. Environ. Sci. Technol. 21: 709-712.
105. Momoshima, N., and Bondietti, E.A. 1990. Cation binding in wood: applications to understanding historical changes in divalent cation availability to red spruce. Can. J. For. Res. 20: 1840-1849.
106. Nagj, M., Injuk, J., and Valkovic, V. 1987. Trace element concentration variations in tree rings. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B22: 465-472.
107. Ohmann, L.F., and Grigal, D.F. 1990. Spatial and temporal patterns of sulfur and nitrogen in wood of trees across the north central United States. Can. J. For. Res. 20: 508-513.
108. Okada, N., Katayama, Y., Nobuchi, T., Ishimaru, Y., and Aoki, A. 1993. Trace elements in the stems of trees VI. Comparisons of radial distributions among hardwood stems. Mokuzai Gakkaishi, 39: 1119-1127.
109. Olendrynski, K., Anderberg, S., Bartnicki, J., Pacyna, J., and Stigliani, W. 1996. Atmospheric emissions and depositions of cadmium, lead, and zinc in Europe during the period 1955-1987. Environ. Rev. 4: 300-320.
110. Osterhaus, C.A., Langwig, I.E., and Meyer, J.A. 1975. Elemental analysis of wood by improved neutron activation analysis and atomic absorption spectrometry. Wood Sci. 8: 370-374.
111. Pathak, S.N., Love, D.V., and Roy, D.N. 1986. Determination of a chemical basis of air-pollution stress in wood of mature white pine trees in the susceptive forest ecosystems. Water Air Soil Pollut. 31: 385-392.
112. Peterson, D.L., Arbaugh, M.J., Wakefield, V.A., and Miller, P.R. 1987. Evidence of growth reduction in ozone-injured Jeffery pine (Pinu jeffreyi Grev. and Balf.) in Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks. J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 37: 906-912.
113. Pillay, K.K.S. 1976. Activation analysis and dendrochronolgy for estimating pollution histories. J. Radioanal. Chem. 32: 151-171.
114. Pizl, V., and Josens, G. 1995. Earthworm communities along a gradient of urbanization. Environ. Pollut. 90: 7-14.
115. Queirolo, F., and Valenta, P. 1987. Trace determination of Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn in annual growth rings by differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry. Fresenius' J. Anal. Chem. 328: 93-98.
116. Queirolo, F., Valenta, P., Stegen, S., and Breckle, S.-W. 1990. Heavy metal concentrations in oak wood growth rings from the Taunus (Federal Republic of Germany) and the Valdivia (Chile) regions. Trees, 4: 81-87.
117. Ritters, K.H., Ohmann, L.F., and Grigal, D.F. 1991. Woody tissue analysis using an element ratio technique (DRIS). Can. J. For. Res. 21: 1270-1277.
118. Robitaille, G. 1981. Heavy-metal accumulation in the annual rings of balsam fir Abies balsamea (L.) Mill. Environ. Pollut. 2: 193-202.
119. Rolfe, G.L. 1974. Lead distribution in tree rings. For. Sci. 20: 283-286.
120. Schulze, 1989. Air pollution and forest decline in a spruce (Picea abies) forest. Science (Washington, D.C.), 244: 776-783.
121. Selin, E., Standzenieks, P., Boman, J., and Teeyasoontranont, V. 1993. Multi-element analysis of tree rings by EDXRF spectrometry. X-ray Spectrom. 22: 281-285.
122. Shen, G.T., and Boyle, E.A. 1987. Lead in corals: reconstruction of historical industrial fluxes to the surface ocean. Earth Planet Sci. Lett. 82: 289-304.
123. Sheppard, J.C., and Funk., W.H. 1975. Trees as environmental sensors monitoring long-term heavy metal contamination of Spokane River, Idaho. Environ. Sci. Technol. 9: 638-642.
124. Shortle, W.C., Smith, K.T., Minocha, R., and Alexeyev, A. 1995. Similar patterns of change in stemwood calcium concentrations in red spruce and siberian fir. J. Biogeogr. 22: 467-473.
125. Shortle, W.C., and Bondietti, E.A. 1992. Timing, magnitude, and impact of acidic deposition on sensitive forest sites. Water Air Soil Pollut. 61: 253-267.
126. Shotyk, W. 1996. Peat bog archives of atmospheric metal deposition: geochemical evaluation of peat profiles, natural variations in metal concentrations, and metal enrichment factors. Environ. Rev. 4: 149-183.
127. 18O in precipitation with temperature and altitude. Nature (London), 285: 314-317.
128. Smith, K.T., and Shortle, W.C. 1996. Tree biology and dendrochemistry. In Tree rings, environment and humanity. Edited by J.S. Dean, D.M. Meko, and T.W. Swetnam. Radicarbon. Vol. 38, pp. 629-635.
129. Stewart, C., Norton, D.A., and Fergusson, J.E. 1991. Historical monitoring of heavy metals in kahikatea ring wood in Christchurch, New Zealand. Sci. Total. Environ. 105: 171-190.
130. Stewart, C.M. 1966. Excretion and heartwood formation in living trees. Science (Washington, D.C.), 153: 1068-1074.
131. Stuiver, M. 1978. Atmospheric carbon dioxide and carbon reservoir changes. Science (Washington, D.C.), 199: 253-258.
132. 12C isotopic ratios and climate change. Nature (London), 328: 58-60.
133. Sutherland, E.K., and Martin, B. 1990. Growth response of Pseudotsuga menziesii to air pollution from copper smelting. Can. J. For. Res. 20: 1020-1030.
134. Swetnam, T.W., and Lynch, A.M. 1993. Multicentury, regional-scale patterns of western spruce budworm outbreaks. Ecol. Monogr. 63: 399-424.
135. Symeonides, C. 1979. Tree-ring analysis for tracing the history of pollution: application to a study in Northern Sweden. J. Environ. Qual. 8: 482-486.
136. Szopa, P.S., McGinnes, E.A., Jr., and Pierce, J.O. 1973. Distribution of lead within the xylem of trees exposed to air-borne lead compounds. Wood Sci. 6: 72-77.
137. Tan, T.H., and Lepp, N.W. 1977. Further studies on the development of tree-ring analysis as a method for constructing heavy metal pollution histories. In Trace subst. Environ. Health 11. Edited by D.D. Hemphill. University of Missouri, Columbia, pp. 440-447.
138. Tendel, J., and Wolf, K. 1988. Distribution of nutrients and trace elements in annual rings of pine trees (Pinus sylvestris) as an indicator of environmental change. Experientia, 44: 975-980.
139. Tessier, L., Nola, P., and Serre-Bachet, F. 1994. Deciduous Quercus in the Mediterranean region: tree-ring/climate relationships. New Phytol. 126: 355-367.
140. Thomas, C.E., Latimer, S.D., Mills, D.P., and Le, K.H.N. 1996. Dendrochemistry of loblolly pine and cypress cores: initial results for forest health monitoring. In Tree rings, environment and humanity. Edited by J.S. Dean, D.M. Meko, and T.W. Swetnam. Radicarbon. Vol. 38, pp. 647-658.
141. Thompson, M.A. 1981. Tree rings and air pollution: a case study of Pinus inonophylla growing in east-central Nevada. Environ. Pollut. 26: 251-266.
142. Tomlinson, G.H. 1983. Air pollutants and forest decline. Environ. Sei. Technol. 17: 246A-256A.
143. Tout, R.E., Gilboy, W.B., and Spyrou, N.M. 1977. Neutron activation studies of trace elements in tree rings. J. Radioanal. Chem. 37: 705-715.
144. Ulrich, B. 1983. Soil acidity and its relations to acid deposition. In Effects of accumulation of air pollutants in forest ecosystems. Edited by B. Ulrich and J. Pankrath. D. Reidel, Boston, pp. 127-146.
145. Van de Geijn, S.C., and Petit, C.M. 1979. Transport of divalent cations: cation exchange capacity of intact xylem vessels. Plant Physiol. 64: 954-958.
146. Vroblesky, D.A., and Yanosky, T.M. 1990. Use of tree-ring chemistry to document historical ground-water contamination events. Ground Water, 28: 677-684.
147. Ward, N.I., Brooks, R.R., and Reeves, R.D. 1974. Effect of lead from motor-vehicle exhausts on trees along a major thoroughfare in Palmerston North, New Zealand. Environ. Pollut. 6: 149-158.
148. Wardell, J.F., and Hart, J.H. 1973. Radial gradients of elements in white oak wood. Wood Sci. 5: 298-303.
149. Watmough, S.A., and Hutchinson, T.C. 1996. Analysis of tree rings using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry to record fluctuations in a metal pollution episode. Environ. Pollut. 93: 93-102.
150. Watmough, S.A., Hutchinson, T.C., and Evans, R.D. 1997. Application of laser ablation inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry in dendrochemical analysis. Environ. Sci. Technol. 31: 114-118.
151. Watmough, S.A., Hutchinson, T.C., and Sager, E.P.S. 1998. The impact of simulated acid rain on the soil leachate and xylem chemistry in a jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb) stand in northern Ontario, Canada. Water Air Soil Pollut. In press.
152. Yanosky, T.M., and Vroblesky, D.A. 1992. Relation of nickel concentrations in tree rings to ground-water contamination. Water Resour. Res. 28: 2077-2083.
153. Yapp, C.J., and Epstein, S. 1992. Climate significance of the hydrogen isotope ratios in tree cellulose. Nature (London), 297: 636-639.
154. Zayed, J., Andre, P., and Kennedy, G. 1991. Variabilite spatio-temporelle de l'aluminium chez l'épinette noire (Picea mariana). Water Air Soil Pollut. 55: 337-344.
155. Zayed, J., Loranger, S., and Kennedy, G. 1992. Variations of trace element concentrations in red spruce tree rings. Water Air Soil Pollut. 65: 281-291.
156. Zhang, L., Qian, J.-L., and Planas, D. 1995. Mercury concentration in tree rings of black spruce (Picea mariana Mill. B.S.P.) in boreal Quebec, Canada. Water Air Soil Pollut. 81: 163-173.