The little white church: Religion in rural America

Agricultural History

Volumn 71, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 415-440

  Swierenga, Robert P ^a,b  

^a HOPE COLLEGE   (United States)

^b KENT STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0001377418     PISSN: 00021482     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (144)

1. Garrison Keillor, Lake Wobegon Days (New York: Viking, 1985).
2. Wayne E. Fuller, The Old Country School: The Story of Rural Education in the Middle West (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); and Wayne Fuller, One-Room Schools of the Middle West: An Illustrated History (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1994). The Midwest was always the "special home of one-room schoolhouses," numbering ninety thousand in 1918, "almost as many as in the rest of the nation combined" (One-Room Schools, 1).
3. Wayne E. Fuller, The Old Country School: The Story of Rural Education in the Middle West (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); and Wayne Fuller, One-Room Schools of the Middle West: An Illustrated History (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1994). The Midwest was always the "special home of one-room schoolhouses," numbering ninety thousand in 1918, "almost as many as in the rest of the nation combined" (One-Room Schools, 1).
4. Benson Y. Landis, Rural Church Life in the Middle West as Illustrated by Clay County, Iowa and Jennings County, Indiana with Comparative Data from Studies of Thirty-five Middle Western Counties (New York: G.H. Doran, 1922), 53; James H. Madison, "Reformers and the Rural Church, 1900-1950," Journal of American History 73 (December 1986): 645-68; Brian W. Beltman, "Rural Church Reform in Wisconsin During the Progressive Era," Wisconsin Magazine of History 60 (Autumn 1976): 3-24; Merwin Swanson, "The 'Country Life Movement' and the American Churches," Church History 46 (September 1977): 358-73; William L. Bowers, The Country Life Movement in America, 1900-1920 (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat, 1974); David Danbom, The Resisted Revolution: Urban America and the Industrialization of Agriculture, 1900-1930 (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1979), 16-17, 43-47, 58-63. James H. Madison briefly summarizes the work of the Country Life Commission in Indiana Through Tradition and Change: A History of the Hoosier State and Its People, 1920-1945 (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1982), 295-99; James H. Madison, The Indiana Way: A State History (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1986), 98-108, 185-87. Edward W. Hassinger and John S. Holik, "Changes in the Number of Rural Churches in Missouri, 1952-1967," Rural Sociology 35 (September 1970): 354-66, show only a slight net loss in congregations, but open country churches suffered proportionally more losses.
5. Benson Y. Landis, Rural Church Life in the Middle West as Illustrated by Clay County, Iowa and Jennings County, Indiana with Comparative Data from Studies of Thirty-five Middle Western Counties (New York: G.H. Doran, 1922), 53; James H. Madison, "Reformers and the Rural Church, 1900-1950," Journal of American History 73 (December 1986): 645-68; Brian W. Beltman, "Rural Church Reform in Wisconsin During the Progressive Era," Wisconsin Magazine of History 60 (Autumn 1976): 3-24; Merwin Swanson, "The 'Country Life Movement' and the American Churches," Church History 46 (September 1977): 358-73; William L. Bowers, The Country Life Movement in America, 1900-1920 (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat, 1974); David Danbom, The Resisted Revolution: Urban America and the Industrialization of Agriculture, 1900-1930 (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1979), 16-17, 43-47, 58-63. James H. Madison briefly summarizes the work of the Country Life Commission in Indiana Through Tradition and Change: A History of the Hoosier State and Its People, 1920-1945 (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1982), 295-99; James H. Madison, The Indiana Way: A State History (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1986), 98-108, 185-87. Edward W. Hassinger and John S. Holik, "Changes in the Number of Rural Churches in Missouri, 1952-1967," Rural Sociology 35 (September 1970): 354-66, show only a slight net loss in congregations, but open country churches suffered proportionally more losses.
6. Benson Y. Landis, Rural Church Life in the Middle West as Illustrated by Clay County, Iowa and Jennings County, Indiana with Comparative Data from Studies of Thirty-five Middle Western Counties (New York: G.H. Doran, 1922), 53; James H. Madison, "Reformers and the Rural Church, 1900-1950," Journal of American History 73 (December 1986): 645-68; Brian W. Beltman, "Rural Church Reform in Wisconsin During the Progressive Era," Wisconsin Magazine of History 60 (Autumn 1976): 3-24; Merwin Swanson, "The 'Country Life Movement' and the American Churches," Church History 46 (September 1977): 358-73; William L. Bowers, The Country Life Movement in America, 1900-1920 (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat, 1974); David Danbom, The Resisted Revolution: Urban America and the Industrialization of Agriculture, 1900-1930 (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1979), 16-17, 43-47, 58-63. James H. Madison briefly summarizes the work of the Country Life Commission in Indiana Through Tradition and Change: A History of the Hoosier State and Its People, 1920-1945 (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1982), 295-99; James H. Madison, The Indiana Way: A State History (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1986), 98-108, 185-87. Edward W. Hassinger and John S. Holik, "Changes in the Number of Rural Churches in Missouri, 1952-1967," Rural Sociology 35 (September 1970): 354-66, show only a slight net loss in congregations, but open country churches suffered proportionally more losses.
7. Benson Y. Landis, Rural Church Life in the Middle West as Illustrated by Clay County, Iowa and Jennings County, Indiana with Comparative Data from Studies of Thirty-five Middle Western Counties (New York: G.H. Doran, 1922), 53; James H. Madison, "Reformers and the Rural Church, 1900-1950," Journal of American History 73 (December 1986): 645-68; Brian W. Beltman, "Rural Church Reform in Wisconsin During the Progressive Era," Wisconsin Magazine of History 60 (Autumn 1976): 3-24; Merwin Swanson, "The 'Country Life Movement' and the American Churches," Church History 46 (September 1977): 358-73; William L. Bowers, The Country Life Movement in America, 1900-1920 (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat, 1974); David Danbom, The Resisted Revolution: Urban America and the Industrialization of Agriculture, 1900-1930 (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1979), 16-17, 43-47, 58-63. James H. Madison briefly summarizes the work of the Country Life Commission in Indiana Through Tradition and Change: A History of the Hoosier State and Its People, 1920-1945 (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1982), 295-99; James H. Madison, The Indiana Way: A State History (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1986), 98-108, 185-87. Edward W. Hassinger and John S. Holik, "Changes in the Number of Rural Churches in Missouri, 1952-1967," Rural Sociology 35 (September 1970): 354-66, show only a slight net loss in congregations, but open country churches suffered proportionally more losses.
8. Benson Y. Landis, Rural Church Life in the Middle West as Illustrated by Clay County, Iowa and Jennings County, Indiana with Comparative Data from Studies of Thirty-five Middle Western Counties (New York: G.H. Doran, 1922), 53; James H. Madison, "Reformers and the Rural Church, 1900-1950," Journal of American History 73 (December 1986): 645-68; Brian W. Beltman, "Rural Church Reform in Wisconsin During the Progressive Era," Wisconsin Magazine of History 60 (Autumn 1976): 3-24; Merwin Swanson, "The 'Country Life Movement' and the American Churches," Church History 46 (September 1977): 358-73; William L. Bowers, The Country Life Movement in America, 1900-1920 (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat, 1974); David Danbom, The Resisted Revolution: Urban America and the Industrialization of Agriculture, 1900-1930 (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1979), 16-17, 43-47, 58-63. James H. Madison briefly summarizes the work of the Country Life Commission in Indiana Through Tradition and Change: A History of the Hoosier State and Its People, 1920-1945 (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1982), 295-99; James H. Madison, The Indiana Way: A State History (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1986), 98-108, 185-87. Edward W. Hassinger and John S. Holik, "Changes in the Number of Rural Churches in Missouri, 1952-1967," Rural Sociology 35 (September 1970): 354-66, show only a slight net loss in congregations, but open country churches suffered proportionally more losses.
9. Benson Y. Landis, Rural Church Life in the Middle West as Illustrated by Clay County, Iowa and Jennings County, Indiana with Comparative Data from Studies of Thirty-five Middle Western Counties (New York: G.H. Doran, 1922), 53; James H. Madison, "Reformers and the Rural Church, 1900-1950," Journal of American History 73 (December 1986): 645-68; Brian W. Beltman, "Rural Church Reform in Wisconsin During the Progressive Era," Wisconsin Magazine of History 60 (Autumn 1976): 3-24; Merwin Swanson, "The 'Country Life Movement' and the American Churches," Church History 46 (September 1977): 358-73; William L. Bowers, The Country Life Movement in America, 1900-1920 (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat, 1974); David Danbom, The Resisted Revolution: Urban America and the Industrialization of Agriculture, 1900-1930 (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1979), 16-17, 43-47, 58-63. James H. Madison briefly summarizes the work of the Country Life Commission in Indiana Through Tradition and Change: A History of the Hoosier State and Its People, 1920-1945 (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1982), 295-99; James H. Madison, The Indiana Way: A State History (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1986), 98-108, 185-87. Edward W. Hassinger and John S. Holik, "Changes in the Number of Rural Churches in Missouri, 1952-1967," Rural Sociology 35 (September 1970): 354-66, show only a slight net loss in congregations, but open country churches suffered proportionally more losses.
10. Benson Y. Landis, Rural Church Life in the Middle West as Illustrated by Clay County, Iowa and Jennings County, Indiana with Comparative Data from Studies of Thirty-five Middle Western Counties (New York: G.H. Doran, 1922), 53; James H. Madison, "Reformers and the Rural Church, 1900-1950," Journal of American History 73 (December 1986): 645-68; Brian W. Beltman, "Rural Church Reform in Wisconsin During the Progressive Era," Wisconsin Magazine of History 60 (Autumn 1976): 3-24; Merwin Swanson, "The 'Country Life Movement' and the American Churches," Church History 46 (September 1977): 358-73; William L. Bowers, The Country Life Movement in America, 1900-1920 (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat, 1974); David Danbom, The Resisted Revolution: Urban America and the Industrialization of Agriculture, 1900-1930 (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1979), 16-17, 43-47, 58-63. James H. Madison briefly summarizes the work of the Country Life Commission in Indiana Through Tradition and Change: A History of the Hoosier State and Its People, 1920-1945 (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1982), 295-99; James H. Madison, The Indiana Way: A State History (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1986), 98-108, 185-87. Edward W. Hassinger and John S. Holik, "Changes in the Number of Rural Churches in Missouri, 1952-1967," Rural Sociology 35 (September 1970): 354-66, show only a slight net loss in congregations, but open country churches suffered proportionally more losses.
11. Benson Y. Landis, Rural Church Life in the Middle West as Illustrated by Clay County, Iowa and Jennings County, Indiana with Comparative Data from Studies of Thirty-five Middle Western Counties (New York: G.H. Doran, 1922), 53; James H. Madison, "Reformers and the Rural Church, 1900-1950," Journal of American History 73 (December 1986): 645-68; Brian W. Beltman, "Rural Church Reform in Wisconsin During the Progressive Era," Wisconsin Magazine of History 60 (Autumn 1976): 3-24; Merwin Swanson, "The 'Country Life Movement' and the American Churches," Church History 46 (September 1977): 358-73; William L. Bowers, The Country Life Movement in America, 1900-1920 (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat, 1974); David Danbom, The Resisted Revolution: Urban America and the Industrialization of Agriculture, 1900-1930 (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1979), 16-17, 43-47, 58-63. James H. Madison briefly summarizes the work of the Country Life Commission in Indiana Through Tradition and Change: A History of the Hoosier State and Its People, 1920-1945 (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1982), 295-99; James H. Madison, The Indiana Way: A State History (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1986), 98-108, 185-87. Edward W. Hassinger and John S. Holik, "Changes in the Number of Rural Churches in Missouri, 1952-1967," Rural Sociology 35 (September 1970): 354-66, show only a slight net loss in congregations, but open country churches suffered proportionally more losses.
12. Benson Y. Landis, Rural Church Life in the Middle West as Illustrated by Clay County, Iowa and Jennings County, Indiana with Comparative Data from Studies of Thirty-five Middle Western Counties (New York: G.H. Doran, 1922), 53; James H. Madison, "Reformers and the Rural Church, 1900-1950," Journal of American History 73 (December 1986): 645-68; Brian W. Beltman, "Rural Church Reform in Wisconsin During the Progressive Era," Wisconsin Magazine of History 60 (Autumn 1976): 3-24; Merwin Swanson, "The 'Country Life Movement' and the American Churches," Church History 46 (September 1977): 358-73; William L. Bowers, The Country Life Movement in America, 1900-1920 (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat, 1974); David Danbom, The Resisted Revolution: Urban America and the Industrialization of Agriculture, 1900-1930 (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1979), 16-17, 43-47, 58-63. James H. Madison briefly summarizes the work of the Country Life Commission in Indiana Through Tradition and Change: A History of the Hoosier State and Its People, 1920-1945 (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1982), 295-99; James H. Madison, The Indiana Way: A State History (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1986), 98-108, 185-87. Edward W. Hassinger and John S. Holik, "Changes in the Number of Rural Churches in Missouri, 1952-1967," Rural Sociology 35 (September 1970): 354-66, show only a slight net loss in congregations, but open country churches suffered proportionally more losses.
13. Joanna L. Stratton, Pioneer Women: Voices from the Kansas Frontier (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981), 183.
14. Russell Duncan, I Remember, 2nd ed. (Fargo, N.D.: R. Duncan, 1978), 116, 119.
15. Dave Wood, ed., Wisconsin Prairie Diary, 1869-1879, cited in Jane Marie Pederson, Between Memory and Reality: Family and Community in Rural Wisconsin, 1870-1970 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992), 117.
16. Dave Wood, ed., Wisconsin Prairie Diary, 1869-1879, cited in Jane Marie Pederson, Between Memory and Reality: Family and Community in Rural Wisconsin, 1870-1970 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992), 117.
17. Benjamin F. Gue, Diary of Benjamin F. Gue in Rural New York and Pioneer Iowa, 1847-1856, ed. Earle D. Ross (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1962), 12-13, 34-35, passim; Mary Neth, Preserving the Family Farm: Women, Community, and the Foundations of Agribusiness in the Midwest, 1900-1940 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 53-54, 68-69; Brian W. Beltman, Dutch Farmer in the Missouri Valley: Life and Letters of Ulbe Eringa, 1866-1950 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 78-79, 198-99; Harvey M. Sletten, Growing Up on Bald Hill Creek (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1977), 11-17; Alfred C. Nielsen, Life in an American Denmark (New York: Arno, 1979), 25-32, 85-89; Clarence A. Andrews, Growing Up in Iowa: Reminiscences of 14 Iowa Authors (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1978); Edward Everett Dale, "Old-Time Religion," Frontier Ways: Sketches of Life in the Old West (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1959); Thomas J. Morain, Prairie Grass Roots: An Iowa Small Town in the Early Twentieth Century (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1988), 13-14, 42-45.
18. Benjamin F. Gue, Diary of Benjamin F. Gue in Rural New York and Pioneer Iowa, 1847-1856, ed. Earle D. Ross (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1962), 12-13, 34-35, passim; Mary Neth, Preserving the Family Farm: Women, Community, and the Foundations of Agribusiness in the Midwest, 1900-1940 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 53-54, 68-69; Brian W. Beltman, Dutch Farmer in the Missouri Valley: Life and Letters of Ulbe Eringa, 1866-1950 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 78-79, 198-99; Harvey M. Sletten, Growing Up on Bald Hill Creek (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1977), 11-17; Alfred C. Nielsen, Life in an American Denmark (New York: Arno, 1979), 25-32, 85-89; Clarence A. Andrews, Growing Up in Iowa: Reminiscences of 14 Iowa Authors (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1978); Edward Everett Dale, "Old-Time Religion," Frontier Ways: Sketches of Life in the Old West (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1959); Thomas J. Morain, Prairie Grass Roots: An Iowa Small Town in the Early Twentieth Century (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1988), 13-14, 42-45.
19. Benjamin F. Gue, Diary of Benjamin F. Gue in Rural New York and Pioneer Iowa, 1847-1856, ed. Earle D. Ross (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1962), 12-13, 34-35, passim; Mary Neth, Preserving the Family Farm: Women, Community, and the Foundations of Agribusiness in the Midwest, 1900-1940 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 53-54, 68-69; Brian W. Beltman, Dutch Farmer in the Missouri Valley: Life and Letters of Ulbe Eringa, 1866-1950 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 78-79, 198-99; Harvey M. Sletten, Growing Up on Bald Hill Creek (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1977), 11-17; Alfred C. Nielsen, Life in an American Denmark (New York: Arno, 1979), 25-32, 85-89; Clarence A. Andrews, Growing Up in Iowa: Reminiscences of 14 Iowa Authors (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1978); Edward Everett Dale, "Old-Time Religion," Frontier Ways: Sketches of Life in the Old West (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1959); Thomas J. Morain, Prairie Grass Roots: An Iowa Small Town in the Early Twentieth Century (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1988), 13-14, 42-45.
20. Benjamin F. Gue, Diary of Benjamin F. Gue in Rural New York and Pioneer Iowa, 1847-1856, ed. Earle D. Ross (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1962), 12-13, 34-35, passim; Mary Neth, Preserving the Family Farm: Women, Community, and the Foundations of Agribusiness in the Midwest, 1900-1940 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 53-54, 68-69; Brian W. Beltman, Dutch Farmer in the Missouri Valley: Life and Letters of Ulbe Eringa, 1866-1950 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 78-79, 198-99; Harvey M. Sletten, Growing Up on Bald Hill Creek (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1977), 11-17; Alfred C. Nielsen, Life in an American Denmark (New York: Arno, 1979), 25-32, 85-89; Clarence A. Andrews, Growing Up in Iowa: Reminiscences of 14 Iowa Authors (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1978); Edward Everett Dale, "Old-Time Religion," Frontier Ways: Sketches of Life in the Old West (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1959); Thomas J. Morain, Prairie Grass Roots: An Iowa Small Town in the Early Twentieth Century (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1988), 13-14, 42-45.
21. Benjamin F. Gue, Diary of Benjamin F. Gue in Rural New York and Pioneer Iowa, 1847-1856, ed. Earle D. Ross (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1962), 12-13, 34-35, passim; Mary Neth, Preserving the Family Farm: Women, Community, and the Foundations of Agribusiness in the Midwest, 1900-1940 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 53-54, 68-69; Brian W. Beltman, Dutch Farmer in the Missouri Valley: Life and Letters of Ulbe Eringa, 1866-1950 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 78-79, 198-99; Harvey M. Sletten, Growing Up on Bald Hill Creek (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1977), 11-17; Alfred C. Nielsen, Life in an American Denmark (New York: Arno, 1979), 25-32, 85-89; Clarence A. Andrews, Growing Up in Iowa: Reminiscences of 14 Iowa Authors (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1978); Edward Everett Dale, "Old-Time Religion," Frontier Ways: Sketches of Life in the Old West (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1959); Thomas J. Morain, Prairie Grass Roots: An Iowa Small Town in the Early Twentieth Century (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1988), 13-14, 42-45.
22. Benjamin F. Gue, Diary of Benjamin F. Gue in Rural New York and Pioneer Iowa, 1847-1856, ed. Earle D. Ross (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1962), 12-13, 34-35, passim; Mary Neth, Preserving the Family Farm: Women, Community, and the Foundations of Agribusiness in the Midwest, 1900-1940 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 53-54, 68-69; Brian W. Beltman, Dutch Farmer in the Missouri Valley: Life and Letters of Ulbe Eringa, 1866-1950 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 78-79, 198-99; Harvey M. Sletten, Growing Up on Bald Hill Creek (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1977), 11-17; Alfred C. Nielsen, Life in an American Denmark (New York: Arno, 1979), 25-32, 85-89; Clarence A. Andrews, Growing Up in Iowa: Reminiscences of 14 Iowa Authors (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1978); Edward Everett Dale, "Old-Time Religion," Frontier Ways: Sketches of Life in the Old West (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1959); Thomas J. Morain, Prairie Grass Roots: An Iowa Small Town in the Early Twentieth Century (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1988), 13-14, 42-45.
23. Benjamin F. Gue, Diary of Benjamin F. Gue in Rural New York and Pioneer Iowa, 1847-1856, ed. Earle D. Ross (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1962), 12-13, 34-35, passim; Mary Neth, Preserving the Family Farm: Women, Community, and the Foundations of Agribusiness in the Midwest, 1900-1940 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 53-54, 68-69; Brian W. Beltman, Dutch Farmer in the Missouri Valley: Life and Letters of Ulbe Eringa, 1866-1950 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 78-79, 198-99; Harvey M. Sletten, Growing Up on Bald Hill Creek (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1977), 11-17; Alfred C. Nielsen, Life in an American Denmark (New York: Arno, 1979), 25-32, 85-89; Clarence A. Andrews, Growing Up in Iowa: Reminiscences of 14 Iowa Authors (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1978); Edward Everett Dale, "Old-Time Religion," Frontier Ways: Sketches of Life in the Old West (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1959); Thomas J. Morain, Prairie Grass Roots: An Iowa Small Town in the Early Twentieth Century (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1988), 13-14, 42-45.
24. Benjamin F. Gue, Diary of Benjamin F. Gue in Rural New York and Pioneer Iowa, 1847-1856, ed. Earle D. Ross (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1962), 12-13, 34-35, passim; Mary Neth, Preserving the Family Farm: Women, Community, and the Foundations of Agribusiness in the Midwest, 1900-1940 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 53-54, 68-69; Brian W. Beltman, Dutch Farmer in the Missouri Valley: Life and Letters of Ulbe Eringa, 1866-1950 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 78-79, 198-99; Harvey M. Sletten, Growing Up on Bald Hill Creek (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1977), 11-17; Alfred C. Nielsen, Life in an American Denmark (New York: Arno, 1979), 25-32, 85-89; Clarence A. Andrews, Growing Up in Iowa: Reminiscences of 14 Iowa Authors (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1978); Edward Everett Dale, "Old-Time Religion," Frontier Ways: Sketches of Life in the Old West (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1959); Thomas J. Morain, Prairie Grass Roots: An Iowa Small Town in the Early Twentieth Century (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1988), 13-14, 42-45.
25. Louis Bultena, "Rural Churches and Community Integration," Rural Sociology 9 (September 1944): 257-64; Sonya Salamon, Prairie Patrimony: Family, Farming, & Community in the Midwest (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 47; Barbara Jane Dilly, "A Comparative Study of Religious Resistance to Erosion of the Soil and the Soul Among Three Farming Communities in Northeast Iowa" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Irvine, 1994), 187; David O. Moberg, The Church as a Social Institution: The Sociology of American Religion (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1962), 131-57. That rural churches had high religiosity is shown in Hart M. Nelson and Raytha L. Yokley, "Rural-Urban Differences in Religiosity," Rural Sociology 36 (September 1971): 389-96.
26. Louis Bultena, "Rural Churches and Community Integration," Rural Sociology 9 (September 1944): 257-64; Sonya Salamon, Prairie Patrimony: Family, Farming, & Community in the Midwest (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 47; Barbara Jane Dilly, "A Comparative Study of Religious Resistance to Erosion of the Soil and the Soul Among Three Farming Communities in Northeast Iowa" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Irvine, 1994), 187; David O. Moberg, The Church as a Social Institution: The Sociology of American Religion (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1962), 131-57. That rural churches had high religiosity is shown in Hart M. Nelson and Raytha L. Yokley, "Rural-Urban Differences in Religiosity," Rural Sociology 36 (September 1971): 389-96.
27. Louis Bultena, "Rural Churches and Community Integration," Rural Sociology 9 (September 1944): 257-64; Sonya Salamon, Prairie Patrimony: Family, Farming, & Community in the Midwest (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 47; Barbara Jane Dilly, "A Comparative Study of Religious Resistance to Erosion of the Soil and the Soul Among Three Farming Communities in Northeast Iowa" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Irvine, 1994), 187; David O. Moberg, The Church as a Social Institution: The Sociology of American Religion (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1962), 131-57. That rural churches had high religiosity is shown in Hart M. Nelson and Raytha L. Yokley, "Rural-Urban Differences in Religiosity," Rural Sociology 36 (September 1971): 389-96.
28. Louis Bultena, "Rural Churches and Community Integration," Rural Sociology 9 (September 1944): 257-64; Sonya Salamon, Prairie Patrimony: Family, Farming, & Community in the Midwest (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 47; Barbara Jane Dilly, "A Comparative Study of Religious Resistance to Erosion of the Soil and the Soul Among Three Farming Communities in Northeast Iowa" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Irvine, 1994), 187; David O. Moberg, The Church as a Social Institution: The Sociology of American Religion (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1962), 131-57. That rural churches had high religiosity is shown in Hart M. Nelson and Raytha L. Yokley, "Rural-Urban Differences in Religiosity," Rural Sociology 36 (September 1971): 389-96.
29. Louis Bultena, "Rural Churches and Community Integration," Rural Sociology 9 (September 1944): 257-64; Sonya Salamon, Prairie Patrimony: Family, Farming, & Community in the Midwest (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 47; Barbara Jane Dilly, "A Comparative Study of Religious Resistance to Erosion of the Soil and the Soul Among Three Farming Communities in Northeast Iowa" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Irvine, 1994), 187; David O. Moberg, The Church as a Social Institution: The Sociology of American Religion (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1962), 131-57. That rural churches had high religiosity is shown in Hart M. Nelson and Raytha L. Yokley, "Rural-Urban Differences in Religiosity," Rural Sociology 36 (September 1971): 389-96.
30. John Mack Faragher, Sugar Creek: Life on the Illinois Prairie (New Haven: Yale University Prees, 1986), 168.
31. Michael Winter, "The Sociology of Religion and Rural Sociology: A Review Article," Sociologia Ruralis 31, no. 2-3 (1991): 205-6. For an excellent description of the place of religious rituals in an immigrant community, see Jane Marie Pederson, Between Memory and Reality: Family and Community in Rural Wisconsin, 1870-1970 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992), 129-38.
32. Michael Winter, "The Sociology of Religion and Rural Sociology: A Review Article," Sociologia Ruralis 31, no. 2-3 (1991): 205-6. For an excellent description of the place of religious rituals in an immigrant community, see Jane Marie Pederson, Between Memory and Reality: Family and Community in Rural Wisconsin, 1870-1970 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992), 129-38.
33. David B. Danbom, Born in the Country: A History of Rural America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1995), 265. Some church organizations active in the farm crisis were the National Catholic Rural Life Conference and Prairie Fire Rural Action, both of Des Moines, Iowa. Lutheran pastor Lowell Bolstad, director of Rural Ministries for the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, wrote Strengthening Our Rural Communities (Prairie Farm, Wis.: Prairie Farm, 1988), and Who Will Stand Up for the Family Farm (Prairie Farm, Wis.: Prairie Farm, 1987). I am indebted to Jan Curry-Roper for these references.
34. David B. Danbom, Born in the Country: A History of Rural America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1995), 265. Some church organizations active in the farm crisis were the National Catholic Rural Life Conference and Prairie Fire Rural Action, both of Des Moines, Iowa. Lutheran pastor Lowell Bolstad, director of Rural Ministries for the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, wrote Strengthening Our Rural Communities (Prairie Farm, Wis.: Prairie Farm, 1988), and Who Will Stand Up for the Family Farm (Prairie Farm, Wis.: Prairie Farm, 1987). I am indebted to Jan Curry-Roper for these references.
35. David B. Danbom, Born in the Country: A History of Rural America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1995), 265. Some church organizations active in the farm crisis were the National Catholic Rural Life Conference and Prairie Fire Rural Action, both of Des Moines, Iowa. Lutheran pastor Lowell Bolstad, director of Rural Ministries for the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, wrote Strengthening Our Rural Communities (Prairie Farm, Wis.: Prairie Farm, 1988), and Who Will Stand Up for the Family Farm (Prairie Farm, Wis.: Prairie Farm, 1987). I am indebted to Jan Curry-Roper for these references.
36. Joan M. Jensen, "'You May Depend She Does Not Eat Much Idle Bread': Mid-Atlantic Farm Women and Their Historians," Agricultural History 61 (Winter 1987): 29-46.
37. Stratton, Pioneer Women, 172-73.
38. Ibid., 172.
39. Susan E. Gray, The Yankee West: Community Life an the Michigan Frontier (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 119-38, quote 136. See also Bultena, "Rural Churches," 259-61.
40. Susan E. Gray, The Yankee West: Community Life an the Michigan Frontier (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 119-38, quote 136. See also Bultena, "Rural Churches," 259-61.
41. Pederson, Between Memory and Reality, 133-34, 144-46. See also Odd S. Lovell, Norwegians on the Land, Historical Essays on Rural Life, Society for the Study of Local and Regional History, Southwest State University (Marshall, Minn., 1992).
42. Pederson, Between Memory and Reality, 133-34, 144-46. See also Odd S. Lovell, Norwegians on the Land, Historical Essays on Rural Life, Society for the Study of Local and Regional History, Southwest State University (Marshall, Minn., 1992).
43. Faragher, Sugar Creek, 170; George M. Stephenson, The Religious Aspects of Swedish Immigration: A Study of Immigrant Churches (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1932), 407-8; Robert C. Ostergren, "The Immigrant Church as a Symbol of Community and Place on the Landscape of the American Upper Midwest," Great Plains Quarterly 1 (Fall 1981): 224-38; Robert L. Skrabanek, We're Czechs (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1988).
44. Faragher, Sugar Creek, 170; George M. Stephenson, The Religious Aspects of Swedish Immigration: A Study of Immigrant Churches (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1932), 407-8; Robert C. Ostergren, "The Immigrant Church as a Symbol of Community and Place on the Landscape of the American Upper Midwest," Great Plains Quarterly 1 (Fall 1981): 224-38; Robert L. Skrabanek, We're Czechs (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1988).
45. Faragher, Sugar Creek, 170; George M. Stephenson, The Religious Aspects of Swedish Immigration: A Study of Immigrant Churches (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1932), 407-8; Robert C. Ostergren, "The Immigrant Church as a Symbol of Community and Place on the Landscape of the American Upper Midwest," Great Plains Quarterly 1 (Fall 1981): 224-38; Robert L. Skrabanek, We're Czechs (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1988).
46. Faragher, Sugar Creek, 170; George M. Stephenson, The Religious Aspects of Swedish Immigration: A Study of Immigrant Churches (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1932), 407-8; Robert C. Ostergren, "The Immigrant Church as a Symbol of Community and Place on the Landscape of the American Upper Midwest," Great Plains Quarterly 1 (Fall 1981): 224-38; Robert L. Skrabanek, We're Czechs (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1988).
47. Pederson, Between Memory and Reality, 125, 130.
48. Deborah Fink, Open Country, Iowa: Rural Women, Traditions, and Change (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986), 92. Fink stressed class and ignored ethnicity and religion as independent variables, even though her sample included Dutch Reformed, Quakers, German and Norwegian Lutherans, various English groups (Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists), and German and Irish Catholics (7, 226-27). Gro Svendsen, an intelligent woman who earned the title "frontier mother" in the Norwegian community of Estherville, Iowa, in the 1860s and 1870s, where she died birthing her tenth child, worshiped regularly with her husband Ole in the Norwegian church and sent the boys to the Norwegian Sunday school. "So you see," she wrote her parents in the old country, "we strive to do what we can to help them learn something useful both for time and eternity." Gro Svendsen, Frontier Mother: The Letters of Gro Svendsen, trans. and ed. Pauline Farseth and Theodore C. Biegen (1950; reprint, New York: Arno, 1979), 120, 128-29, 136-37.
49. Deborah Fink, Open Country, Iowa: Rural Women, Traditions, and Change (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986), 92. Fink stressed class and ignored ethnicity and religion as independent variables, even though her sample included Dutch Reformed, Quakers, German and Norwegian Lutherans, various English groups (Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists), and German and Irish Catholics (7, 226-27). Gro Svendsen, an intelligent woman who earned the title "frontier mother" in the Norwegian community of Estherville, Iowa, in the 1860s and 1870s, where she died birthing her tenth child, worshiped regularly with her husband Ole in the Norwegian church and sent the boys to the Norwegian Sunday school. "So you see," she wrote her parents in the old country, "we strive to do what we can to help them learn something useful both for time and eternity." Gro Svendsen, Frontier Mother: The Letters of Gro Svendsen, trans. and ed. Pauline Farseth and Theodore C. Biegen (1950; reprint, New York: Arno, 1979), 120, 128-29, 136-37.
50. Carol K. Coburn, Life at Four Corners: Religion, Gender, and Education in a German-Lutheran Community, 1868-1945 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1992), 152-53; Ronald lager, Eighty Acres: Elegy for a Family Farm (Boston: Beacon Press, 1990). Similarly, Jeanette Keith in Country People in the New South: Tennessee's Upper Cumberland (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995) states that "next to families, churches mattered most"; they set the moral standard (45-46, 52). Virginia K. Bartlett, Keeping House: Women's Lives in Western Pennsylvania, 1790-1850 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1994), explained that "since the earliest days of settlement, religion had been a strong influence on the lives of rural settlers" (131).
51. Carol K. Coburn, Life at Four Corners: Religion, Gender, and Education in a German-Lutheran Community, 1868-1945 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1992), 152-53; Ronald lager, Eighty Acres: Elegy for a Family Farm (Boston: Beacon Press, 1990). Similarly, Jeanette Keith in Country People in the New South: Tennessee's Upper Cumberland (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995) states that "next to families, churches mattered most"; they set the moral standard (45-46, 52). Virginia K. Bartlett, Keeping House: Women's Lives in Western Pennsylvania, 1790-1850 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1994), explained that "since the earliest days of settlement, religion had been a strong influence on the lives of rural settlers" (131).
52. Carol K. Coburn, Life at Four Corners: Religion, Gender, and Education in a German-Lutheran Community, 1868-1945 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1992), 152-53; Ronald lager, Eighty Acres: Elegy for a Family Farm (Boston: Beacon Press, 1990). Similarly, Jeanette Keith in Country People in the New South: Tennessee's Upper Cumberland (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995) states that "next to families, churches mattered most"; they set the moral standard (45-46, 52). Virginia K. Bartlett, Keeping House: Women's Lives in Western Pennsylvania, 1790-1850 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1994), explained that "since the earliest days of settlement, religion had been a strong influence on the lives of rural settlers" (131).
53. Carol K. Coburn, Life at Four Corners: Religion, Gender, and Education in a German-Lutheran Community, 1868-1945 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1992), 152-53; Ronald lager, Eighty Acres: Elegy for a Family Farm (Boston: Beacon Press, 1990). Similarly, Jeanette Keith in Country People in the New South: Tennessee's Upper Cumberland (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995) states that "next to families, churches mattered most"; they set the moral standard (45-46, 52). Virginia K. Bartlett, Keeping House: Women's Lives in Western Pennsylvania, 1790-1850 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1994), explained that "since the earliest days of settlement, religion had been a strong influence on the lives of rural settlers" (131).
54. Lee Benson, The Concept of Jacksonian Democracy: New York as a Test Case (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961); Richard L. McCormick, "The Social Analysis of American Political History - After Twenty Years," in Richard L. McCormick, The Party Period and Public Policy: American Politics from the Age of Jackson to the Progressive Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 89-140; Robert P. Swierenga, "Ethnoreligious Political Behavior in the Mid-Nineteenth Century: Voting, Values, and Cultures," in Mark A. Noll, ed., Religion and American Politics: From the Colonial Period to the 1980s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 146-71.
55. Lee Benson, The Concept of Jacksonian Democracy: New York as a Test Case (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961); Richard L. McCormick, "The Social Analysis of American Political History - After Twenty Years," in Richard L. McCormick, The Party Period and Public Policy: American Politics from the Age of Jackson to the Progressive Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 89-140; Robert P. Swierenga, "Ethnoreligious Political Behavior in the Mid-Nineteenth Century: Voting, Values, and Cultures," in Mark A. Noll, ed., Religion and American Politics: From the Colonial Period to the 1980s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 146-71.
56. Lee Benson, The Concept of Jacksonian Democracy: New York as a Test Case (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961); Richard L. McCormick, "The Social Analysis of American Political History - After Twenty Years," in Richard L. McCormick, The Party Period and Public Policy: American Politics from the Age of Jackson to the Progressive Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 89-140; Robert P. Swierenga, "Ethnoreligious Political Behavior in the Mid-Nineteenth Century: Voting, Values, and Cultures," in Mark A. Noll, ed., Religion and American Politics: From the Colonial Period to the 1980s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 146-71.
57. Wuthnow defined worldview as "all the beliefs that an individual holds about the nature of reality," in "Two Traditions in the Study of Religion," Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 20 (March 1981): 24. Social scientists have dismissed religion as a variable in the belief that (1) religion had a minimal impact; or (2) religious activity is merely ancillary to social life, which is driven by basic economic and political processes; or (3) religious life is important but only in its own private sphere, apart from the public square. For an elaboration on this point, see Jon Miller, " Missions, Social Change, and Resistance to Authority: Notes Toward an Understanding of the Relative Autonomy of Religion," Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 32 (Spring 1993): 29-50. Richard Hofstadter, Anti-Intellectualism in American Life (New York: Knopf, 1962), took the opposite view that religious ideology was derived from religious lifestyle. In this functional explanation of religion, fundamentalism's engagement with modernism is explained by the conflict between "rural" and "modern" values. Actually, religion and culture intersect and influences run in both directions.
58. Wuthnow defined worldview as "all the beliefs that an individual holds about the nature of reality," in "Two Traditions in the Study of Religion," Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 20 (March 1981): 24. Social scientists have dismissed religion as a variable in the belief that (1) religion had a minimal impact; or (2) religious activity is merely ancillary to social life, which is driven by basic economic and political processes; or (3) religious life is important but only in its own private sphere, apart from the public square. For an elaboration on this point, see Jon Miller, " Missions, Social Change, and Resistance to Authority: Notes Toward an Understanding of the Relative Autonomy of Religion," Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 32 (Spring 1993): 29-50. Richard Hofstadter, Anti-Intellectualism in American Life (New York: Knopf, 1962), took the opposite view that religious ideology was derived from religious lifestyle. In this functional explanation of religion, fundamentalism's engagement with modernism is explained by the conflict between "rural" and "modern" values. Actually, religion and culture intersect and influences run in both directions.
59. Wuthnow defined worldview as "all the beliefs that an individual holds about the nature of reality," in "Two Traditions in the Study of Religion," Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 20 (March 1981): 24. Social scientists have dismissed religion as a variable in the belief that (1) religion had a minimal impact; or (2) religious activity is merely ancillary to social life, which is driven by basic economic and political processes; or (3) religious life is important but only in its own private sphere, apart from the public square. For an elaboration on this point, see Jon Miller, " Missions, Social Change, and Resistance to Authority: Notes Toward an Understanding of the Relative Autonomy of Religion," Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 32 (Spring 1993): 29-50. Richard Hofstadter, Anti-Intellectualism in American Life (New York: Knopf, 1962), took the opposite view that religious ideology was derived from religious lifestyle. In this functional explanation of religion, fundamentalism's engagement with modernism is explained by the conflict between "rural" and "modern" values. Actually, religion and culture intersect and influences run in both directions.
60. Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (New York: Scribner's, 1958).
61. Winter offers one explanation. "The neglect of religion," he says, "is symptomatic of a wider failure to come to terms with ideological analysis. As soon as it is accepted that ideology requires explanation rather than description, an urgent task emerges to examine the implications for constructions of rurality of key expressions of culture such as religion." Timing may be a factor too. Agricultural history emerged as an academic discipline after the forces of secularization had reduced rural churches to the social periphery. Agricultural historians read the signs of decay in rural religious vitality, which were decried by the Country Life Movement, and by extrapolation perhaps assumed that such churches had always been marginal. Nevertheless, religion influenced the social processes of agricultural life both before and after 1920 (Winter, "Sociology of Religion and Rural Sociology," 202).
62. Allan G. Bogue, From Prairie to Cornbelt: Farming on the Illinois and Iowa Prairies in the Nineteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963), 237-38; Robert G. Ostergren, A Community Transplanted: The Trans-Atlantic Experience of a Swedish Immigrant Settlement in the Upper Middle West, 1835-1915 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988); Terry D. Jordan, German Seed in Texas Soil: Immigrant Farmers in Nineteenth-Century Texas (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1976), 194-203; Russell L. Gerlach, Immigrants in the Ozarks: A Study in Ethnic Geography (Colombia: University of Missouri Press, 1976). For a commentary on the literature before 1980, see Robert P. Swierenga, "Ethnicity and American Agriculture, Ohio History 89 (Summer 1980): 323-44.
63. Allan G. Bogue, From Prairie to Cornbelt: Farming on the Illinois and Iowa Prairies in the Nineteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963), 237-38; Robert G. Ostergren, A Community Transplanted: The Trans-Atlantic Experience of a Swedish Immigrant Settlement in the Upper Middle West, 1835-1915 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988); Terry D. Jordan, German Seed in Texas Soil: Immigrant Farmers in Nineteenth-Century Texas (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1976), 194-203; Russell L. Gerlach, Immigrants in the Ozarks: A Study in Ethnic Geography (Colombia: University of Missouri Press, 1976). For a commentary on the literature before 1980, see Robert P. Swierenga, "Ethnicity and American Agriculture, Ohio History 89 (Summer 1980): 323-44.
64. Allan G. Bogue, From Prairie to Cornbelt: Farming on the Illinois and Iowa Prairies in the Nineteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963), 237-38; Robert G. Ostergren, A Community Transplanted: The Trans-Atlantic Experience of a Swedish Immigrant Settlement in the Upper Middle West, 1835-1915 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988); Terry D. Jordan, German Seed in Texas Soil: Immigrant Farmers in Nineteenth-Century Texas (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1976), 194-203; Russell L. Gerlach, Immigrants in the Ozarks: A Study in Ethnic Geography (Colombia: University of Missouri Press, 1976). For a commentary on the literature before 1980, see Robert P. Swierenga, "Ethnicity and American Agriculture, Ohio History 89 (Summer 1980): 323-44.
65. Allan G. Bogue, From Prairie to Cornbelt: Farming on the Illinois and Iowa Prairies in the Nineteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963), 237-38; Robert G. Ostergren, A Community Transplanted: The Trans-Atlantic Experience of a Swedish Immigrant Settlement in the Upper Middle West, 1835-1915 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988); Terry D. Jordan, German Seed in Texas Soil: Immigrant Farmers in Nineteenth-Century Texas (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1976), 194-203; Russell L. Gerlach, Immigrants in the Ozarks: A Study in Ethnic Geography (Colombia: University of Missouri Press, 1976). For a commentary on the literature before 1980, see Robert P. Swierenga, "Ethnicity and American Agriculture, Ohio History 89 (Summer 1980): 323-44.
66. Allan G. Bogue, From Prairie to Cornbelt: Farming on the Illinois and Iowa Prairies in the Nineteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963), 237-38; Robert G. Ostergren, A Community Transplanted: The Trans-Atlantic Experience of a Swedish Immigrant Settlement in the Upper Middle West, 1835-1915 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988); Terry D. Jordan, German Seed in Texas Soil: Immigrant Farmers in Nineteenth-Century Texas (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1976), 194-203; Russell L. Gerlach, Immigrants in the Ozarks: A Study in Ethnic Geography (Colombia: University of Missouri Press, 1976). For a commentary on the literature before 1980, see Robert P. Swierenga, "Ethnicity and American Agriculture, Ohio History 89 (Summer 1980): 323-44.
67. Salamon, Prairie Patrimony, 15-23, 93, and 253-55, for a typology of midwestern farming patterns. An investigation of Illinois centennial farms by Gary Foster and associates, which randomly sampled nearly 1,100 farm households throughout the state, confirmed that for one hundred years the cultural differences persisted between Yankee and German farmers (Gary Foster, Richard Hummel, and Robert Whittenburger, "Ethnic Echoes Through 100 Years of Midwestern Agriculture," Rural Sociology 52 (Fall 1987): 365-78). But see John M. Stitz, "A Study of Family Farm Culture in Ellis County, Kansas, and the Relationship of that Culture to Trends in Farming" (Ph.D. diss., University of Kansas, 1983); and Jan L. Flora and John M. Stitz, "Ethnicity, Persistence, and Capitalization of Agriculture in the Great Plains during the Settlement Period: Wheat Production and Risk Avoidance," Rural Sociology 50 (Fall 1985): 341-60. See also Kathleen Conzen, "Generational Succession among German Farmers in Frontier Minnesota," 259-92, in The Countryside in the Age of Capitalist Transformation, ed. Steven Hahn and Jonathan Prude (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985); and Kathleen Conzen, "Immigrants in Nineteenth-Century Agricultural History," 303-41, in Agricultural and National Development: Views on the Nineteenth Century, ed. Lou Ferleger (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1990); Jette Mackintosh, "Ethnic Patterns in Danish Immigrant Agriculture: A Study of Audobon and Shelby Counties, Iowa," Agricultural History 64 (Fall 1990): 59-77; Janel Curry-Roper and John Bowles, "Local Factors in Changing Land-Tenure Patterns," Geographical Review 81 (October 1991): 443-56; John Radzilowski, Out on the Wind: Poles and Danes in Lincoln County, Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1992); Joseph A. Amato, Servants of the Land: God, Family, and form; The Trinity of Belgian Economic Folkways in Southeastern Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1990); Frederick C. Luebke, ed., Ethnicity on the Great Plains (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980). An exception to this characterization of Yankees as "landers" is the South Haven, Michigan, horticulturalists, Liberty Hyde Bailey, senior and junior, of Vermont Congregational stock, who regarded land and the natural world as a "gift from God" to be farmed in a stewardly manner. See Margaret Beattie Bogue, "Liberty Hyde Bailey, Jr. and the Bailey Family Farm," Agricultural History 63 (Winter 1989): 26-48, esp. 45.
68. Salamon, Prairie Patrimony, 15-23, 93, and 253-55, for a typology of midwestern farming patterns. An investigation of Illinois centennial farms by Gary Foster and associates, which randomly sampled nearly 1,100 farm households throughout the state, confirmed that for one hundred years the cultural differences persisted between Yankee and German farmers (Gary Foster, Richard Hummel, and Robert Whittenburger, "Ethnic Echoes Through 100 Years of Midwestern Agriculture," Rural Sociology 52 (Fall 1987): 365-78). But see John M. Stitz, "A Study of Family Farm Culture in Ellis County, Kansas, and the Relationship of that Culture to Trends in Farming" (Ph.D. diss., University of Kansas, 1983); and Jan L. Flora and John M. Stitz, "Ethnicity, Persistence, and Capitalization of Agriculture in the Great Plains during the Settlement Period: Wheat Production and Risk Avoidance," Rural Sociology 50 (Fall 1985): 341-60. See also Kathleen Conzen, "Generational Succession among German Farmers in Frontier Minnesota," 259-92, in The Countryside in the Age of Capitalist Transformation, ed. Steven Hahn and Jonathan Prude (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985); and Kathleen Conzen, "Immigrants in Nineteenth-Century Agricultural History," 303-41, in Agricultural and National Development: Views on the Nineteenth Century, ed. Lou Ferleger (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1990); Jette Mackintosh, "Ethnic Patterns in Danish Immigrant Agriculture: A Study of Audobon and Shelby Counties, Iowa," Agricultural History 64 (Fall 1990): 59-77; Janel Curry-Roper and John Bowles, "Local Factors in Changing Land-Tenure Patterns," Geographical Review 81 (October 1991): 443-56; John Radzilowski, Out on the Wind: Poles and Danes in Lincoln County, Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1992); Joseph A. Amato, Servants of the Land: God, Family, and form; The Trinity of Belgian Economic Folkways in Southeastern Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1990); Frederick C. Luebke, ed., Ethnicity on the Great Plains (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980). An exception to this characterization of Yankees as "landers" is the South Haven, Michigan, horticulturalists, Liberty Hyde Bailey, senior and junior, of Vermont Congregational stock, who regarded land and the natural world as a "gift from God" to be farmed in a stewardly manner. See Margaret Beattie Bogue, "Liberty Hyde Bailey, Jr. and the Bailey Family Farm," Agricultural History 63 (Winter 1989): 26-48, esp. 45.
69. Salamon, Prairie Patrimony, 15-23, 93, and 253-55, for a typology of midwestern farming patterns. An investigation of Illinois centennial farms by Gary Foster and associates, which randomly sampled nearly 1,100 farm households throughout the state, confirmed that for one hundred years the cultural differences persisted between Yankee and German farmers (Gary Foster, Richard Hummel, and Robert Whittenburger, "Ethnic Echoes Through 100 Years of Midwestern Agriculture," Rural Sociology 52 (Fall 1987): 365-78). But see John M. Stitz, "A Study of Family Farm Culture in Ellis County, Kansas, and the Relationship of that Culture to Trends in Farming" (Ph.D. diss., University of Kansas, 1983); and Jan L. Flora and John M. Stitz, "Ethnicity, Persistence, and Capitalization of Agriculture in the Great Plains during the Settlement Period: Wheat Production and Risk Avoidance," Rural Sociology 50 (Fall 1985): 341-60. See also Kathleen Conzen, "Generational Succession among German Farmers in Frontier Minnesota," 259-92, in The Countryside in the Age of Capitalist Transformation, ed. Steven Hahn and Jonathan Prude (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985); and Kathleen Conzen, "Immigrants in Nineteenth-Century Agricultural History," 303-41, in Agricultural and National Development: Views on the Nineteenth Century, ed. Lou Ferleger (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1990); Jette Mackintosh, "Ethnic Patterns in Danish Immigrant Agriculture: A Study of Audobon and Shelby Counties, Iowa," Agricultural History 64 (Fall 1990): 59-77; Janel Curry-Roper and John Bowles, "Local Factors in Changing Land-Tenure Patterns," Geographical Review 81 (October 1991): 443-56; John Radzilowski, Out on the Wind: Poles and Danes in Lincoln County, Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1992); Joseph A. Amato, Servants of the Land: God, Family, and form; The Trinity of Belgian Economic Folkways in Southeastern Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1990); Frederick C. Luebke, ed.,
70. Salamon, Prairie Patrimony, 15-23, 93, and 253-55, for a typology of midwestern farming patterns. An investigation of Illinois centennial farms by Gary Foster and associates, which randomly sampled nearly 1,100 farm households throughout the state, confirmed that for one hundred years the cultural differences persisted between Yankee and German farmers (Gary Foster, Richard Hummel, and Robert Whittenburger, "Ethnic Echoes Through 100 Years of Midwestern Agriculture," Rural Sociology 52 (Fall 1987): 365-78). But see John M. Stitz, "A Study of Family Farm Culture in Ellis County, Kansas, and the Relationship of that Culture to Trends in Farming" (Ph.D. diss., University of Kansas, 1983); and Jan L. Flora and John M. Stitz, "Ethnicity, Persistence, and Capitalization of Agriculture in the Great Plains during the Settlement Period: Wheat Production and Risk Avoidance," Rural Sociology 50 (Fall 1985): 341-60. See also Kathleen Conzen, "Generational Succession among German Farmers in Frontier Minnesota," 259-92, in The Countryside in the Age of Capitalist Transformation, ed. Steven Hahn and Jonathan Prude (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985); and Kathleen Conzen, "Immigrants in Nineteenth-Century Agricultural History," 303-41, in Agricultural and National Development: Views on the Nineteenth Century, ed. Lou Ferleger (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1990); Jette Mackintosh, "Ethnic Patterns in Danish Immigrant Agriculture: A Study of Audobon and Shelby Counties, Iowa," Agricultural History 64 (Fall 1990): 59-77; Janel Curry-Roper and John Bowles, "Local Factors in Changing Land-Tenure Patterns," Geographical Review 81 (October 1991): 443-56; John Radzilowski, Out on the Wind: Poles and Danes in Lincoln County, Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1992); Joseph A. Amato, Servants of the Land: God, Family, and form; The Trinity of Belgian Economic Folkways in Southeastern Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1990); Frederick C. Luebke, ed., Ethnicity on the Great Plains (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980). An exception to this characterization of Yankees as "landers" is the South Haven, Michigan, horticulturalists, Liberty Hyde Bailey, senior and junior, of Vermont Congregational stock, who regarded land and the natural world as a "gift from God" to be farmed in a stewardly manner. See Margaret Beattie Bogue, "Liberty Hyde Bailey, Jr. and the Bailey Family Farm," Agricultural History 63 (Winter 1989): 26-48, esp. 45.
71. Salamon, Prairie Patrimony, 15-23, 93, and 253-55, for a typology of midwestern farming patterns. An investigation of Illinois centennial farms by Gary Foster and associates, which randomly sampled nearly 1,100 farm households throughout the state, confirmed that for one hundred years the cultural differences persisted between Yankee and German farmers (Gary Foster, Richard Hummel, and Robert Whittenburger, "Ethnic Echoes Through 100 Years of Midwestern Agriculture," Rural Sociology 52 (Fall 1987): 365-78). But see John M. Stitz, "A Study of Family Farm Culture in Ellis County, Kansas, and the Relationship of that Culture to Trends in Farming" (Ph.D. diss., University of Kansas, 1983); and Jan L. Flora and John M. Stitz, "Ethnicity, Persistence, and Capitalization of Agriculture in the Great Plains during the Settlement Period: Wheat Production and Risk Avoidance," Rural Sociology 50 (Fall 1985): 341-60. See also Kathleen Conzen, "Generational Succession among German Farmers in Frontier Minnesota," 259-92, in The Countryside in the Age of Capitalist Transformation, ed. Steven Hahn and Jonathan Prude (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985); and Kathleen Conzen, "Immigrants in Nineteenth-Century Agricultural History," 303-41, in Agricultural and National Development: Views on the Nineteenth Century, ed. Lou Ferleger (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1990); Jette Mackintosh, "Ethnic Patterns in Danish Immigrant Agriculture: A Study of Audobon and Shelby Counties, Iowa," Agricultural History 64 (Fall 1990): 59-77; Janel Curry-Roper and John Bowles, "Local Factors in Changing Land-Tenure Patterns," Geographical Review 81 (October 1991): 443-56; John Radzilowski, Out on the Wind: Poles and Danes in Lincoln County, Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1992); Joseph A. Amato, Servants of the Land: God, Family, and form; The Trinity of Belgian Economic Folkways in Southeastern Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1990); Frederick C. Luebke, ed., Ethnicity on the Great Plains (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980). An exception to this characterization of Yankees as "landers" is the South Haven, Michigan, horticulturalists, Liberty Hyde Bailey, senior and junior, of Vermont Congregational stock, who regarded land and the natural world as a "gift from God" to be farmed in a stewardly manner. See Margaret Beattie Bogue, "Liberty Hyde Bailey, Jr. and the Bailey Family Farm," Agricultural History 63 (Winter 1989): 26-48, esp. 45.
72. Salamon, Prairie Patrimony, 15-23, 93, and 253-55, for a typology of midwestern farming patterns. An investigation of Illinois centennial farms by Gary Foster and associates, which randomly sampled nearly 1,100 farm households throughout the state, confirmed that for one hundred years the cultural differences persisted between Yankee and German farmers (Gary Foster, Richard Hummel, and Robert Whittenburger, "Ethnic Echoes Through 100 Years of Midwestern Agriculture," Rural Sociology 52 (Fall 1987): 365-78). But see John M. Stitz, "A Study of Family Farm Culture in Ellis County, Kansas, and the Relationship of that Culture to Trends in Farming" (Ph.D. diss., University of Kansas, 1983); and Jan L. Flora and John M. Stitz, "Ethnicity, Persistence, and Capitalization of Agriculture in the Great Plains during the Settlement Period: Wheat Production and Risk Avoidance," Rural Sociology 50 (Fall 1985): 341-60. See also Kathleen Conzen, "Generational Succession among German Farmers in Frontier Minnesota," 259-92, in The Countryside in the Age of Capitalist Transformation, ed. Steven Hahn and Jonathan Prude (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985); and Kathleen Conzen, "Immigrants in Nineteenth-Century Agricultural History," 303-41, in Agricultural and National Development: Views on the Nineteenth Century, ed. Lou Ferleger (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1990); Jette Mackintosh, "Ethnic Patterns in Danish Immigrant Agriculture: A Study of Audobon and Shelby Counties, Iowa," Agricultural History 64 (Fall 1990): 59-77; Janel Curry-Roper and John Bowles, "Local Factors in Changing Land-Tenure Patterns," Geographical Review 81 (October 1991): 443-56; John Radzilowski, Out on the Wind: Poles and Danes in Lincoln County, Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1992); Joseph A. Amato, Servants of the Land: God, Family, and form; The Trinity of Belgian Economic Folkways in Southeastern Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1990); Frederick C. Luebke, ed., Ethnicity on the Great Plains (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980). An exception to this characterization of Yankees as "landers" is the South Haven, Michigan, horticulturalists, Liberty Hyde Bailey, senior and junior, of Vermont Congregational stock, who regarded land and the natural world as a "gift from God" to be farmed in a stewardly manner. See Margaret Beattie Bogue, "Liberty Hyde Bailey, Jr. and the Bailey Family Farm," Agricultural History 63 (Winter 1989): 26-48, esp. 45.
73. Salamon, Prairie Patrimony, 15-23, 93, and 253-55, for a typology of midwestern farming patterns. An investigation of Illinois centennial farms by Gary Foster and associates, which randomly sampled nearly 1,100 farm households throughout the state, confirmed that for one hundred years the cultural differences persisted between Yankee and German farmers (Gary Foster, Richard Hummel, and Robert Whittenburger, "Ethnic Echoes Through 100 Years of Midwestern Agriculture," Rural Sociology 52 (Fall 1987): 365-78). But see John M. Stitz, "A Study of Family Farm Culture in Ellis County, Kansas, and the Relationship of that Culture to Trends in Farming" (Ph.D. diss., University of Kansas, 1983); and Jan L. Flora and John M. Stitz, "Ethnicity, Persistence, and Capitalization of Agriculture in the Great Plains during the Settlement Period: Wheat Production and Risk Avoidance," Rural Sociology 50 (Fall 1985): 341-60. See also Kathleen Conzen, "Generational Succession among German Farmers in Frontier Minnesota," 259-92, in The Countryside in the Age of Capitalist Transformation, ed. Steven Hahn and Jonathan Prude (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985); and Kathleen Conzen, "Immigrants in Nineteenth-Century Agricultural History," 303-41, in Agricultural and National Development: Views on the Nineteenth Century, ed. Lou Ferleger (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1990); Jette Mackintosh, "Ethnic Patterns in Danish Immigrant Agriculture: A Study of Audobon and Shelby Counties, Iowa," Agricultural History 64 (Fall 1990): 59-77; Janel Curry-Roper and John Bowles, "Local Factors in Changing Land-Tenure Patterns," Geographical Review 81 (October 1991): 443-56; John Radzilowski, Out on the Wind: Poles and Danes in Lincoln County, Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1992); Joseph A. Amato, Servants of the Land: God, Family, and form; The Trinity of Belgian Economic Folkways in Southeastern Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1990); Frederick C. Luebke, ed., Ethnicity on the Great Plains (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980). An exception to this characterization of Yankees as "landers" is the South Haven, Michigan, horticulturalists, Liberty Hyde Bailey, senior and junior, of Vermont Congregational stock, who regarded land and the natural world as a "gift from God" to be farmed in a stewardly manner. See Margaret Beattie Bogue, "Liberty Hyde Bailey, Jr. and the Bailey Family Farm," Agricultural History 63 (Winter 1989): 26-48, esp. 45.
74. Salamon, Prairie Patrimony, 15-23, 93, and 253-55, for a typology of midwestern farming patterns. An investigation of Illinois centennial farms by Gary Foster and associates, which randomly sampled nearly 1,100 farm households throughout the state, confirmed that for one hundred years the cultural differences persisted between Yankee and German farmers (Gary Foster, Richard Hummel, and Robert Whittenburger, "Ethnic Echoes Through 100 Years of Midwestern Agriculture," Rural Sociology 52 (Fall 1987): 365-78). But see John M. Stitz, "A Study of Family Farm Culture in Ellis County, Kansas, and the Relationship of that Culture to Trends in Farming" (Ph.D. diss., University of Kansas, 1983); and Jan L. Flora and John M. Stitz, "Ethnicity, Persistence, and Capitalization of Agriculture in the Great Plains during the Settlement Period: Wheat Production and Risk Avoidance," Rural Sociology 50 (Fall 1985): 341-60. See also Kathleen Conzen, "Generational Succession among German Farmers in Frontier Minnesota," 259-92, in The Countryside in the Age of Capitalist Transformation, ed. Steven Hahn and Jonathan Prude (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985); and Kathleen Conzen, "Immigrants in Nineteenth-Century Agricultural History," 303-41, in Agricultural and National Development: Views on the Nineteenth Century, ed. Lou Ferleger (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1990); Jette Mackintosh, "Ethnic Patterns in Danish Immigrant Agriculture: A Study of Audobon and Shelby Counties, Iowa," Agricultural History 64 (Fall 1990): 59-77; Janel Curry-Roper and John Bowles, "Local Factors in Changing Land-Tenure Patterns," Geographical Review 81 (October 1991): 443-56; John Radzilowski, Out on the Wind: Poles and Danes in Lincoln County, Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1992); Joseph A. Amato, Servants of the Land: God, Family, and form; The Trinity of Belgian Economic Folkways in Southeastern Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1990); Frederick C. Luebke, ed., Ethnicity on the Great Plains (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980). An exception to this characterization of Yankees as "landers" is the South Haven, Michigan, horticulturalists, Liberty Hyde Bailey, senior and junior, of Vermont Congregational stock, who regarded land and the natural world as a "gift from God" to be farmed in a stewardly manner. See Margaret Beattie Bogue, "Liberty Hyde Bailey, Jr. and the Bailey Family Farm," Agricultural History 63 (Winter 1989): 26-48, esp. 45.
75. Salamon, Prairie Patrimony, 15-23, 93, and 253-55, for a typology of midwestern farming patterns. An investigation of Illinois centennial farms by Gary Foster and associates, which randomly sampled nearly 1,100 farm households throughout the state, confirmed that for one hundred years the cultural differences persisted between Yankee and German farmers (Gary Foster, Richard Hummel, and Robert Whittenburger, "Ethnic Echoes Through 100 Years of Midwestern Agriculture," Rural Sociology 52 (Fall 1987): 365-78). But see John M. Stitz, "A Study of Family Farm Culture in Ellis County, Kansas, and the Relationship of that Culture to Trends in Farming" (Ph.D. diss., University of Kansas, 1983); and Jan L. Flora and John M. Stitz, "Ethnicity, Persistence, and Capitalization of Agriculture in the Great Plains during the Settlement Period: Wheat Production and Risk Avoidance," Rural Sociology 50 (Fall 1985): 341-60. See also Kathleen Conzen, "Generational Succession among German Farmers in Frontier Minnesota," 259-92, in The Countryside in the Age of Capitalist Transformation, ed. Steven Hahn and Jonathan Prude (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985); and Kathleen Conzen, "Immigrants in Nineteenth-Century Agricultural History," 303-41, in Agricultural and National Development: Views on the Nineteenth Century, ed. Lou Ferleger (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1990); Jette Mackintosh, "Ethnic Patterns in Danish Immigrant Agriculture: A Study of Audobon and Shelby Counties, Iowa," Agricultural History 64 (Fall 1990): 59-77; Janel Curry-Roper and John Bowles, "Local Factors in Changing Land-Tenure Patterns," Geographical Review 81 (October 1991): 443-56; John Radzilowski, Out on the Wind: Poles and Danes in Lincoln County, Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1992); Joseph A. Amato, Servants of the Land: God, Family, and form; The Trinity of Belgian Economic Folkways in Southeastern Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1990); Frederick C. Luebke, ed., Ethnicity on the Great Plains (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980). An exception to this characterization of Yankees as "landers" is the South Haven, Michigan, horticulturalists, Liberty Hyde Bailey, senior and junior, of Vermont Congregational stock, who regarded land and the natural world as a "gift from God" to be farmed in a stewardly manner. See Margaret Beattie Bogue, "Liberty Hyde Bailey, Jr. and the Bailey Family Farm," Agricultural History 63 (Winter 1989): 26-48, esp. 45.
76. Salamon, Prairie Patrimony, 15-23, 93, and 253-55, for a typology of midwestern farming patterns. An investigation of Illinois centennial farms by Gary Foster and associates, which randomly sampled nearly 1,100 farm households throughout the state, confirmed that for one hundred years the cultural differences persisted between Yankee and German farmers (Gary Foster, Richard Hummel, and Robert Whittenburger, "Ethnic Echoes Through 100 Years of Midwestern Agriculture," Rural Sociology 52 (Fall 1987): 365-78). But see John M. Stitz, "A Study of Family Farm Culture in Ellis County, Kansas, and the Relationship of that Culture to Trends in Farming" (Ph.D. diss., University of Kansas, 1983); and Jan L. Flora and John M. Stitz, "Ethnicity, Persistence, and Capitalization of Agriculture in the Great Plains during the Settlement Period: Wheat Production and Risk Avoidance," Rural Sociology 50 (Fall 1985): 341-60. See also Kathleen Conzen, "Generational Succession among German Farmers in Frontier Minnesota," 259-92, in The Countryside in the Age of Capitalist Transformation, ed. Steven Hahn and Jonathan Prude (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985); and Kathleen Conzen, "Immigrants in Nineteenth-Century Agricultural History," 303-41, in Agricultural and National Development: Views on the Nineteenth Century, ed. Lou Ferleger (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1990); Jette Mackintosh, "Ethnic Patterns in Danish Immigrant Agriculture: A Study of Audobon and Shelby Counties, Iowa," Agricultural History 64 (Fall 1990): 59-77; Janel Curry-Roper and John Bowles, "Local Factors in Changing Land-Tenure Patterns," Geographical Review 81 (October 1991): 443-56; John Radzilowski, Out on the Wind: Poles and Danes in Lincoln County, Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1992); Joseph A. Amato, Servants of the Land: God, Family, and form; The Trinity of Belgian Economic Folkways in Southeastern Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1990); Frederick C. Luebke, ed., Ethnicity on the Great Plains (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980). An exception to this characterization of Yankees as "landers" is the South Haven, Michigan, horticulturalists, Liberty Hyde Bailey, senior and junior, of Vermont Congregational stock, who regarded land and the natural world as a "gift from God" to be farmed in a stewardly manner. See Margaret Beattie Bogue, "Liberty Hyde Bailey, Jr. and the Bailey Family Farm," Agricultural History 63 (Winter 1989): 26-48, esp. 45.
77. Salamon, Prairie Patrimony, 15-23, 93, and 253-55, for a typology of midwestern farming patterns. An investigation of Illinois centennial farms by Gary Foster and associates, which randomly sampled nearly 1,100 farm households throughout the state, confirmed that for one hundred years the cultural differences persisted between Yankee and German farmers (Gary Foster, Richard Hummel, and Robert Whittenburger, "Ethnic Echoes Through 100 Years of Midwestern Agriculture," Rural Sociology 52 (Fall 1987): 365-78). But see John M. Stitz, "A Study of Family Farm Culture in Ellis County, Kansas, and the Relationship of that Culture to Trends in Farming" (Ph.D. diss., University of Kansas, 1983); and Jan L. Flora and John M. Stitz, "Ethnicity, Persistence, and Capitalization of Agriculture in the Great Plains during the Settlement Period: Wheat Production and Risk Avoidance," Rural Sociology 50 (Fall 1985): 341-60. See also Kathleen Conzen, "Generational Succession among German Farmers in Frontier Minnesota," 259-92, in The Countryside in the Age of Capitalist Transformation, ed. Steven Hahn and Jonathan Prude (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985); and Kathleen Conzen, "Immigrants in Nineteenth-Century Agricultural History," 303-41, in Agricultural and National Development: Views on the Nineteenth Century, ed. Lou Ferleger (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1990); Jette Mackintosh, "Ethnic Patterns in Danish Immigrant Agriculture: A Study of Audobon and Shelby Counties, Iowa," Agricultural History 64 (Fall 1990): 59-77; Janel Curry-Roper and John Bowles, "Local Factors in Changing Land-Tenure Patterns," Geographical Review 81 (October 1991): 443-56; John Radzilowski, Out on the Wind: Poles and Danes in Lincoln County, Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1992); Joseph A. Amato, Servants of the Land: God, Family, and form; The Trinity of Belgian Economic Folkways in Southeastern Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1990); Frederick C. Luebke, ed., Ethnicity on the Great Plains (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980). An exception to this characterization of Yankees as "landers" is the South Haven, Michigan, horticulturalists, Liberty Hyde Bailey, senior and junior, of Vermont Congregational stock, who regarded land and the natural world as a "gift from God" to be farmed in a stewardly manner. See Margaret Beattie Bogue, "Liberty Hyde Bailey, Jr. and the Bailey Family Farm," Agricultural History 63 (Winter 1989): 26-48, esp. 45.
78. Salamon, Prairie Patrimony, 15-23, 93, and 253-55, for a typology of midwestern farming patterns. An investigation of Illinois centennial farms by Gary Foster and associates, which randomly sampled nearly 1,100 farm households throughout the state, confirmed that for one hundred years the cultural differences persisted between Yankee and German farmers (Gary Foster, Richard Hummel, and Robert Whittenburger, "Ethnic Echoes Through 100 Years of Midwestern Agriculture," Rural Sociology 52 (Fall 1987): 365-78). But see John M. Stitz, "A Study of Family Farm Culture in Ellis County, Kansas, and the Relationship of that Culture to Trends in Farming" (Ph.D. diss., University of Kansas, 1983); and Jan L. Flora and John M. Stitz, "Ethnicity, Persistence, and Capitalization of Agriculture in the Great Plains during the Settlement Period: Wheat Production and Risk Avoidance," Rural Sociology 50 (Fall 1985): 341-60. See also Kathleen Conzen, "Generational Succession among German Farmers in Frontier Minnesota," 259-92, in The Countryside in the Age of Capitalist Transformation, ed. Steven Hahn and Jonathan Prude (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985); and Kathleen Conzen, "Immigrants in Nineteenth-Century Agricultural History," 303-41, in Agricultural and National Development: Views on the Nineteenth Century, ed. Lou Ferleger (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1990); Jette Mackintosh, "Ethnic Patterns in Danish Immigrant Agriculture: A Study of Audobon and Shelby Counties, Iowa," Agricultural History 64 (Fall 1990): 59-77; Janel Curry-Roper and John Bowles, "Local Factors in Changing Land-Tenure Patterns," Geographical Review 81 (October 1991): 443-56; John Radzilowski, Out on the Wind: Poles and Danes in Lincoln County, Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1992); Joseph A. Amato, Servants of the Land: God, Family, and form; The Trinity of Belgian Economic Folkways in Southeastern Minnesota (Marshall, Minn.: Crossings Press, 1990); Frederick C. Luebke, ed., Ethnicity on the Great Plains (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980). An exception to this characterization of Yankees as "landers" is the South Haven, Michigan, horticulturalists, Liberty Hyde Bailey, senior and junior, of Vermont Congregational stock, who regarded land and the natural world as a "gift from God" to be farmed in a stewardly manner. See Margaret Beattie Bogue, "Liberty Hyde Bailey, Jr. and the Bailey Family Farm," Agricultural History 63 (Winter 1989): 26-48, esp. 45.
79. Ostergren, Community Transplanted; Jon Gjerde, From Peasants to Farmers: The Migration from Balestrand, Norway, to the Upper Middle West (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
80. Ostergren, Community Transplanted; Jon Gjerde, From Peasants to Farmers: The Migration from Balestrand, Norway, to the Upper Middle West (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
81. Terry Jordan developed the concept of religious group "regionalization" in "A Religious Geography of Hill Country Germans of Texas," in Luebke, Ethnicity on the Great Plains, 109-28, esp. 116; Marianne Wokeck, "Cultural Persistence and Adaptation: The Germans of Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, 1729-76," in Business and Economic History Papers presented at the Twenty-Fourth Annual Meeting of the Business History Conference, ed. Paul Uselding (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978). See also Leonard Arrington, "Property Among the Mormons," Rural Sociology 16 (December 1957): 339-52.
82. Terry Jordan developed the concept of religious group "regionalization" in "A Religious Geography of Hill Country Germans of Texas," in Luebke, Ethnicity on the Great Plains, 109-28, esp. 116; Marianne Wokeck, "Cultural Persistence and Adaptation: The Germans of Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, 1729-76," in Business and Economic History Papers presented at the Twenty-Fourth Annual Meeting of the Business History Conference, ed. Paul Uselding (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978). See also Leonard Arrington, "Property Among the Mormons," Rural Sociology 16 (December 1957): 339-52.
83. Terry Jordan developed the concept of religious group "regionalization" in "A Religious Geography of Hill Country Germans of Texas," in Luebke, Ethnicity on the Great Plains, 109-28, esp. 116; Marianne Wokeck, "Cultural Persistence and Adaptation: The Germans of Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, 1729-76," in Business and Economic History Papers presented at the Twenty-Fourth Annual Meeting of the Business History Conference, ed. Paul Uselding (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978). See also Leonard Arrington, "Property Among the Mormons," Rural Sociology 16 (December 1957): 339-52.
84. Salamon, Prairie Patrimony, 57-90, 255, 257. Ostergren's Minnesota community included Swedes of the Augustana Synod, Evangelical Covenanters, and Baptists, all of whom varied in theology, liturgy, and worldviews, but he did not ask whether a particular religious outlook led the groups to farm differently. Josef Barton, "Land, Labor, and Community in Nueces: Czech Farmers and Mexican Laborers in South Texas, 1880-1930," 190-209, in Luebke, Ethnicity on the Great Plains, contrasted the effects of Mexican and Czech Catholicism on land tenure and associational life but he judged ethnicity to count for more than religious beliefs in determining outcomes. Another recent study linking cultural ideas about the natural world and farmland use practices among New England Yankees is Sally McMurry, Transforming Rural Life: Diarying Families and Agricultural Change, 1820-1885 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).
85. Salamon, Prairie Patrimony, 57-90, 255, 257. Ostergren's Minnesota community included Swedes of the Augustana Synod, Evangelical Covenanters, and Baptists, all of whom varied in theology, liturgy, and worldviews, but he did not ask whether a particular religious outlook led the groups to farm differently. Josef Barton, "Land, Labor, and Community in Nueces: Czech Farmers and Mexican Laborers in South Texas, 1880-1930," 190-209, in Luebke, Ethnicity on the Great Plains, contrasted the effects of Mexican and Czech Catholicism on land tenure and associational life but he judged ethnicity to count for more than religious beliefs in determining outcomes. Another recent study linking cultural ideas about the natural world and farmland use practices among New England Yankees is Sally McMurry, Transforming Rural Life: Diarying Families and Agricultural Change, 1820-1885 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).
86. Salamon, Prairie Patrimony, 57-90, 255, 257. Ostergren's Minnesota community included Swedes of the Augustana Synod, Evangelical Covenanters, and Baptists, all of whom varied in theology, liturgy, and worldviews, but he did not ask whether a particular religious outlook led the groups to farm differently. Josef Barton, "Land, Labor, and Community in Nueces: Czech Farmers and Mexican Laborers in South Texas, 1880-1930," 190-209, in Luebke, Ethnicity on the Great Plains, contrasted the effects of Mexican and Czech Catholicism on land tenure and associational life but he judged ethnicity to count for more than religious beliefs in determining outcomes. Another recent study linking cultural ideas about the natural world and farmland use practices among New England Yankees is Sally McMurry, Transforming Rural Life: Diarying Families and Agricultural Change, 1820-1885 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).
87. James T. Lemon, The Best Poor Man's Country: A Geographical Study of Early Southeastern Pennsylvania (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976).
88. John Rice, Patterns of Ethnicity in a Minnesota County, 1880-1905, Geographical Reports, No. 4 (Ůmea, Sweden: University of Ůmea, 1973); Rice, "The Role of Culture and Community in Frontier Prairie Farming," Journal of Historical Geography 3 (April 1977): 155-75.
89. John Rice, Patterns of Ethnicity in a Minnesota County, 1880-1905, Geographical Reports, No. 4 (Ůmea, Sweden: University of Ůmea, 1973); Rice, "The Role of Culture and Community in Frontier Prairie Farming," Journal of Historical Geography 3 (April 1977): 155-75.
90. D. Aidan McQuillan, Prevailing Over Time: Ethnic Adjustment on the Kansas Prairies, 1875-1925 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990), 51, 59.
91. Ibid., 39, 41-42, 64, 69-70, 193-99. The Mormons proved this already in the 1860s, as did the Hutterite Brethren in Saskatchewan again in the 1950s. Lowry Nelson, The Mormon Village: A Pattern and Technique of Land Settlement (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1952); Thomas F. O'Dea, "The Effects of Geographical Position on Belief and Behavior in a Rural Mormon Village," Rural Sociology 19 (December 1954): 358-64; Donald H. Dyal, "Mormon Pursuit of the Agrarian Ideal," Agricultural History 63 (Fall 1989): 19-35; Leonard J. Arrington and Dean May, "'A Different Mode of Life': Irrigation and Society in Nineteenth Century Utah," Agricultural History 49 (January 1975): 3-20.
92. Ibid., 39, 41-42, 64, 69-70, 193-99. The Mormons proved this already in the 1860s, as did the Hutterite Brethren in Saskatchewan again in the 1950s. Lowry Nelson, The Mormon Village: A Pattern and Technique of Land Settlement (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1952); Thomas F. O'Dea, "The Effects of Geographical Position on Belief and Behavior in a Rural Mormon Village," Rural Sociology 19 (December 1954): 358-64; Donald H. Dyal, "Mormon Pursuit of the Agrarian Ideal," Agricultural History 63 (Fall 1989): 19-35; Leonard J. Arrington and Dean May, "'A Different Mode of Life': Irrigation and Society in Nineteenth Century Utah," Agricultural History 49 (January 1975): 3-20.
93. Ibid., 39, 41-42, 64, 69-70, 193-99. The Mormons proved this already in the 1860s, as did the Hutterite Brethren in Saskatchewan again in the 1950s. Lowry Nelson, The Mormon Village: A Pattern and Technique of Land Settlement (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1952); Thomas F. O'Dea, "The Effects of Geographical Position on Belief and Behavior in a Rural Mormon Village," Rural Sociology 19 (December 1954): 358-64; Donald H. Dyal, "Mormon Pursuit of the Agrarian Ideal," Agricultural History 63 (Fall 1989): 19-35; Leonard J. Arrington and Dean May, "'A Different Mode of Life': Irrigation and Society in Nineteenth Century Utah," Agricultural History 49 (January 1975): 3-20.
94. Ibid., 39, 41-42, 64, 69-70, 193-99. The Mormons proved this already in the 1860s, as did the Hutterite Brethren in Saskatchewan again in the 1950s. Lowry Nelson, The Mormon Village: A Pattern and Technique of Land Settlement (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1952); Thomas F. O'Dea, "The Effects of Geographical Position on Belief and Behavior in a Rural Mormon Village," Rural Sociology 19 (December 1954): 358-64; Donald H. Dyal, "Mormon Pursuit of the Agrarian Ideal," Agricultural History 63 (Fall 1989): 19-35; Leonard J. Arrington and Dean May, "'A Different Mode of Life': Irrigation and Society in Nineteenth Century Utah," Agricultural History 49 (January 1975): 3-20.
95. Royden K. Loewen, Family, Church, and Market: A Mennonite Community in the Old and New World (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 4.
96. Pederson, Between Memory and Reality, 143, 147.
97. The early Weberian concept of lifestyle was a measure of social status, which may or may not be economically determined. Contemporary scholars, such as Michael E. Sobel, define the concept more broadly as "a set of expressive, observable behaviors reflecting values and attitudes." This is the way I use the term. See Emily H. Schroeder, Frederick C. Fliegel, and J. C. van Es, " Measurement of Lifestyle Dimensions of Farming for Small-Scale Farmers," Rural Sociology 50 (Fall 1985): 305-22, quote 309.
98. Religious values are not derived from church membership, per se, or even from active participation in church activities; they are learned "communally," as part of the socialization process within the circle of family and friends. Clark Roof, Community and Commitment (1978), cited in Wuthnow, "Two Traditions in the Study of Religion," 28.
99. Religious values are not derived from church membership, per se, or even from active participation in church activities; they are learned "communally," as part of the socialization process within the circle of family and friends. Clark Roof, Community and Commitment (1978), cited in Wuthnow, "Two Traditions in the Study of Religion," 28.
100. Dorothy Schweider, "Agrarian Stability in Utopian Societies: A Comparison of Economic Practices of Old Order Amish and Hutterites," in 431-53, esp. 436 and 441, in Patterns and Perspectives in Iowa History, ed. Dorothy Schweider (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1973); John W. Bennett, Northern Plainsmen: Adaptive Strategy and Agrarian Life (Chicago: Aldine Publishing, 1969), 246-75; Victor Stoltzfus, "Amish Agriculture: Adaptive Strategies for Economic Survival of Community Life," Rural Sociology 38 (Summer 1973): 196-206.
101. Dorothy Schweider, "Agrarian Stability in Utopian Societies: A Comparison of Economic Practices of Old Order Amish and Hutterites," in 431-53, esp. 436 and 441, in Patterns and Perspectives in Iowa History, ed. Dorothy Schweider (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1973); John W. Bennett, Northern Plainsmen: Adaptive Strategy and Agrarian Life (Chicago: Aldine Publishing, 1969), 246-75; Victor Stoltzfus, "Amish Agriculture: Adaptive Strategies for Economic Survival of Community Life," Rural Sociology 38 (Summer 1973): 196-206.
102. Dorothy Schweider, "Agrarian Stability in Utopian Societies: A Comparison of Economic Practices of Old Order Amish and Hutterites," in 431-53, esp. 436 and 441, in Patterns and Perspectives in Iowa History, ed. Dorothy Schweider (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1973); John W. Bennett, Northern Plainsmen: Adaptive Strategy and Agrarian Life (Chicago: Aldine Publishing, 1969), 246-75; Victor Stoltzfus, "Amish Agriculture: Adaptive Strategies for Economic Survival of Community Life," Rural Sociology 38 (Summer 1973): 196-206.
103. Anne Willem Van den Ban, "Locality Group Differences in the Adoption of New Farm Practices," Rural Sociology 25 (September 1960): 308-20.
104. Van den Ban, "Locality Group Differences," 312, 315. L. Shannon Jung argues that the traditional stewardship ethic was corrupted in the 1930s when the efficiency tradition of agribusiness supplanted the agrarian tradition of agriculture, "The Recovery of the Land: Agribusiness and Creation-Centered Stewardship," in Religion and the Life of the Nation: American Recoveris, e ed. Rowland A. Sherrill (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 109-27.
105. Van den Ban, "Locality Group Differences," 312, 315. L. Shannon Jung argues that the traditional stewardship ethic was corrupted in the 1930s when the efficiency tradition of agribusiness supplanted the agrarian tradition of agriculture, "The Recovery of the Land: Agribusiness and Creation-Centered Stewardship," in Religion and the Life of the Nation: American Recoveris, e ed. Rowland A. Sherrill (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 109-27.
106. Ingolf Vogeler, "Ethnicity, Religion, and Farm Land Transfers in Western Wisconsin," Ecumene 7 (1975): 6-13, esp. 11. Vogeler offered the sociological explanation that the Trempealeau Catholics were more isolated geographically than the Pierce Lutherans, who lay within the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan region, and hence the Catholics had to sell more to "locals" than did the Lutherans. But having identified the religion of his respondents, he failed to explore if religious beliefs might have influenced land transfer decisions, which he admitted involved "values and attachments" more than economic self-interest.
107. Dilly, "Religious Resistance"; Joseph G. Jorgensen, "Land Is Cultural, so is a Commodity: The Locus of Differences among Indians, Cowboys, Sod-busters, and Environmentalists," Journal of Ethnic Studies 12 (May 1984): 1-21.
108. Dilly, "Religious Resistance"; Joseph G. Jorgensen, "Land Is Cultural, so is a Commodity: The Locus of Differences among Indians, Cowboys, Sod-busters, and Environmentalists," Journal of Ethnic Studies 12 (May 1984): 1-21.
109. Dilly, "Religious Resistance," 1-5. On stewardship see Jung, "Recovery of the Land," 117-20.
110. Dilly, "Religious Resistance," 1-5. On stewardship see Jung, "Recovery of the Land," 117-20.
111. Dilly, "Religious Resistance," 25, 222-30.
112. Ibid., 4-5, 25-26, 134-35, 156, 171. Metin M. Cosgel, "Religious Culture and Economic Performance: Agricultural Productivity of the Amish, 1850-80," Journal of Economic History 53 (June 1993): 319-31, proves from an analysis of agricultural census schedules that Amish farmers did not resist technological change in the late nineteenth century. That Amish values are changing again in recent years is shown in Donald B. Kraybill and Steven M. Nolt, From Plows to Profits (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).
113. Ibid., 4-5, 25-26, 134-35, 156, 171. Metin M. Cosgel, "Religious Culture and Economic Performance: Agricultural Productivity of the Amish, 1850-80," Journal of Economic History 53 (June 1993): 319-31, proves from an analysis of agricultural census schedules that Amish farmers did not resist technological change in the late nineteenth century. That Amish values are changing again in recent years is shown in Donald B. Kraybill and Steven M. Nolt, From Plows to Profits (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).
114. Dilly, "Religious Resistance," 139-66.
115. Etienne Gilson, foreword to Saint Augustine, The City of God, ed. Vernon J. Bourke (New York: Doubleday, 1950), 13-35, esp. 26-29.
116. Dilly, "Religious Resistance," 25-26, 156 (quote), 171, 177-84; Salamon, Prairie Patrimony, 32-33.
117. Dilly, "Religious Resistance," 25-26, 156 (quote), 171, 177-84; Salamon, Prairie Patrimony, 32-33.
118. Dilly, "Religious Resistance," 187, borrows the brake metaphor from Guy Swanson, Religion and Regime (Ann Arbor: University Of Michigan Press, 1967).
119. Dilly, "Religious Resistance," 187, borrows the brake metaphor from Guy Swanson, Religion and Regime (Ann Arbor: University Of Michigan Press, 1967).
120. Janel Curry-Roper, "Trust and the Social Construction of Reality," unpublished paper, 1997; and Curry-Roper, "Worldview and Agriculture: A Study of Two Reformed Communities in Iowa," in Signs of Vitality in Reform Communities, ed. Donald L. Luidens, Corwin Smidt, and Hijme Stoffels (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, forthcoming); and Curry-Roper, "Community-Level Worldviews and the Sustainability of Agriculture," in Agricultural Restructuring and Sustainability: A Geographical Perspective, ed. Tim Rickard, Brian Ilbery, and Quentin Chiotti (Wallingford, U.K.: CAB International, 1997), 101-15. The author kindly provided me with copies of these papers and generously shared her research findings and ideas.
121. Janel Curry-Roper, "Trust and the Social Construction of Reality," unpublished paper, 1997; and Curry-Roper, "Worldview and Agriculture: A Study of Two Reformed Communities in Iowa," in Signs of Vitality in Reform Communities, ed. Donald L. Luidens, Corwin Smidt, and Hijme Stoffels (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, forthcoming); and Curry-Roper, "Community-Level Worldviews and the Sustainability of Agriculture," in Agricultural Restructuring and Sustainability: A Geographical Perspective, ed. Tim Rickard, Brian Ilbery, and Quentin Chiotti (Wallingford, U.K.: CAB International, 1997), 101-15. The author kindly provided me with copies of these papers and generously shared her research findings and ideas.
122. Janel Curry-Roper, "Trust and the Social Construction of Reality," unpublished paper, 1997; and Curry-Roper, "Worldview and Agriculture: A Study of Two Reformed Communities in Iowa," in Signs of Vitality in Reform Communities, ed. Donald L. Luidens, Corwin Smidt, and Hijme Stoffels (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, forthcoming); and Curry-Roper, "Community-Level Worldviews and the Sustainability of Agriculture," in Agricultural Restructuring and Sustainability: A Geographical Perspective, ed. Tim Rickard, Brian Ilbery, and Quentin Chiotti (Wallingford, U.K.: CAB International, 1997), 101-15. The author kindly provided me with copies of these papers and generously shared her research findings and ideas.
123. Curry-Roper, "Trust and the Social Construction of Society," 14-15; William Cronin, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill & Wang, 1983). Curry-Roper correctly distinguishes associational and communal involvement. Associational involvement refers to an individual's participation in institutional or congregational activities, whereas communal involvement signifies primary-group interaction. Individuals "join" associations and participate in group activities as individuals for their individual good. Individuals are "born into" communities which define their personhood and self-identity ("Trust," 6-7, 14).
124. Curry-Roper, "Trust and the Social Construction of Society," 14-15; William Cronin, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill & Wang, 1983). Curry-Roper correctly distinguishes associational and communal involvement. Associational involvement refers to an individual's participation in institutional or congregational activities, whereas communal involvement signifies primary-group interaction. Individuals "join" associations and participate in group activities as individuals for their individual good. Individuals are "born into" communities which define their personhood and self-identity ("Trust," 6-7, 14).
125. Curry-Roper, "Trust and the Social Construction of Society," 13-15, 20-33.
126. Ibid., 16-17. The communities were Wayland (German Mennonite), Stanton (Swedish Lutheran), Wellsburg (German Reformed), Cascade (Irish and German Catholic), Paullina (Anglo and Norwegian Quaker), Boyden-Hull (Dutch Christian Reformed), and Lamoni (Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints - Anglo).
127. Curry-Roper, "Trust and the Social Construction of Society," 16-20, following Milton Yinger, "A Structural Examination of Religion," Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 8 (Spring 1969): 88-99. Yinger said that the most crucial question is "How is a person religious?" rather than "How religious is he?" Curry-Roper interviewed ninety farmers and their spouses representing fifty-eight families drawn from the churches. She used content analysis to assess the transcripts of the group discussions, based on themes as the unit of measurement, and she statistically analyzed the questionnaires of some thirty respondents. Finally, she conducted personal interviews with thirty-two individuals and couples (four from each group) to determine basic religious commitments. The comments were grouped into various categories and compared by gender, age, and education, none of which were significant.
128. Curry-Roper, "Trust and the Social Construction of Society," 16-20, following Milton Yinger, "A Structural Examination of Religion," Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 8 (Spring 1969): 88-99. Yinger said that the most crucial question is "How is a person religious?" rather than "How religious is he?" Curry-Roper interviewed ninety farmers and their spouses representing fifty-eight families drawn from the churches. She used content analysis to assess the transcripts of the group discussions, based on themes as the unit of measurement, and she statistically analyzed the questionnaires of some thirty respondents. Finally, she conducted personal interviews with thirty-two individuals and couples (four from each group) to determine basic religious commitments. The comments were grouped into various categories and compared by gender, age, and education, none of which were significant.
129. For this and the next two paragraphs, see "Trust and the Social Construction of Society," 20-33.
130. The Lutheran work ethic, recalled Howard Kohn, former senior editor of Rolling Stone, was the essence of his father's life as the proverbial "last farmer" in the Missouri Synod community of Beaver in Michigan's Saginaw Valley, The Last Farmer: An American Memoir (New York: Summit Books, 1988), 102-3.
131. Curry-Roper, "Worldview and Agriculture," 25.
132. Ibid., 16-27. On the Dutch character, see Han Van der Horst, The Low Sky: Understanding the Dutch (Schiedam/Nuffic, The Hague: Scriptum Books, 1996). I am indebted to Janet Sjaarda Sheeres for calling this book to my attention.
133. Sietze Buning [pseud. of Stanley Wiersma], Purpaleanie and Other Permutations (Orange City, Ia.: Middleburg Press, 1978), 61-63. See also Sietze Buning's prose poem, "An Open Letter," in Style and Class (Orange City, Ia.: Middleburg Press, 1982), which contrasts the values of religion and agricultural science with the theme "Dordt vs. Ames." Dordt was the historic Dutch Reformed synodical creed of 1618-19 and a synonym for the Reformed soil of Sioux County; Ames, of course, was location of the Iowa State University. "Dad's first commandment was 'Watch out for Ames,' and the last commandment too," Wiersma writes (55-59, quote 55). Kohn's Missouri Synod Lutheran father sounds the same theme: "He and his farm, I said, were paradoxes. He had refused to apply the wonders of the land-grant laboratories, and yet his crops were somehow immune, or so it seemed, to bugs and fungi and other pests" (Kohn, Last Farmer, 207-8).
134. Sietze Buning [pseud. of Stanley Wiersma], Purpaleanie and Other Permutations (Orange City, Ia.: Middleburg Press, 1978), 61-63. See also Sietze Buning's prose poem, "An Open Letter," in Style and Class (Orange City, Ia.: Middleburg Press, 1982), which contrasts the values of religion and agricultural science with the theme "Dordt vs. Ames." Dordt was the historic Dutch Reformed synodical creed of 1618-19 and a synonym for the Reformed soil of Sioux County; Ames, of course, was location of the Iowa State University. "Dad's first commandment was 'Watch out for Ames,' and the last commandment too," Wiersma writes (55-59, quote 55). Kohn's Missouri Synod Lutheran father sounds the same theme: "He and his farm, I said, were paradoxes. He had refused to apply the wonders of the land-grant laboratories, and yet his crops were somehow immune, or so it seemed, to bugs and fungi and other pests" (Kohn, Last Farmer, 207-8).
135. Sietze Buning [pseud. of Stanley Wiersma], Purpaleanie and Other Permutations (Orange City, Ia.: Middleburg Press, 1978), 61-63. See also Sietze Buning's prose poem, "An Open Letter," in Style and Class (Orange City, Ia.: Middleburg Press, 1982), which contrasts the values of religion and agricultural science with the theme "Dordt vs. Ames." Dordt was the historic Dutch Reformed synodical creed of 1618-19 and a synonym for the Reformed soil of Sioux County; Ames, of course, was location of the Iowa State University. "Dad's first commandment was 'Watch out for Ames,' and the last commandment too," Wiersma writes (55-59, quote 55). Kohn's Missouri Synod Lutheran father sounds the same theme: "He and his farm, I said, were paradoxes. He had refused to apply the wonders of the land-grant laboratories, and yet his crops were somehow immune, or so it seemed, to bugs and fungi and other pests" (Kohn, Last Farmer, 207-8).
136. Arminianism, a theological reform movement originating in the Dutch Reformed Church that became prominent among Anglo-American anti-Calvinists, particularly Methodists, stresses free will and human agency in salvation. J. S. O'Malley, "Arminianism," in Dictionary of Christianity in America, ed. Daniel G. Reid (Downers Grove, Ill.: Intervarsity Press, 1990), 77-79.
137. Wiersma is correct to note that third generation Dutch farmers in Sioux County now plow on the contour, but he may have missed the many subtle distinctions that continue to differentiate them from their neighbors. I am indebted to Brian Beltman, who grew up in Sioux County, for observing that the terrain of the county often did not fully justify contour plowing, which caused weeds to proliferate on the row and necessitated weed-controlling chemicals, including DDT. But farmers who took up the "fad" did so to increase profits; they could plant more hills of corn per row and hence dramatically increase production, especially when they also went to narrower rows and more herbicides and fertilizer. So profits rather than tidiness was the issue between check-planters and contour planters.
138. Jager, Eighty Acres, 13.
139. James C. Schaap, "Bean-Walking," in Thirty-five and Counting (Sioux Center, Ia.: Dordt College Press, 1985), 85-86. Schaap tells of another Sioux County pioneer, Antonie Vander Meer, who loved to plow. "While he felt a certain reluctance to violate the land, to change it so drastically, he knew his task was significant.... This rich earth, loose and clean, even smelled of life. It was to be his heritage, the beginning of a new life, a new land, for his family, for his people.... When the rows of corn would sweep like tight ropes across the broken ground, when regiments of golden tassels would float in the wind, this land itself would glorify the Lord." James C. Schaap, Sign of a Promise and Other Stories (Sioux Center, Ia.: Dordt College Press, 1979), 61-80, quotes 67-68. In Schaap's CRC Family Portrait: Sketches of Ordinary Christians in a 125-Year Old Church (Grand Rapids: CRC Publications, 1982), 147-50, he reports the attitude of Marly and Esther Visser, who own a large corn and hog farm in Sioux County: "Modesty and cleanliness are a measured response to the concept of farmer as steward and as caretaker, not owner, of God's fertile land" (150). Beltman, Dutch Farmer, writes that his grandfather, a long-time elder in the Dutch Reformed Church in Iowa and South Dakota, also considered himself to be a steward of land and livestock: "Land was a valuable resource to be worked, but not mined," and "'a righteous man cares for his beast"' (155, cf. 193).
140. James C. Schaap, "Bean-Walking," in Thirty-five and Counting (Sioux Center, Ia.: Dordt College Press, 1985), 85-86. Schaap tells of another Sioux County pioneer, Antonie Vander Meer, who loved to plow. "While he felt a certain reluctance to violate the land, to change it so drastically, he knew his task was significant.... This rich earth, loose and clean, even smelled of life. It was to be his heritage, the beginning of a new life, a new land, for his family, for his people.... When the rows of corn would sweep like tight ropes across the broken ground, when regiments of golden tassels would float in the wind, this land itself would glorify the Lord." James C. Schaap, Sign of a Promise and Other Stories (Sioux Center, Ia.: Dordt College Press, 1979), 61-80, quotes 67-68. In Schaap's CRC Family Portrait: Sketches of Ordinary Christians in a 125-Year Old Church (Grand Rapids: CRC Publications, 1982), 147-50, he reports the attitude of Marly and Esther Visser, who own a large corn and hog farm in Sioux County: "Modesty and cleanliness are a measured response to the concept of farmer as steward and as caretaker, not owner, of God's fertile land" (150). Beltman, Dutch Farmer, writes that his grandfather, a long-time elder in the Dutch Reformed Church in Iowa and South Dakota, also considered himself to be a steward of land and livestock: "Land was a valuable resource to be worked, but not mined," and "'a righteous man cares for his beast"' (155, cf. 193).
141. James C. Schaap, "Bean-Walking," in Thirty-five and Counting (Sioux Center, Ia.: Dordt College Press, 1985), 85-86. Schaap tells of another Sioux County pioneer, Antonie Vander Meer, who loved to plow. "While he felt a certain reluctance to violate the land, to change it so drastically, he knew his task was significant.... This rich earth, loose and clean, even smelled of life. It was to be his heritage, the beginning of a new life, a new land, for his family, for his people.... When the rows of corn would sweep like tight ropes across the broken ground, when regiments of golden tassels would float in the wind, this land itself would glorify the Lord." James C. Schaap, Sign of a Promise and Other Stories (Sioux Center, Ia.: Dordt College Press, 1979), 61-80, quotes 67-68. In Schaap's CRC Family Portrait: Sketches of Ordinary Christians in a 125-Year Old Church (Grand Rapids: CRC Publications, 1982), 147-50, he reports the attitude of Marly and Esther Visser, who own a large corn and hog farm in Sioux County: "Modesty and cleanliness are a measured response to the concept of farmer as steward and as caretaker, not owner, of God's fertile land" (150). Beltman, Dutch Farmer, writes that his grandfather, a long-time elder in the Dutch Reformed Church in Iowa and South Dakota, also considered himself to be a steward of land and livestock:
142. Karen Schnyders DeVries, "Theology from the Tractor Seat," Calvin Spark (Alumni Magazine) 42 (Winter 1996): 18-20.
143. Such beliefs need not be articulated to be significant; they can be even more powerful if implicitly accepted within the community. Janel M. Curry-Roper, "Contemporary Christian Eschatologies and Their Relationship to Environmental Stewardship," Professional Geographer 42, no. 2 (1990): 157-69. Loewen, Family, Church, and Market, 185, similarly found that the Anabaptist premillennial view was a threat to the Mennonites' traditional teachings, because it lessened their commitment to a community-oriented, socially responsible stewardship of the land and to true discipleship, and instead focused attention on personal peace in a futuristic "Kingdom of God."
144. Such beliefs need not be articulated to be significant; they can be even more powerful if implicitly accepted within the community. Janel M. Curry-Roper, "Contemporary Christian Eschatologies and Their Relationship to Environmental Stewardship," Professional Geographer 42, no. 2 (1990): 157-69. Loewen, Family, Church, and Market, 185, similarly found that the Anabaptist premillennial view was a threat to the Mennonites' traditional teachings, because it lessened their commitment to a community-oriented, socially responsible stewardship of the land and to true discipleship, and instead focused attention on personal peace in a futuristic "Kingdom of God."