Group-induced polarization of attitudes and behavior

Advances in Experimental Social Psychology

Volumn 11, Issue C, 1978, Pages 145-195

  Lamm, Helmut ^a   Myers, David G ^b  

^a Pädagogische Hochschule ^*  (Germany)

^b HOPE COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0001219646     PISSN: 00652601     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60007-6     Document Type: Article

References (181)

1. Anderson, N.H., Graesser, C.C., An information integration analysis of attitude change in group discussion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 34 (1976), 210–222.
2. Andrews, I.R., Johnson, D.L., Small group polarization of judgements. Psychonomic Science 24 (1971), 191–192.
3. Asch, S.E., Studies of independence and conformity: A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychological Monographs, 7, 1956 (9, Whole No. 416).
4. Astin, A.W., Panos, R.J., The educational and vocational development of college students., 1969, American Council on Education, Washington, D.C.
5. Baron, R.S., Monson, T.C., Baron, P.H., Conformity pressure as a determinant of risk taking: Replication and extension. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 28 (1973), 406–413.
6. Baron, R.S., Roper, G., Reaffirmation of social comparison views of choice shifts: Averaging and extremity effects in an autokinetic situation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 33 (1976), 521–530.
7. Baron, R.S., Roper, G., Baron, P.H., Group discussion and the stingy shift. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 30 (1974), 538–545.
8. Baron, R.S., Sanders, G., Group decision as a technique for obtaining compliance: Some added considerations concerning how altruism leads to callousness. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 5 (1975), 281–295.
9. Baron, R.S., Sanders, G.S., Baron, P.H., Social comparison reconceptualized: Implications for choice shifts, averaging effects, and social facilitation, 1975, University of Iowa Unpublished manuscript.
10. Batson, C.D., Rational processing or rationalization? The effect of disconfirming information on a stated religious belief. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32 (1975), 176–184.
11. Baumhart, R., An honest profit., 1968, Holt, New York.
12. Billig, M., Cochrane, R., Judgments of values and group polarization: Tests of the value-for-risk hypothesis. European Journal of Social Psychology 6 (1976), 495–501.
13. Bishop, G.D., Myers, D.G., Informational influence in group discussion. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 12 (1974), 92–104.
14. J. Blascovich, Technological innovation adoption: An experiment in bureaucratic decision making. Paper presented at the Meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, 1976.
15. Blascovich, J., Ginsburg, G.P., Howe, R.C., Blackjack and the risky shift. II: Monetary stakes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 11 (1975), 224–232.
16. Blascovich, J., Ginsburg, G.P., Howe, R.C., Blackjack: Choice shifts in the field, 1976, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee Unpublished manuscript.
17. Blascovich, J., Ginsburg, G.P., Veach, T.L., A pluralistic explanation of choice shifts on the risk dimension. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31 (1975), 422–429.
18. Burnstein, E., Miller, H., Vinokur, A., Katz, S., Crowley, J., Risky shift is eminently rational. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 20 (1971), 462–471.
19. Burnstein, E., Vinokur, A., What a person thinks upon learning he has chosen differently from others: Nice evidence for the persuasive-arguments explanation of choice shifts. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 11 (1975), 412–426.
20. Burnstein, E., Vinokur, A., Pichevin, M.F., What do differences between own, admired, and attributed choices have to do with group induced shifts in choice?. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 10 (1974), 428–443.
21. Cartwright, D.S., The nature of gangs. Cartwright, D.S., Tomson, B., Schwartz, H., (eds.) Gang delinquency., 1975, Brooks/Cole, Monterey, Calif., 1–22.
22. Chickering, A.W., McCormick, J., Personality development and the college experience. Research in Higher Education(1), 1973, 62–64.
23. Cialdini, R.B., Levy, A., Herman, C.P., Evenbeck, S., Attitudinal politics: The strategy of moderation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 25 (1973), 100–108.
24. Clark, B.R., Heist, P., McConnell, T.R., Trow, M.A., Yonge, G., Students and colleges: Interaction and change., 1972, University of California, Center for Research and Development in Higher Education, Berkeley.
25. Clark, R.D. III., Group-induced shift toward risk: A critical appraisal. Psychological Bulletin 76 (1971), 251–270.
26. Clark, R.D. III, Crockett, W.H., Archer, R.L., Risk-as-value hypothesis: The relation between perception of self, others, and the risky shift. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 20 (1971), 425–429.
27. Codol, J.P., On the so-called “superior conformity of the self” behavior: Twenty experimental investigations. European Journal of Social Psychology 5 (1976), 457–501.
28. Coleman, J.S., Community conflict., 1957, Free Press, New York.
29. Crawford, T.J., Sermons on racial tolerance and the parish neighborhood context. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 4 (1974), 1–23.
30. Cvetkovich, G., Baumgardner, S.R., Attitude polarization: The relative influence of discussion group structure and reference group norms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 26 (1973), 159–165.
31. Davis, J.H., Group decision and social interaction: A theory of social decision schemes. Psychological Review 80 (1973), 97–125.
32. Davis, J.H., Bray, R.M., Holt, R.W., The empirical study of social decision processes in juries. Tapp, J., Levine, F., (eds.) Law, justice and the individual in society: Psychological and legal issues., 1978, Holt, New York in press.
33. Davis, J.H., Kerr, N.L., Atkin, E.S., Holt, R., Meek, D., The decision processes of six and twelve person mock juries assigned unanimous and two-thirds majority rules. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32 (1975), 1–14.
34. Davis, J.H., Kerr, N.L., Stasser, G., Meek, D., Holt, R., Victim consequences, sentence severity, and decision processes in mock juries, 1976, University of Illinois Unpublished manuscript.
35. Davis, J.H., Kerr, N.L., Sussman, M., Rissman, A.K., Social decision schemes under risk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 30 (1974), 248–271.
36. Deets, M.K., Hoyt, G.C., Variance preferences and variance shifts in group investment decisions. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 5 (1970), 378–386.
37. Diener, E., Effects of prior destructive behavior, anonymity, and group presence on deindividuation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 33 (1976), 497–507.
38. Diener, E., Fraser, S.C., Beaman, A.L., Kelem, R.T., Effects of deindividuation variables on stealing among Halloween trick-or-treaters. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 33 (1976), 178–183.
39. E. Diener, K.L. Westford, J. Dineen, S.C. Fraser, Beat the pacifist: The deindividuating effects of anonymity and group presence. Proceedings of the 81st Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, 1973, pp. 221–222.
40. Dion, K.L., Baron, R.S., Miller, N., Why do groups make riskier decisions than individuals. Berkowitz, L., (eds.) Advances in experimental social psychology., 5, 1970, Academic Press, New York.
41. Doise, W., Intergroup relations and polarization of individual and collective judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 12 (1969), 136–143.
42. Doise, W., An apparent exception to the extremization of collective judgments. European Journal of Social Psychology 1 (1971), 511–518.
43. Ebbesen, E.B., Bowers, R.J., Proportion of risky to conservative arguments in a group discussion and choice shift. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 29 (1974), 316–327.
44. Eisinger, R., Mills, J., Perception of the sincerity and competence of a communicator as a function of the extremity of his position. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 4 (1968), 224–232.
45. Erikson, E.H., Identity and the life cycle. Psychological Issues 1 (1959), 1–171.
46. Feldman, K.A., Newcomb, T.M., The impact of college on students., 1969, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
47. Festinger, L., A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations 7 (1954), 117–140.
48. Festinger, L., Riecken, H.W., Schachter, S., When prophecy fails., 1956, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
49. R.D. Foss, N.E. Foss, Effects of irrelevant variables and group discussion on stimulated jury decisions. Paper presented at the Meeting of the Western Psychological Association, April 1973.
50. Freedman, J.L., Crowding and behavior., 1975, Viking, New York.
51. Fromkin, H.L., Effects of experimentally aroused feelings of undistinctiveness upon valuation of scarce and novel experiences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 16 (1970), 521–529.
52. Fromkin, H.L., Feelings of interpersonal undistinctiveness: An unpleasant affective state. Journal of Experimental Research in Personality 6 (1972), 178–185.
53. Fromm, E., Escape from freedom., 1941, Farrah & Rinehart, New York.
54. Gleason, J.M., Harris, V.A., Group discussion and defendant's socio-economic status as determinants of judgments by simulated jurors. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 6 (1976), 186–191.
55. Goethals, G.R., Zanna, M.P., The role of social comparison and persuasion in choice shifts, 1977, Williams College Unpublished manuscript.
56. Gouge, C., Fraser, C.A., A further demonstration of group polarization. European Journal of Social Psychology 2 (1972), 95–97.
57. Graesser, C.C., A social averaging theorem for group decision making, 1975, University of California, San Diego Thesis proposal.
58. Greenwald, A.G., Cognitive learning, cognitive response to persuasion, and attitude change. Greenwald, A.G., Brock, T.C., Ostrom, T.M., (eds.) Psychological foundations of attitudes., 1968, Academic Press, New York.
59. Hans, V.P., Doob, A.N., S.12 of the Canada Evidence Act and the deliberations of simulated juries. Criminal Law Quarterly 18 (1976), 235–253.
60. Hardyck, J.A., Braden, M., Prophecy fails again: A report of a failure to replicate. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 65 (1962), 136–141.
61. J.T. Heimbach, Social psychology in the jury room: The effects of evidence, confession, and group interaction in sentencing. Paper presented at the Meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, X X, May 1970.
62. Hoge, D.R., Commitment on campus: Changes in religion and values over five decades., 1974, Westminster Press, Philadelphia.
63. Holmes, J.G., Ellis, R.J., Rosenbaum, D., Outgroup threat and ingroup cohesion as sources of ethnocentrism and polarization, 1976, University of Waterloo Unpublished manuscript.
64. Horney, K., The neurotic personality of our time., 1937, Norton, New York.
65. Izzett, R.R., Leginski, W., Group discussion and the influence of defendant characteristics in a simulated jury setting. Journal of Social Psychology 93 (1974), 271–280.
66. Janis, I.L., Victims of groupthink., 1972, Houston, Boston.
67. Jellison, J.M., Arkin, R.M., Social comparison of abilities: A self-presentational approach to decision making in groups. Suls, J.M., Miller, R.L., (eds.) Social comparison processes., 1977, Halsted Press, New York, 235–257.
68. Jellison, J.M., Davis, D., Relationships between perceived ability and attitude extremity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 27 (1973), 430–436.
69. D.L. Johnson, Small group polarization of ratings in student evaluation of faculty. Paper presented at the meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, April 1972.
70. Johnson, D.L., Andrews, I.R., The risky-shift hypothesis tested with consumer products as stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 20 (1971), 382–385.
71. Johnson, N.R., Stemler, J.G., Hunter, D., Crowd behavior as “risky shift”: A laboratory experiment. Sociometry 40 (1977), 183–187.
72. Judd, B. Jr., Information effects in group shift, 1975, University of Texas at Arlington Unpublished master's thesis.
73. Kalven, H.G. Jr., Zeisel, H., The American jury., 1966, Little, Brown, Boston.
74. Kaplan, M.F., Information integration in social judgment: Interaction of judge and informational components. Kaplan, M.F., Schwartz, S., (eds.) Human judgment and decision processes., 1975, Academic Press, New York.
75. Kaplan, M.F., Group discussion effects in a modified jury decision paradigm: Informational influences. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 1978 in press.
76. M.F. Kaplan, C.E. Miller, Juror judgment and discussion: Effect of variety of shared information on amount of polarization. Paper presented at the meeting of the Psychonomic Society, St. Louis, 1976.
77. Kerr, N.L., Davis, J.H., Meek, D., Rissman, A.K., Group position as a function of member attitudes: Choice shift effects from the perspective of social decision scheme theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31 (1975), 574–593.
78. S.A. Kirkpatrick, Problems of risk-taking in bureaucracies. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Studies Association, Washington, D.C., 1975.
79. Kirkpatrick, S.A., Bernick, E.L., Thomson, R.J., Rycroft, R.W., Risks in political decisionmaking: An experimental analysis of choice shifts. Experimental Study of Politics 4 (1975), 55–92.
80. Kirkpatrick, S.A., Davis, D.F., Robertson, R.D., The process of political decision-making in groups. American Behavioral Scientist 20 (1976), 33–64.
81. S.A. Kirkpatrick, R.D. Robertson, Choice shifts in political decision-making: An experimental test of value theory. Paper presented at the meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, 1976.
82. Klapper, J.T., Bandwagon: A review of the literature., 1964, Office of Social Research, Columbia Broadcasting System, New York.
83. Knox, R.E., Safford, R.K., Group caution at the race track. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 12 (1976), 317–324.
84. Kogan, N., Wallach, M.A., Risk-taking as a function of the situation, the person, and the group. Newcomb, T.M., (eds.) New directions in psychology., 3, 1967, Holt, New York.
85. Krapf, G., Polarization of responses in student evaluation of teachers as a function of group discussion, 1972, Radford College Unpublished master's thesis.
86. Lamm, H., Ochsmann, R., Factors limiting the generality of the risky-shift phenomenon. European Journal of Social Psychology 2 (1972), 99–102.
87. Lamm, H., Sauer, C., Discussion-induced shift toward higher demands in negotiation. European Journal of Social Psychology 4 (1974), 85–88.
88. Lamm, H., Schaude, E., Trommsdorff, G., Risky shift as a function of group members' value of risk and need for approval. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 20 (1971), 430–435.
89. Lamm, H., Trommsdorff, G., Rost-Schaude, E., Self-image, perception of peers' risk acceptance and risky shift. European Journal of Social Psychology 2 (1972), 255–272.
90. Latané, B., Darley, J.M., The unresponsive bystander: Why doesn't he help?, 1970, Appleton, New York.
91. E.R. Laughlin, R.R. Izzett, Juror-defendant attitude similarity and choice shift in the jury trial. Paper presented at the meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, May 1973.
92. Lemaine, G., Social differentiation and social originality. European Journal of Social Psychology 4 (1974), 17–52.
93. Lenihan, K.J., Perceived climates as a barrier to housing desegregation, 1965, Columbia University, Bureau of Applied Social Research Unpublished manuscript.
94. Levinger, G., Schneider, D.J., Test of the “risk is a value” hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 11 (1969), 165–169.
95. Lewin, M.A., Kane, M., Impeachment of Nixon and the risky shift. International Journal of Group Tensions 5 (1975), 171–176.
96. Louche, C., Les effets de la catégorisation sociale et de l'interaction collective dans la préparation et le déroulement d'une négociation inter-groupe. Bulletin de Psychologie 28 (1975), 941–947 (a).
97. Louche, C., La préparation d'une négociation en groupe et ses effets sur le comportement des négociateurs et leurs représentations. Bulletin de Psychologie 28 (1975), 113–117 (b).
98. Madaras, G.R., Bem, D.J., Risk and conservatism in group decision-making. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 4 (1968), 350–365.
99. Main, E.G., Walker, T.G., Choice shifts and extreme behavior: Judicial review of the federal courts. Journal of Social Psychology 91 (1973), 215–222.
100. Malamuth, N.M., A systematic analysis of the relationship between group shifts and characteristics of the choice dilemmas questionnaire, 1975, University of California at Los Angeles Unpublished doctoral dissertation.
101. Malamuth, N.M., Feshbach, S., Risky shift in a naturalistic setting. Journal of Personality 40 (1972), 38–49.
102. Manis, M., Cornell, S.D., Moore, J.C., Transmission of attitude-relevant information through a communication chain. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 30 (1974), 81–94.
103. Marquis, D.G., Reitz, H.J., Effect of uncertainty on risk taking in individual and group decisions. Behavioral Science 14 (1969), 281–288.
104. Maslow, A.H., Toward a psychology of being., 1962, Van Nostrand, New York.
105. Mathes, E.W., Kahn, A., Diffusion of responsibility and extreme behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31 (1975), 881–886.
106. McCauley, C., Stitt, C.L., Woods, K., Lipton, D., Group shift to caution at the race track. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 9 (1973), 80–86.
107. McGuire, W.J., Padawer-Singer, A., Trait salience in the spontaneous self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 33 (1976), 743–754.
108. D.A. Minix, The role of the small group in foreign policy decision making: A potential pathology in crisis decisions? Paper presented to the meeting of the Southern Political Science Association, 1976.
109. Misavage, R., Richardson, J.T., The focusing of responsibility: An alternative hypothesis in help-demanding situations. European Journal of Social Psychology 4 (1974), 5–15.
110. Moscovici, S., Lecuyer, R., Studies in group decision I: Social space, patterns of communication and group consensus. European Journal of Social Psychology 2 (1972), 221–244.
111. Moscovici, S., Zavalloni, M., The group as a polarizer of attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 12 (1969), 125–135.
112. Muehleman, J.T., Bruker, C., Ingram, C.M., The generosity shift. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 34 (1976), 344–351.
113. Myers, D.G., Discussion-induced attitude polarization. Human Relations 28 (1975), 699–714.
114. Myers, D.G., The polarizing effects of social comparison, 1977, Hope College Unpublished manuscript.
115. Myers, D.G., Bach, P.J., Discussion effects on militarism-pacifism: A test of the group polarization hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 30 (1974), 741–747.
116. Myers, D.G., Bach, P.J., Group discussion effects on conflict behavior and self-justification. Psychological Reports 38 (1976), 135–140.
117. Myers, D.G., Bach, P.J., Schreiber, F.B., Normative and informational effects of group interaction. Sociometry 37 (1974), 275–286.
118. Myers, D.G., Bishop, G.D., Discussion effects on racial attitudes. Science 169 (1970), 778–789.
119. Myers, D.G., Bishop, G.D., Enhancement of dominant attitudes in group discussion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 20 (1971), 386–391.
120. Myers, D.G., Kaplan, M.F., Group-induced polarization in simulated juries. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 2 (1976), 63–66.
121. Myers, D.G., Lamm, H., The group polarization phenomenon. Psychological Bulletin 83 (1976), 602–627.
122. Myers, D.G., Schreiber, F.B., Viel, D.J., Effects of discussion on opinions concerning illegal behavior. Journal of Social Psychology 92 (1974), 77–84.
123. Myers, D.G., Wojcicki, S.A., Aardema, B., Attitude comparison: Is there ever a bandwagon effect?. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 1978 in press.
124. Mynatt, C., Sherman, S.J., Responsibility attribution in groups and individuals: A direct test of the diffusion of responsibility hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32 (1975), 1111–1118.
125. Nash, M., Unanimity in criminal jury verdicts. Journal of Forensic Psychology 5 (1973), 5–13.
126. Niebuhr, R., Moral man and immoral society., 1932, Scribner's, New York.
127. Paicheler, G., Norms and attitude change I: Polarization and styles of behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology 6 (1976), 405–427 (a).
128. Paicheler, G., Norms and attitude change III: Homogeneous and heterogeneous groups, 1976, École Pratique des Hautes Études Unpublished manuscript (b).
129. Paicheler, G., Norms and attitude change II: The phenomenon of bipolarization. European Journal of Social Psychology 7 (1977), 5–14.
130. Paicheler, G., Bouchet, J., Attitude polarization, familiarization, and group process. European Journal of Social Psychology 3 (1973), 83–90.
131. Peterson, R.A., Fulcher, D.G., Risky shift in marketing decision making: A nonconfirmation. Psychological Reports 29 (1971), 1135–1138.
132. Pruitt, D.G., Choice shifts in group discussion: An introductory review. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 20 (1971), 339–360 (a).
133. Pruitt, D.G., Conclusions: Toward an understanding of choice shifts in group discussion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 20 (1971), 495–510 (b).
134. Rabbie, J.M., Visser, L., Bargaining strength and group polarization in inter-group polarization. European Journal of Social Psychology 2 (1972), 401–416.
135. Rabbie, J.M., Visser, L., Competitive and defensive orientations in interpersonal and intergroup conflict, 1976, University of Utrecht Unpublished manuscript.
136. Reingen, P.H., Risk taking by individuals and in informal groups with the use of industrial product purchasing situations as stimuli. Journal of Psychology 85 (1973), 339–345.
137. Reingen, P.H., Phenomena of shifts along a risk dimension tested with established groups. Journal of Social Psychology 94 (1974), 295–296.
138. Reingen, P.H., Risky shift or confused subjects?, 1975, Iona College Unpublished manuscript.
139. Reingen, P.H., Effect of group discussion on honesty-dishonesty in business situations: A test of the cultural value hypothesis, 1976, Iona College Unpublished manuscript.
140. Rettig, S., Group discussion and predicted ethical risk taking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 3 (1966), 629–633.
141. Riley, R.T., Pettigrew, T.F., Dramatic events and attitude change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 34 (1976), 1004–1015.
142. Rumsey, M.G., Post-discussion penalty shifts and the polarization hypothesis, 1975, University of Indiana Unpublished doctoral dissertation.
143. Rumsey, M.G., Effects of defendant background and remorse on sentencing judgments. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 6 (1976), 64–68.
144. M.G. Rumsey, C.H. Castore, The effect of defendant's character and group discussion on individual sentencing judgments. Paper presented at the meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, May 1974.
145. Rumsey, M.G., Laughlin, E.R., Castore, C.H., Group discussion, sentence judgments and the leniency shift, 1974, Purdue University Unpublished manuscript.
146. Sanders, G.S., Baron, R.S., Is social comparison irrelevant for producing choice shifts?. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 13 (1977), 303–314.
147. Schlenker, B.R., Self-presentation: Managing the impression of consistency when reality interferes with self-enhancement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32 (1975), 1030–1037.
148. M. Schmidt John Wesley: A theological autobiography 2 1972 Abdingdon X X (N. P. Goldhawk, trans.).
149. Schroeder, H.E., The risky shift as a general choice shift. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 27 (1973), 297–300.
150. Schulman, J., Shaver, P., Colman, R., Emrich, R., Christie, R., Recipe for a jury. Psychology Today 6:12 (1973), 37–44 77–84.
151. Semin, G.R., Glendon, A.I., Polarization and the established group. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 12 (1973), 113–121.
152. A.K. Semmel, Group dynamics and the foreign policy process: The choice-shift phenomenon. Paper presented at the meeting of the Southern Political Science Association, 1976.
153. Sherif, M., In common predicament: Social psychology of intergroup conflict and cooperation., 1966, Houghton, Boston.
154. R.D. Shrewsberry, D.L. Johnson, A comparison of group and individual responses on an impression formation task. Paper presented at the meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, April 1972.
155. Siegel, S., Zajonc, R.B., Group risk taking in professional decisions. Sociometry 30 (1967), 339–349.
156. Silzer, R.F., Clark, R.D. III., The effects of proportion, strength and value orientation of arguments on decision making. European Journal of Social Psychology, 1978 in press.
157. Spector, P.E., Cohen, S.L., Penner, L.A., The effects of real vs. hypothetical risk on group choice-shifts. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 2 (1976), 290–293.
158. Stephenson, G.M., Brotherton, C.J., Social progression and polarization: A study of discussion and negotiation in groups of mining supervisors. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 14 (1975), 241–252.
159. Tesser, A., Toward a theory of self-generated attitude change, 1975, University of Georgia Unpublished manuscript.
160. Tesser, A., Conlee, M.S., Some effects of time and thought on attitude polarization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31 (1975), 262–270.
161. Toch, R., The social psychology of social movements., 1965, Bobbs-Merrill, Indianapolis.
162. Trommsdorff, G., Gruppeneinflüsse auf Zukunftsbeurteilungen, 1978, Hain, Meisenheim/Glan in press.
163. Verba, S., Small groups and political behavior., 1961, Princeton Unversity Press, Princeton, N.J.
164. N. Vidmar, Group-induced shifts in simulated jury decisions. Paper presented at the meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, May 1972.
165. Vidmar, N., Effects of group discussion on category width judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 29 (1974), 187–195.
166. Vinokur, A., A review and theoretical analysis of the effects of group processes upon individual and group decisions involving risk. Psychological Bulletin 76 (1971), 231–250.
167. Vinokur, A., Burnstein, E., The effects of partially shared persuasive arguments on group induced shifts: A group problem solving approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 29 (1974), 305–315.
168. Vinokur, A., Burnstein, E., Novel argumentation and attitude change: The case of polarization following discussion. European Journal of Social Psychology, 1978 in press.
169. Wahram, R., Status, deviance, sanctions, and group discussion. Small Group Behavior 8 (1977), 147–168.
170. Walker, T.G., Main, E.C., Choice-shifts in political decision making: Federal judges and civil liberties cases. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 2 (1973), 39–48.
171. Wheeler, L., Motivation as a determinant of upward comparison. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology(Supplement 1), 1966, 27–31 (a).
172. Wheeler, L., Toward a theory of behavioral contagion. Psychological Review 73 (1966), 179–192 (b).
173. Wilson, R.C., Gabb, J.G., Dienst, E.R., Wood, L., Bavry, J.L., College professors and their impact on students., 1975, Wiley, New York.
174. Wolosin, R.J., Sherman, S.J., Mynatt, C.R., When self-interest and altruism conflict. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32 (1975), 752–760.
175. Woodside, A.G., Informal group influence on risk taking. Journal of Marketing Research 9 (1972), 223–225.
176. Woodside, A.G., Is there a generalized risky shift phenomenon in consumer behavior?. Journal of Marketing Research 17 (1974), 225–226.
177. Woodside, A.G., DeLozier, M.W., Effects of word of mouth advertising on consumer risk taking, 1975, University of South Carolina Unpublished manuscript.
178. Yinon, Y., Jaffe, Y., Feshbach, S., Risky aggression in individuals and groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31 (1975), 808–815.
179. Yinon, Y., Shoham, I., Lewis, T., Risky-shift in a real vs. role-played situation. Journal of Social Psychology 93 (1974), 137–138.
180. Zaleska, M., The effects of discussion on group and individual choices among bets. European Journal of Social Psychology 4 (1974), 229–250.
181. Zimbardo, P.G., Transforming experimental research into advocacy for social change. Deutsch, M., Hornstein, H.A., (eds.) Applying social psychology: Implications for research, practice, and training., 1975, Lawrence Erlbedm Associates, Hillsdale, N.J.