Self-perceived knowledge of the O.J. Simpson trial: Third-person perception and perceptions of guilt

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 74, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 541-556

  Driscoll, Paul D ^a   Salwen, Michael B ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0001286053     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769909707400308     Document Type: Article

References (70)

1. Paul Simon, "Have a Good Time," in Negotiations and Love Songs, 1971-1986 (NY: Warner Brothers compact disk, 1988, originally recorded in 1975).
2. The third-person effect was first enunciated by sociologist W. Phillips Davison in "The Third-Person Effect in Communication," Public Opinion Quarterly 47 (spring 1983): 1-15. A recent literature review reported that thirteen of fourteen studies at least partly support the third-person effect. Richard M. Perloff, "Third-Person Effect Research, 1983-1992: A Review and Synthesis," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 5 (summer 1993): 167-84. Also see Dominic L. Lasorsa, "Policy-Makers and the Third-Person Effect," in Public Opinion, the Press and Public Policy, ed. J. David Kennamer (NY: Praeger, 1992), 163-75; Klaus Schoenbach and Lee B. Becker, "Origins and Consequences of Mediated Public Opinion," in Public Opinion and the Communication of Consent, ed. Theodore L. Glasser and Charles T. Salmon (NY: The Guilford Press, 1995), 323-47.
3. The third-person effect was first enunciated by sociologist W. Phillips Davison in "The Third-Person Effect in Communication," Public Opinion Quarterly 47 (spring 1983): 1-15. A recent literature review reported that thirteen of fourteen studies at least partly support the third-person effect. Richard M. Perloff, "Third-Person Effect Research, 1983-1992: A Review and Synthesis," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 5 (summer 1993): 167-84. Also see Dominic L. Lasorsa, "Policy-Makers and the Third-Person Effect," in Public Opinion, the Press and Public Policy, ed. J. David Kennamer (NY: Praeger, 1992), 163-75; Klaus Schoenbach and Lee B. Becker, "Origins and Consequences of Mediated Public Opinion," in Public Opinion and the Communication of Consent, ed. Theodore L. Glasser and Charles T. Salmon (NY: The Guilford Press, 1995), 323-47.
4. The third-person effect was first enunciated by sociologist W. Phillips Davison in "The Third-Person Effect in Communication," Public Opinion Quarterly 47 (spring 1983): 1-15. A recent literature review reported that thirteen of fourteen studies at least partly support the third-person effect. Richard M. Perloff, "Third-Person Effect Research, 1983-1992: A Review and Synthesis," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 5 (summer 1993): 167-84. Also see Dominic L. Lasorsa, "Policy-Makers and the Third-Person Effect," in Public Opinion, the Press and Public Policy, ed. J. David Kennamer (NY: Praeger, 1992), 163-75; Klaus Schoenbach and Lee B. Becker, "Origins and Consequences of Mediated Public Opinion," in Public Opinion and the Communication of Consent, ed. Theodore L. Glasser and Charles T. Salmon (NY: The Guilford Press, 1995), 323-47.
5. The third-person effect was first enunciated by sociologist W. Phillips Davison in "The Third-Person Effect in Communication," Public Opinion Quarterly 47 (spring 1983): 1-15. A recent literature review reported that thirteen of fourteen studies at least partly support the third-person effect. Richard M. Perloff, "Third-Person Effect Research, 1983-1992: A Review and Synthesis," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 5 (summer 1993): 167-84. Also see Dominic L. Lasorsa, "Policy-Makers and the Third-Person Effect," in Public Opinion, the Press and Public Policy, ed. J. David Kennamer (NY: Praeger, 1992), 163-75; Klaus Schoenbach and Lee B. Becker, "Origins and Consequences of Mediated Public Opinion," in Public Opinion and the Communication of Consent, ed. Theodore L. Glasser and Charles T. Salmon (NY: The Guilford Press, 1995), 323-47.
6. Davison, "The Third-Person Effect in Communication," 3.
7. Davison recently wrote approvingly of Perloff's description of the effect as a form of perception - "third-person perception." W. Phillips Davison, "The Third-Person Effect Revisited," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 8 (summer 1996): 113-19.
8. Numerous explanations have been offered to explain this effect. See Hans-Bernd Brosius and Dirk Engel, "The Causes of Third-Person Effects: Unrealistic Optimism, Impersonal Impact, or Generalized Negative Attitudes Towards Media Influence," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 8 (summer 1996): 142-62; Julie M. Duck, Michael A. Hogg, and Deborah J. Terry, "Me, Us and Them: Political Identification and the Third-Person Effect in the 1993 Australian Federal Election," European Journal of Social Psychology 25 (March/April 1995): 195-215; Julie M. Duck, Deborah J. Terry, and Michael A. Hogg, "The Perceived Influence of AIDS Advertising: Third-Person Effects in the Context of Positive Media Content," Basic and Applied Social Psychology 17 (1995): 305-325; Carroll J. Glynn, Ronald E. Ostman, and Daniel G. McDonald, "Opinions, Perception, and Social Reality," in Public Opinion and the Communication of Consent, ed. Glasser and Salmon, 249-77; Albert C. Gunther, "What We Think Others Think: Cause and Consequence in the Third Person Effect," Communication Research 18 (June 1991): 355-72; Diana C. Mutz, "The Political Effects of Perceptions of Mass Opinion," Research in Micropolitics 4 (1994): 143-67.
9. Numerous explanations have been offered to explain this effect. See Hans-Bernd Brosius and Dirk Engel, "The Causes of Third-Person Effects: Unrealistic Optimism, Impersonal Impact, or Generalized Negative Attitudes Towards Media Influence," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 8 (summer 1996): 142-62; Julie M. Duck, Michael A. Hogg, and Deborah J. Terry, "Me, Us and Them: Political Identification and the Third-Person Effect in the 1993 Australian Federal Election," European Journal of Social Psychology 25 (March/April 1995): 195-215; Julie M. Duck, Deborah J. Terry, and Michael A. Hogg, "The Perceived Influence of AIDS Advertising: Third-Person Effects in the Context of Positive Media Content," Basic and Applied Social Psychology 17 (1995): 305-325; Carroll J. Glynn, Ronald E. Ostman, and Daniel G. McDonald, "Opinions, Perception, and Social Reality," in Public Opinion and the Communication of Consent, ed. Glasser and Salmon, 249-77; Albert C. Gunther, "What We Think Others Think: Cause and Consequence in the Third Person Effect," Communication Research 18 (June 1991): 355-72; Diana C. Mutz, "The Political Effects of Perceptions of Mass Opinion," Research in Micropolitics 4 (1994): 143-67.
10. Numerous explanations have been offered to explain this effect. See Hans-Bernd Brosius and Dirk Engel, "The Causes of Third-Person Effects: Unrealistic Optimism, Impersonal Impact, or Generalized Negative Attitudes Towards Media Influence," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 8 (summer 1996): 142-62; Julie M. Duck, Michael A. Hogg, and Deborah J. Terry, "Me, Us and Them: Political Identification and the Third-Person Effect in the 1993 Australian Federal Election," European Journal of Social Psychology 25 (March/April 1995): 195-215; Julie M. Duck, Deborah J. Terry, and Michael A. Hogg, "The Perceived Influence of AIDS Advertising: Third-Person Effects in the Context of Positive Media Content," Basic and Applied Social Psychology 17 (1995): 305-325; Carroll J. Glynn, Ronald E. Ostman, and Daniel G. McDonald, "Opinions, Perception, and Social Reality," in Public Opinion and the Communication of Consent, ed. Glasser and Salmon, 249-77; Albert C. Gunther, "What We Think Others Think: Cause and Consequence in the Third Person Effect," Communication Research 18 (June 1991): 355-72; Diana C. Mutz, "The Political Effects of Perceptions of Mass Opinion," Research in Micropolitics 4 (1994): 143-67.
11. Numerous explanations have been offered to explain this effect. See Hans-Bernd Brosius and Dirk Engel, "The Causes of Third-Person Effects: Unrealistic Optimism, Impersonal Impact, or Generalized Negative Attitudes Towards Media Influence," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 8 (summer 1996): 142-62; Julie M. Duck, Michael A. Hogg, and Deborah J. Terry, "Me, Us and Them: Political Identification and the Third-Person Effect in the 1993 Australian Federal Election," European Journal of Social Psychology 25 (March/April 1995): 195-215; Julie M. Duck, Deborah J. Terry, and Michael A. Hogg, "The Perceived Influence of AIDS Advertising: Third-Person Effects in the Context of Positive Media Content," Basic and Applied Social Psychology 17 (1995): 305-325; Carroll J. Glynn, Ronald E. Ostman, and Daniel G. McDonald, "Opinions, Perception, and Social Reality," in Public Opinion and the Communication of Consent, ed. Glasser and Salmon, 249-77; Albert C. Gunther, "What We Think Others Think: Cause and Consequence in the Third Person Effect," Communication Research 18 (June 1991): 355-72; Diana C. Mutz, "The Political Effects of Perceptions of Mass Opinion," Research in Micropolitics 4 (1994): 143-67.
12. Numerous explanations have been offered to explain this effect. See Hans-Bernd Brosius and Dirk Engel, "The Causes of Third-Person Effects: Unrealistic Optimism, Impersonal Impact, or Generalized Negative Attitudes Towards Media Influence," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 8 (summer 1996): 142-62; Julie M. Duck, Michael A. Hogg, and Deborah J. Terry, "Me, Us and Them: Political Identification and the Third-Person Effect in the 1993 Australian Federal Election," European Journal of Social Psychology 25 (March/April 1995): 195-215; Julie M. Duck, Deborah J. Terry, and Michael A. Hogg, "The Perceived Influence of AIDS Advertising: Third-Person Effects in the Context of Positive Media Content," Basic and Applied Social Psychology 17 (1995): 305-325; Carroll J. Glynn, Ronald E. Ostman, and Daniel G. McDonald, "Opinions, Perception, and Social Reality," in Public Opinion and the Communication of Consent, ed. Glasser and Salmon, 249-77; Albert C. Gunther, "What We Think Others Think: Cause and Consequence in the Third Person Effect," Communication Research 18 (June 1991): 355-72; Diana C. Mutz, "The Political Effects of Perceptions of Mass Opinion," Research in Micropolitics 4 (1994): 143-67.
13. Numerous explanations have been offered to explain this effect. See Hans-Bernd Brosius and Dirk Engel, "The Causes of Third-Person Effects: Unrealistic Optimism, Impersonal Impact, or Generalized Negative Attitudes Towards Media Influence," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 8 (summer 1996): 142-62; Julie M. Duck, Michael A. Hogg, and Deborah J. Terry, "Me, Us and Them: Political Identification and the Third-Person Effect in the 1993 Australian Federal Election," European Journal of Social Psychology 25 (March/April 1995): 195-215; Julie M. Duck, Deborah J. Terry, and Michael A. Hogg, "The Perceived Influence of AIDS Advertising: Third-Person Effects in the Context of Positive Media Content," Basic and Applied Social Psychology 17 (1995): 305-325; Carroll J. Glynn, Ronald E. Ostman, and Daniel G. McDonald, "Opinions, Perception, and Social Reality," in Public Opinion and the Communication of Consent, ed. Glasser and Salmon, 249-77; Albert C. Gunther, "What We Think Others Think: Cause and Consequence in the Third Person Effect," Communication Research 18 (June 1991): 355-72; Diana C. Mutz, "The Political Effects of Perceptions of Mass Opinion," Research in Micropolitics 4 (1994): 143-67.
14. Simpson's exwife and her friend were murdered 12 June 1994. Five days later, the exfootball star and film and television celebrity was discovered being driven down a Los Angeles freeway in a white Ford Bronco in what was widely regarded as an effort to avoid arrest. Subsequent police evidence, including blood samples in Simpson's apartment and truck, also pointed to Simpson's guilt. During the televised trial, Simpson's defense countered the prosecution's case by pointing to sloppy police work and mishandling of evidence. On 3 October, the jury delivered not guilty verdicts in both murder counts.
15. Diana C. Mutz, "The Influence of Perceptions of Media Influence: Third-Person Effects and the Public Expression of Opinions," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 1 (spring 1989): 3-23.
16. Douglas M. McLeod, William P. Eveland Jr., and Amy I. Nathanson, "Support for Censorship of Violent and Misogynic Rap Lyrics: An Analysis of the Third-Person Effect," Communication Research 24 (April 1997): 153-74.
17. James T. Tiedge, Arthur Silverblatt, Michael J. Havice, and Richard Rosenfeld, "Discrepancy Between Perceived First-Person and Perceived Third-Person Mass Media Effects," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring/summer 1991): 141-54.
18. Douglas M. McLeod and Elizabeth M. Perse, "Direct and Indirect Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Public Affairs Knowledge," Journalism Quarterly 71 (summer 1994): 433-42; Michael B. Salwen and Paul D. Driscoll, "Feeling Informed? The 'Assurance Function' of the Mass Media," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 7 (fall 1995): 270-75; Serena Wade and Wilbur Schramm, "The Mass Media as Sources of Public Affairs, Science, and Health Knowledge," Public Opinion Quarterly 33 (summer 1969): 197-209.
19. Douglas M. McLeod and Elizabeth M. Perse, "Direct and Indirect Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Public Affairs Knowledge," Journalism Quarterly 71 (summer 1994): 433-42; Michael B. Salwen and Paul D. Driscoll, "Feeling Informed? The 'Assurance Function' of the Mass Media," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 7 (fall 1995): 270-75; Serena Wade and Wilbur Schramm, "The Mass Media as Sources of Public Affairs, Science, and Health Knowledge," Public Opinion Quarterly 33 (summer 1969): 197-209.
20. Douglas M. McLeod and Elizabeth M. Perse, "Direct and Indirect Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Public Affairs Knowledge," Journalism Quarterly 71 (summer 1994): 433-42; Michael B. Salwen and Paul D. Driscoll, "Feeling Informed? The 'Assurance Function' of the Mass Media," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 7 (fall 1995): 270-75; Serena Wade and Wilbur Schramm, "The Mass Media as Sources of Public Affairs, Science, and Health Knowledge," Public Opinion Quarterly 33 (summer 1969): 197-209.
21. Herbert H. Hyman, Charles R. Wright, and John Shelton Reed, The Enduring Effects of Education (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975).
22. Salwen and Driscoll, "Feeling Informed?"
23. Carroll J. Glynn and Ronald E. Ostman, "Public Opinion About Public Opinion," Journalism Quarterly 65 (summer 1988): 680-88; Albert C. Gunther, "Overrating the X-Rating: The Third-Person Perception and Support for Censorship of Pornography," Journal of Communication 45 (winter 1995): 27-38; Yu-Wei Hu and Yi-Chen Wu, "Testing a Theoretical Model on the Third-Person Effect: Perceived Impact of Election Polls" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Anaheim, CA, August 1996); Dominic L. Lasorsa, "Real and Perceived Effects of 'Amerika'," Journalism Quarterly 66 (summer 1989): 373-78, 529; Dianne Rucinski and Charles T. Salmon, "The 'Other' as the Vulnerable Voter: A Study of the Third-Person Effect in the 1988 U.S. Presidential Campaign," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 2 (winter 1990): 345-68; Tiedge, Silverblatt, Havice, and Rosenfeld, "Discrepancy Between Perceived First-Person and Perceived Third-Person Mass Media Effects."
24. Carroll J. Glynn and Ronald E. Ostman, "Public Opinion About Public Opinion," Journalism Quarterly 65 (summer 1988): 680-88; Albert C. Gunther, "Overrating the X-Rating: The Third-Person Perception and Support for Censorship of Pornography," Journal of Communication 45 (winter 1995): 27-38; Yu-Wei Hu and Yi-Chen Wu, "Testing a Theoretical Model on the Third-Person Effect: Perceived Impact of Election Polls" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Anaheim, CA, August 1996); Dominic L. Lasorsa, "Real and Perceived Effects of 'Amerika'," Journalism Quarterly 66 (summer 1989): 373-78, 529; Dianne Rucinski and Charles T. Salmon, "The 'Other' as the Vulnerable Voter: A Study of the Third-Person Effect in the 1988 U.S. Presidential Campaign," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 2 (winter 1990): 345-68; Tiedge, Silverblatt, Havice, and Rosenfeld, "Discrepancy Between Perceived First-Person and Perceived Third-Person Mass Media Effects."
25. Carroll J. Glynn and Ronald E. Ostman, "Public Opinion About Public Opinion," Journalism Quarterly 65 (summer 1988): 680-88; Albert C. Gunther, "Overrating the X-Rating: The Third-Person Perception and Support for Censorship of Pornography," Journal of Communication 45 (winter 1995): 27-38; Yu-Wei Hu and Yi-Chen Wu, "Testing a Theoretical Model on the Third-Person Effect: Perceived Impact of Election Polls" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Anaheim, CA, August 1996); Dominic L. Lasorsa, "Real and Perceived Effects of 'Amerika'," Journalism Quarterly 66 (summer 1989): 373-78, 529; Dianne Rucinski and Charles T. Salmon, "The 'Other' as the Vulnerable Voter: A Study of the Third-Person Effect in the 1988 U.S. Presidential Campaign," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 2 (winter 1990): 345-68; Tiedge, Silverblatt, Havice, and Rosenfeld, "Discrepancy Between Perceived First-Person and Perceived Third-Person Mass Media Effects."
26. Carroll J. Glynn and Ronald E. Ostman, "Public Opinion About Public Opinion," Journalism Quarterly 65 (summer 1988): 680-88; Albert C. Gunther, "Overrating the X-Rating: The Third-Person Perception and Support for Censorship of Pornography," Journal of Communication 45 (winter 1995): 27-38; Yu-Wei Hu and Yi-Chen Wu, "Testing a Theoretical Model on the Third-Person Effect: Perceived Impact of Election Polls" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Anaheim, CA, August 1996); Dominic L. Lasorsa, "Real and Perceived Effects of 'Amerika'," Journalism Quarterly 66 (summer 1989): 373-78, 529; Dianne Rucinski and Charles T. Salmon, "The 'Other' as the Vulnerable Voter: A Study of the Third-Person Effect in the 1988 U.S. Presidential Campaign," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 2 (winter 1990): 345-68; Tiedge, Silverblatt, Havice, and Rosenfeld, "Discrepancy Between Perceived First-Person and Perceived Third-Person Mass Media Effects."
27. Carroll J. Glynn and Ronald E. Ostman, "Public Opinion About Public Opinion," Journalism Quarterly 65 (summer 1988): 680-88; Albert C. Gunther, "Overrating the X-Rating: The Third-Person Perception and Support for Censorship of Pornography," Journal of Communication 45 (winter 1995): 27-38; Yu-Wei Hu and Yi-Chen Wu, "Testing a Theoretical Model on the Third-Person Effect: Perceived Impact of Election Polls" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Anaheim, CA, August 1996); Dominic L. Lasorsa, "Real and Perceived Effects of 'Amerika'," Journalism Quarterly 66 (summer 1989): 373-78, 529; Dianne Rucinski and Charles T. Salmon, "The 'Other' as the Vulnerable Voter: A Study of the Third-Person Effect in the 1988 U.S. Presidential Campaign," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 2 (winter 1990): 345-68; Tiedge, Silverblatt, Havice, and Rosenfeld, "Discrepancy Between Perceived First-Person and Perceived Third-Person Mass Media Effects."
28. Carroll J. Glynn and Ronald E. Ostman, "Public Opinion About Public Opinion," Journalism Quarterly 65 (summer 1988): 680-88; Albert C. Gunther, "Overrating the X-Rating: The Third-Person Perception and Support for Censorship of Pornography," Journal of Communication 45 (winter 1995): 27-38; Yu-Wei Hu and Yi-Chen Wu, "Testing a Theoretical Model on the Third-Person Effect: Perceived Impact of Election Polls" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Anaheim, CA, August 1996); Dominic L. Lasorsa, "Real and Perceived Effects of 'Amerika'," Journalism Quarterly 66 (summer 1989): 373-78, 529; Dianne Rucinski and Charles T. Salmon, "The 'Other' as the Vulnerable Voter: A Study of the Third-Person Effect in the 1988 U.S. Presidential Campaign," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 2 (winter 1990): 345-68; Tiedge, Silverblatt, Havice, and Rosenfeld, "Discrepancy Between Perceived First-Person and Perceived Third-Person Mass Media Effects."
29. Vincent Price and David Tewksbury, "The Roles of Question Order, Contrast, and Knowledge in the Third-Person Effect," International Journal of Public Opinion Research 8 (summer 1996): 120-41.
30. Hu and Wu, "Testing a Theoretical Model of the Third-Person Effect."
31. L. Erwin Atwood, "Illusions of Media Power: The Third-Person Effect," Journalism Quarterly 71 (summer 1994): 269-81.
32. Atwood, "Illusions of Media Power," 279.
33. Lasorsa, "Real and Perceived Effects of 'Amerika.'"
34. The terminology in the literature is inconsistent. The term perceptual bias or perceptual discrepancy refers to the absolute difference between beliefs about media effects on oneself and estimations of media effects on others, although the term is sometimes assumed to refer to the third-person direction of greater effects on perceived others than on oneself.
35. Lasorsa, "Real and Perceived Effects of 'Amerika,'" 377.
36. Salwen and Driscoll, "Feeling Informed?"
37. Rucinski and Salmon, "The 'Other' as the Vulnerable Voter," 349.
38. This may be because empirical findings indicate low to moderate associations between news media use and public affairs knowledge, as well as inconsistent findings across media. Steven H. Chaffee and Joan Schleuder, "Measurement of Effects of Attention to News Media," Human Communication Research 13 (fall 1986): 76-107; Hugh M. Culbertson and Guido H. Stempel III, "How Media Use and Reliance Affect Knowledge Level," Communication Research 13 (October 1986): 579-602; Jack M. McLeod and D. McDonald, "Beyond Simple Exposure: Media Orientations and Their Impact on Political Processes," Communication Research 12 (January 1985): 3-34; John E. Newhagen, "Self-Efficacy, Media Use as Predictors of Current-Events Knowledge," Journalism Educator 49 (autumn 1994): 27-32.
39. This may be because empirical findings indicate low to moderate associations between news media use and public affairs knowledge, as well as inconsistent findings across media. Steven H. Chaffee and Joan Schleuder, "Measurement of Effects of Attention to News Media," Human Communication Research 13 (fall 1986): 76-107; Hugh M. Culbertson and Guido H. Stempel III, "How Media Use and Reliance Affect Knowledge Level," Communication Research 13 (October 1986): 579-602; Jack M. McLeod and D. McDonald, "Beyond Simple Exposure: Media Orientations and Their Impact on Political Processes," Communication Research 12 (January 1985): 3-34; John E. Newhagen, "Self-Efficacy, Media Use as Predictors of Current-Events Knowledge," Journalism Educator 49 (autumn 1994): 27-32.
40. This may be because empirical findings indicate low to moderate associations between news media use and public affairs knowledge, as well as inconsistent findings across media. Steven H. Chaffee and Joan Schleuder, "Measurement of Effects of Attention to News Media," Human Communication Research 13 (fall 1986): 76-107; Hugh M. Culbertson and Guido H. Stempel III, "How Media Use and Reliance Affect Knowledge Level," Communication Research 13 (October 1986): 579-602; Jack M. McLeod and D. McDonald, "Beyond Simple Exposure: Media Orientations and Their Impact on Political Processes," Communication Research 12 (January 1985): 3-34; John E. Newhagen, "Self-Efficacy, Media Use as Predictors of Current-Events Knowledge," Journalism Educator 49 (autumn 1994): 27-32.
41. This may be because empirical findings indicate low to moderate associations between news media use and public affairs knowledge, as well as inconsistent findings across media. Steven H. Chaffee and Joan Schleuder, "Measurement of Effects of Attention to News Media," Human Communication Research 13 (fall 1986): 76-107; Hugh M. Culbertson and Guido H. Stempel III, "How Media Use and Reliance Affect Knowledge Level," Communication Research 13 (October 1986): 579-602; Jack M. McLeod and D. McDonald, "Beyond Simple Exposure: Media Orientations and Their Impact on Political Processes," Communication Research 12 (January 1985): 3-34; John E. Newhagen, "Self-Efficacy, Media Use as Predictors of Current-Events Knowledge," Journalism Educator 49 (autumn 1994): 27-32.
42. Dhavan V. Shah, Ronald J. Faber, Seounmi Hanyoun, and Hernando Rojas, "Censorship of Political Advertising: A Third-Person Effect" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Chicago, August 1997).
43. J. M. Innes and H. Zeitz, "The Public's View of the Impact of the Mass Media: A Test of the 'Third Person' Effect," European Journal of Social Psychology 18 (October/November 1988): 457-63.
44. Albert C. Gunther and Paul Mundy, "Biased Optimism and the Third-Person Effect," Journalism Quarterly 70 (spring 1993): 58-67; Albert C. Gunther and Esther Thorson, "Perceived Persuasive Effects of Product Commercials and Public Service Announcements: Third Person Effects in New Domains," Communication Research 19 (October 1992): 574-596; Thomas Ashby Wills, "Downward Comparison Principles in Social Psychology," Psychological Bulletin 90 (September 1981): 245-71.
45. Albert C. Gunther and Paul Mundy, "Biased Optimism and the Third-Person Effect," Journalism Quarterly 70 (spring 1993): 58-67; Albert C. Gunther and Esther Thorson, "Perceived Persuasive Effects of Product Commercials and Public Service Announcements: Third Person Effects in New Domains," Communication Research 19 (October 1992): 574-596; Thomas Ashby Wills, "Downward Comparison Principles in Social Psychology," Psychological Bulletin 90 (September 1981): 245-71.
46. Albert C. Gunther and Paul Mundy, "Biased Optimism and the Third-Person Effect," Journalism Quarterly 70 (spring 1993): 58-67; Albert C. Gunther and Esther Thorson, "Perceived Persuasive Effects of Product Commercials and Public Service Announcements: Third Person Effects in New Domains," Communication Research 19 (October 1992): 574-596; Thomas Ashby Wills, "Downward Comparison Principles in Social Psychology," Psychological Bulletin 90 (September 1981): 245-71.
47. Perloff, "Third-Person Effect Research, 1983-1992," 9.
48. Julie M. Duck and Barbara-Ann Mullin, "The Perceived Impact of the Mass Media: Reconsidering the Third Person Effect," European Journal of Social Psychology 25 (January-February 1995): 77-93; Gunther and Thorson, "Perceived Persuasive Effects of Product Commercials and Public Service Announcements."
49. Julie M. Duck and Barbara-Ann Mullin, "The Perceived Impact of the Mass Media: Reconsidering the Third Person Effect," European Journal of Social Psychology 25 (January-February 1995): 77-93; Gunther and Thorson, "Perceived Persuasive Effects of Product Commercials and Public Service Announcements."
50. Elana Blacher, The Role of Self-Esteem, Body Satisfaction and Body Image on Female College Students' Third-Person Perceptions: An Examination of the Thin-Ideal Myth (master's thesis, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, 1996).
51. Jeremy Cohen and Robert G. Davis, "Third-Person Effects and the Differential Impact in Negative Political Advertising," Journalism Quarterly 68 (winter 1991): 680-88. For related research see also Gunther and Mundy, "Biased Optimism and the Third-Person Effect"; Gunther and Thorson, "Perceived Persuasive Effects of Product Commercials and Public Service Announcements"; Ekaterina Ognianova, Robert Meeds, Esther Thorson, and James Coyle, "Political Adwatches and the Third-Person Effect" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Anaheim, CA, August 1996).
52. Jeremy Cohen and Robert G. Davis, "Third-Person Effects and the Differential Impact in Negative Political Advertising," Journalism Quarterly 68 (winter 1991): 680-88. For related research see also Gunther and Mundy, "Biased Optimism and the Third-Person Effect"; Gunther and Thorson, "Perceived Persuasive Effects of Product Commercials and Public Service Announcements"; Ekaterina Ognianova, Robert Meeds, Esther Thorson, and James Coyle, "Political Adwatches and the Third-Person Effect" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Anaheim, CA, August 1996).
53. Jeremy Cohen and Robert G. Davis, "Third-Person Effects and the Differential Impact in Negative Political Advertising," Journalism Quarterly 68 (winter 1991): 680-88. For related research see also Gunther and Mundy, "Biased Optimism and the Third-Person Effect"; Gunther and Thorson, "Perceived Persuasive Effects of Product Commercials and Public Service Announcements"; Ekaterina Ognianova, Robert Meeds, Esther Thorson, and James Coyle, "Political Adwatches and the Third-Person Effect" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Anaheim, CA, August 1996).
54. Jeremy Cohen and Robert G. Davis, "Third-Person Effects and the Differential Impact in Negative Political Advertising," Journalism Quarterly 68 (winter 1991): 680-88. For related research see also Gunther and Mundy, "Biased Optimism and the Third-Person Effect"; Gunther and Thorson, "Perceived Persuasive Effects of Product Commercials and Public Service Announcements"; Ekaterina Ognianova, Robert Meeds, Esther Thorson, and James Coyle, "Political Adwatches and the Third-Person Effect" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Anaheim, CA, August 1996).
55. William J. Brown, Benson P. Fraser, and Mihai C. Bocarnea, "The Influence of O.J. Simpson's Pre-Trial Publicity on Public Opinion and the Public Agenda" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Albuquerque, NM, May 1995).
56. The hypotheses were stated in correlational terms. The research questions are stated in predictive terms. The relative importance of combinations of variables will be tested through regression analyses.
57. The sampling frame consisted of telephone directories from the forty-eight continental states and the District of Columbia. The sample was stratified proportionate to each state's population. The unit of analysis was the page, with pages randomly selected from the directories' residential sections. Adjustments were made in directory listings from highly populated areas because of the smaller type size with more listings on each page. After a page was selected, a column was randomly selected, followed by a randomly selected line down the column. The last digit of the number was increased by one so that respondents with unlisted numbers could be contacted. Since females are disproportionately likely to answer the telephone in surveys, about one-fourth of the callers requested to speak with the adult male in the household with the nearest birthday when a female answered the telephone.
58. This was the ratio of completed calls to known valid contacts and outright refusals. The ratio of completed calls to all outgoing calls, including telephone machines that could not be reached after repeated attempts, invalid respondents, surveys that could not be completed, and the like, was about 36%.
59. Admittedly the use of single pairs of items measuring the third-person effect, unfortunately common in the literature, is problematic. As Price and Tewksbury observed, "all research to date bearing on the third-person effect has examined the phenomenon by posing to respondents a series of parallel questions about perceived media effects," "The Roles of Question Order, Contrast, and Knowledge in the Third-Person Effect," 124.
60. The questions involving media coverage of the Bronco chase and police mishandling of evidence were recoded so that for all questions, the higher the score the lower the estimate of media influence.
61. This is also referred to in the literature as the "reverse third-person effect." Cohen and Davis, "Third-Person Effects and the Differential Impact in Negative Political Advertising"; Albert C. Gunther and Esther Thorson, "Perceived Persuasive Effects of Commercials and Public Service Announcements," Communication Research 19 (October 1992): 574-96.
62. This is also referred to in the literature as the "reverse third-person effect." Cohen and Davis, "Third-Person Effects and the Differential Impact in Negative Political Advertising"; Albert C. Gunther and Esther Thorson, "Perceived Persuasive Effects of Commercials and Public Service Announcements," Communication Research 19 (October 1992): 574-96.
63. Descriptive statistics on the overall sample were generated and a series of stepwise multivariate linear regression models were run on the entire sample and the third-person effect "subsample." Data for each variable measure were examined for linearity and equality of variance using standardized residual scatterplots. Normal probability plots and detrended normal plots were generated to check for the normality assumption. Maria J. Norusis, ed., SPSS Introductory Statistics Student Guide (Chicago: SPSS, Inc., 1990), 100.
64. Too often researchers ask the race question as African American, White, Hispanic, or other. This categorization is problematic for distinguishing White Hispanics and Black Hispanics. Gonzalo Soruco, Cubans and the Mass Media in South Florida (Gainseville: University Press of Florida, 1996). See especially Chapter 2, "The Problems with Hispanic Research," 17-33. After determining that Hispanic ethnicity was not a correlate of third-person effect on any of the three messages, White Hispanics were classified as Whites and Black Hispanics as Blacks.
65. The distribution was: definitely not guilty (Whites 3.0%, African Americans 18.4%); probably not guilty (Whites 7.8%, African Americans 26.3%); don't really know (Whites 34.1%, African Americans 43.4%), probably guilty (Whites 34.7%, African Americans 6.6%); definitely guilty (Whites 20.4%, African Americans 5.3%).
66. This form of subgroup analysis was suggested by Gunther, "Overrating the X-Rating."
67. Because of the role perceptions of guilt were hypothesized to play, first-order partial correlations between the knowledge measures and the third-person perception measures were calculated controlling for perceptions of guilt. Only two notable changes occurred: (1) the relationship between current events knowledge and the Bronco measure became significant (r=.09, p=.02), and (2) the relationship between current events knowledge and the police measure slipped out of the significance range (r=.07, p=.06). On balance, support for H1 does not change. All other reported correlations of the knowledge items with third-person perception measures were also tested for the entire sample and the third-person effect subsamples. There were no notable changes in either the value or direction of the coefficients or their probability levels.
68. Because of the nature of the Simpson trial, the race variable was dummy coded for these comparisons as either 0 (Whites, n=505) or 1 (African Americans, n=76). Those reporting other racial categories and Blacks were not included (n=19).
69. The stepwise procedure was chosen in an attempt to isolate a subset of available predictor variables yielding an optimal prediction equation with as few terms as possible. While forced entry procedures do have some advantages, there is no definite causal ordering among the variables or a clear rationale for ordered step-down significance tests of components; Norusis, ed., SPSS Introductory Statistics Student Guide, 273; Norman H. Nie, C. Hadlai Hull, Jean G. Jenkins, Karin Steinbrenner, and Dale H. Bent, SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (NY: McGraw-Hill, 1975), 344-45.
70. The stepwise procedure was chosen in an attempt to isolate a subset of available predictor variables yielding an optimal prediction equation with as few terms as possible. While forced entry procedures do have some advantages, there is no definite causal ordering among the variables or a clear rationale for ordered step-down significance tests of components; Norusis, ed., SPSS Introductory Statistics Student Guide, 273; Norman H. Nie, C. Hadlai Hull, Jean G. Jenkins, Karin Steinbrenner, and Dale H. Bent, SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (NY: McGraw-Hill, 1975), 344-45.