FETAL ALCOHOL EXPOSURE AND FUNCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE NEUROIMMUNE-ENDOCRINE NETWORKS

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: From Mechanism to Prevention

Volumn , Issue , 2022, Pages 113-144

  Gottesfeld, Zehava ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0001217681     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1201/9781003068761-6     Document Type: Chapter

References (201)

1. Ader, R., Felten, D.L., and Cohen, N., Eds., Psychoneuroimmunology, 2nd ed. 1991.
2. Gottesfeld, Z. and Abel, E.L., Maternal and paternal alcohol use: Effects on the immune system of the offspring, Life Sci., 48, 1, 1991.
3. Gottesfeld, Z., Neuroimmune effects of prenatal and early postnatal alcohol exposure, in Alcohol, Immunity and Cancer, Yirmiya, R. and Taylor, A. N., Eds., CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 1993, chap. 8.
4. Giberson, P.K. and Weinberg, J., Fetal alcohol syndrome and functioning of the immune system, Alcohol. Health Res. World, 16, 29, 1992.
5. Chiappelli, F., Wong, C., Yirmya, R., Norman, D., Chang, M-P., and Taylor, A., Fetal alcohol exposure and neuro immune surveillance, in Alcohol, Immunity and Cancer, Yirmiya R. and Taylor A.N., Eds., CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1993, Chap. 9.
6. Watson, R.R. and Gottesfeld, Z., Neuroimmune effects of alcohol and its role in AIDS, Adv. Neuroimmunol, 3, 151, 1993.
7. Johnson, S., Knight, R., Marmer, D.J., and Steele, R.W., Immune deficiency in fetal alcohol syndrome, Pediatr. Res., 15, 908, 1981.
8. Ammann, A.J., Wara, D.W., Cowan, M.J., Barrett, D.J., and Stiehm, E.R., The DiGeorge syndrome and the fetal alcohol syndrome, Am. J. Dis. Child, 136, 906, 1982.
9. Catvani, M., Ghirelli, D., Fortuna, C., Lalli, F., and Marcolini, P., Fetal alcohol syndrome: Clinical, metabolic, and immunologic follow-up in 14 cases, Minerva Pediatr., 37, 77, 1985.
10. DiGeorge, A.M., Congenital absence of the thymus and its immunologic consequences: Concurrence with congenital hypoparathyroidism, Birth Defects, 4, 116, 1968.
11. Church, M. and Gerkin, K.P., Hearing disorders in children with fetal alcohol syndrome: Findings from case reports, J. Pediatr., 82, 147, 1988.
12. Redei, E., Clark, W.R, and McGrvern, R.F., Alcohol exposure in utero results in diminished T-cell function and alterations in brain corticotropin-releasing factor and ACTH content, Alc. Clin Exp. Res., 13, 439, 1989.
13. Chang, M.-P., Yamaguchi, D.T., Yeh, M., and Taylor, A.N., Mechanism of the impaired T-cell proliferation in adult rats exposed to alcohol in utero, Int. J. Immunopharmacol., 16, 345, 1994.
14. Monjan, A.A. and Mandell, W., Fetal alcohol and immunity: Depression of mitogen-induced lymphocyte blastogenesis, Neurobehav. Toxicol., 2, 213, 1980.
15. Norman, D.C., Chang, M.-P., Castle, S.C., and Van Zuylen, J.E., Diminished proliferative response of Con-A blast cells to interleukin 2 in adult rats exposed to ethanol in utero, Alc. Clin. Exp. Res., 13, 69, 1989.
16. Weinberg, J. and Jerrells, T.R., Suppression of immune responsiveness: Six differences in prenatal ethanol effects, Alc.Clin. Exp. Res., 15, 525, 1991.
17. Redei, E., Halasz, I., Li, L.-F., Frystowsky, M.B., and Aird, F., Maternal adrenalectomy alters the immune and endocrine functions of fetal alcohol-exposed, Endocrinology, 133, 452, 1993.
18. Tewari, S., Diano, M., Bera, R., Nguyen, Q., and Parekh, H., Alterations in brain polyribosomal RNA translation and lymphocyte proliferation in prenatal ethanol-exposed rats, Alc. Clin. Exp. Res., 16, 436, 1992.
19. Zidell, R.H., Hatoum, N.S., and Thomas, P.T., Fetal alcohol effects: Evidence of developmental impairment in the absence of immunotoxicity, Fund Appl. Toxicol., 10, 189, 1988.
20. Norman, D.C., Chang, M.-P., Wong, C.M.K., Branch, B.J., Castle, S., and Taylor, A.N., Changes with age in the proliferative response of splenic T cells from rats exposed to ethanol in utero, Alc. Clin. Exp. Res., 15, 428, 1991.
21. Ewald, S.J. and Frost, W. W., Effect of prenatal exposure to ethanol on development of the thymus, Thymus, 9, 211, 1987.
22. Ewald, S.J. and Walden, S.M., Flow cytometric and histological analysis of mouse thymus in fetal alcohol syndrome, J. Leukocyte Biol., 44, 434, 1988.
23. Wong, C.M.K., Chiappelli, F., Chang, M.-P., Norman, D.C., Cooper, E.L., Branch, B.J., and Taylor, A.N., Prenatal exposure to alcohol enhances thymocyte mitogenic responses postnataUy, Int. J. Immunopharmacol., 14, 303, 1992.
24. Wolcott, R.M., Jennings, S.R., and Chervenak, R., In utero exposure to ethanol affects postnatal development of T- and B-lymphocytes, but not natural killer cells, Alc. Clin. Exp. Res., 19, 170, 1995.
25. Ewald, S.J. and Huang, C., Lymphocyte populations and immune responses in mice prenatal Iy exposed to ethanol, Alcohol, Immumodulation and AIDS, 191, 1990.
26. Grossman, A., Astley, S.J., Liggitt, H.D., Clarren, S.K., Shiota, F., Kennedy, B., Thouless, M.E., and Maggio-Price, L., Immune function in offspring of nonhuman primates (Macaca nemestrina) exposed weekly to 1.8 g/kg ethanol during pregnancy: Preliminary observations, Alc. Clin. Exp. Res., 17, 822, 1993.
27. Gottesfeld, Z., Christie, R., Felten, D.L., and LeGrue, S.J., Prenatal ethanol exposure alters immune capacity and noradrenergic synaptic transmission in lymphoid organs of the adult mouse, Neuroscience, 35, 185, 1990.
28. Clausing, P., Gunther, B., Emmendorfer, A., Lohmann-Matthes, M.-L., Taylor, L.D., Newport, G., and Paule, M.G., Neuroimmune effects of prenatal ethanol exposure in CD-I rats and C57BL/6 mice, Adv. BioscL, 86, 503, 1993.
29. Kinney, H., Faix, R., and Brazy, J., The fetal alcohol syndrome and neuroblastoma, Pediatrics, 66, 130, 1980.
30. Kiess, W., Linderkamp, O., Hadorn, H.-B., and Haas, R., Fetal alcohol syndrome and malignant disease, Eur. J. Pediatr., 143, 60, 1984.
31. Kahn, A., Bader, J.L., Hoy, G.R, and Sinks, L.F., Hepatoblastoma in child with fetal alcohol syndrome, Lancet, 1, 1403, 1979.
32. Zaunschirm, A. and Muntean, W., Fetal alcohol syndrome and malignant disease, Eur. J. Pediatr., 141, 256, 1984.
33. Holt, C.P. and Favara, B., Eleventh Annual Meeting of the Soc. Pediatr. One, Lisbon, Portugal, p. 761, 1979.
34. Cohen, M.M., Jr., Neoplasia and the fetal alcohol and hydantoin syndromes, Neurobehav. Toxicol. Teratol., 3, 161, 1981.
35. Rothman, K.J., Alcohol, in Persons at High Risk of Cancer; An Approach to Cancer Etiology and Control, Fraumeni, J.F., Ed., Academic Press, New York, 1975.
36. Haughton, G. and Ellis, F., Increased susceptibility to induction of primary rous sarcoma in C57BL/105ScSn following perinatal exposure to dietary ethanol, Alc. Clin. Exp. Res., 5, 347, 1981.
37. Gottesfeld, Z., Trippe, K., Wargovich, M.J., and Berkowitz, A.S., Fetal alcohol exposure and adult tumorigenesis, Alcohol, 9, 465, 1992.
38. Gottesfeld, Z. and Ullrich, S.E., Prenatal alcohol exposure selectively suppresses cell-mediated but not humoral immune responsiveness, Int. J. Immunopharmac., 17, 247, 1995.
39. Goble, F.C. and Konopka, E.A., Sex as a factor in infectious disease, Trans. N.Y. Acad ScL, 35, 325, 1973.
40. Krzych, U., Strausser, H.R, Bressler, J.P., and Goldstein, A.L., Quantitative differences in immune responses during various stages of estrous cycle in female BALB/mice, J. Immun., 121, 1603, 1979.
41. Jerrells, T.R., Marietta, C.A, Eckardt, M.J., Majchrowicz, E., and Weight, F.F., Effects of ethanol administration on parameters of immunocompetency in rats, J. Leuk. Biol., 39, 499, 1986.
42. Jerrells, T.R, Perritt, D., Eckardt, M.J., and Marietta, C., Alterations in interleukin-2 utilization by T cells from rats treated with ethanol-containing diet, Alc. Clin Exp. Res., 14, 245, 1990.
43. Hazlett, L.D., Barrett, R.P., Berk, R.S., and Abel, E.L., Maternal and paternal alcohol consumption increase offspring susceptibility to Pseudomonas aeruginosa ocular infection, Ophthalmic Res., 81, 381, 1989.
44. Berk, R.S., Montgomery, I.N., Hazlett, L.D., and Abel, E.L., Paternal alcohol consumption: Effects on ocular and serum antibody response to Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection to offspring, Alc. Clin. Exp. Res., 13, 795, 1989.
45. Swiatek, K.R, Dombrowski, G.J., Jr., and Chao, K.-L., The inefficient transfer of maternally fed alcohol to nursing rats, Alcohol, 3, 169, 1986.
46. Gottesfeld, Z. and LeGrue, S.J., Lactational alcohol exposure elicits long-term immune deficits and increased noradrenergic synaptic transmission in lymphoid organs, Life Sci., 47, 457, 1990.
47. Fomon, S.J., Reflections on infant feeding in the 1970s and 1980s, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 46, 171, 1987.
48. Martinez, G.A. and Krieger, F.W., Milk-feeding patterns in the United States, Pediatrics, 76, 1004, 1985.
49. Little, R.E., Anderson, K.W., Ervin, C.H., Worthington-Roberts, B., and Clarren, S.K., Maternal alcohol use during breast-feeding and infant mental and motor development at one year, N. Engl. J. Med., 321, 425, 1989.
50. Zorzano, A. and Herrera, E., Decreased in vivo rate of ethanol metabolism in the suckling rat, Alc. Clin Exp. Res., 13, 527, 1989.
51. Diaz, J. and Samson, H.H., Impaired brain growth in neonatal rats exposed to ethanol, Science, 208, 751, 1980.
52. Detering, N., Reed, W.D., Ozand, P.T., and Karahasan, A., The effects of maternal ethanol consumption in the rat on the development of their offspring, J. Nutr., 109, 999, 1979.
53. Pierce, D.R and West, J.R., Alcohol induced microencephaly during the third trimester equivalent: Relationship to dose and blood alcohol concentration, Alcohol, 3, 185, 1987.
54. West, J.R., Fetal alcohol-induced brain damage and the problem of determining temporal vulnerabilitity: A review, Alc. Drug Res., 7, 423, 1987.
55. Serbus, D.C., Stull, R.E., and Light, K.E., Neonatal ethanol exposure to rat pups: Resultant alterations of cortical muscarinic and cerebellar H’-Histaminergic receptor binding dynamics, Neurotoxicol., 1, 257, 1986.
56. Lancaster, F.E., Selvanayagam, P.F., and Hsu, L.L., Lactational ethanol exposure: Brain enzymes and [3H] spiroperidol binding, Int. J. Dev. Neurosci., 4, 151, 1986.
57. Barron, S., Kelly, S.J., and Riley, E.P., Neonatal alcohol exposure alters suckling behavior in neonatal rat pups, Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 39, 423, 1991.
58. Steven, W.M., Bulloch, B., and Seelig, L.L., Jr., A morphometric study of the effects of ethanol consumption on lactating mammary glands of rats, Alc. Clin. Exp. Res., 13, 209, 1989.
59. Villas, O., Vilard, S., Herrera, E., and Remesar, X., Effects of chronic ethanol treatment on amino acid uptake and enzyme activities in the lactating rat mammary gland, Life Sci., 40, 1745, 1987.
60. Mennella, J.A. and Beauchamp, G.K., Maternal diet alters the sensory qualities of human milk and the nursing’s behavior, Pediatrics, 88, 737, 1991.
61. Subramanian, A.G., Chen, X.G., and Bergeski, B.A., Pattern and duration of the inhibitory effect of alcohol administered acutely on suckling-induced prolactin in lactating rats, Alc. Clin. Exp. Res., 14, 771, 1990.
62. Binkiewicz, A., Robinson, M.J., and Senior, B., Pseudo-Cushing syndrome caused by alcohol in breast milk, J. Pediatr., 93, 965, 1978.
63. Smals, A.G., Kloppenborg, P.W., Njo, K.T., Knoben, J.M., and Ruland, G.M., Alcohol induced Cushingoid syndrome, Br. Med J., 2, 2198, 1976.
64. Rees, L.H., Besser, G.M., Jeffcoate, W.F., Goldie, D.J., and Marks, V., Alcohol-induced pseudo-Cushing’s Syndrome, Lancet, 1, 726, 1977.
65. Paton, A., Alcohol induced Cushingoid syndrome, Br. Med J., 2, 1504, 1976.
66. Goldman, A.S. and Goldblum, R.M., Immunologic system in human milk: Characteristics and effects, in Textbook of Gastroenterology and Nutrition in Infancy, Lebenthal, E., Ed., Raven Press, New York, 1989.
67. Walker, W.A., Development of intestinal host defense mechanisms and the passive protective role of human milk, Mead Johnson Symp. on Perinatal and Dev. Med, 11, 39, 1977.
68. Chandra, R.K., Immunological aspects of human milk, Nutr. Rev., 36, 265, 1978.
69. Butler, J.E., Immunologic aspects of breast feeding, antiinfectious activity of breast milk, Seminars in Perinatol., 3, 255, 1979.
70. Machtinger, S., Transfer of antigens via breast milk, in Food Intolerance in Infancy: Allergology, Immunology and Gastroenterology, Vol 1, Hamburger, N., Ed., Carnation Nutrition Education Series, The Carnation Co., Raven Press, New York, 1989.
71. Wilson, C.B., Immunologic basis for increased susceptibiity of the neonate to infection, J. Pediatr., 108, 1, 1986.
72. Head, J.R, Beer, A.E., and Billingham, R.E., Significance of the cellular component of the maternal immunologic endowment in milk, Transplant. Proc., 9, 1465, 1977.
73. Goldman, A.S., Ham Pong, A.J., and Goldblum, R.M., Host defenses: Development and maternal contributions, Adv. Pediatr., 32, 71, 1985.
74. Soder, O., Isolation of interleukin-1 from human milk, Int. Arch. Allergy Appl. Immunol., 83, 19, 1987.
75. McGhee, J.R, Michalek, S.M., and Ghanta, V.K., Rat immunoglobulins in serum and secretions: Purification of rat IgM, IgA, and IgG and their quantitation in serum, colostrum, milk and saliva, Immunochem., 12, 817, 1975.
76. Kumar, S.N., Stewart, G.L., Steven, W.M., and Seelig, L.L., Maternal to neonatal transmission of T-cell mediated immunity to Trichinella spiralis during lactation, Immunol., 68, 87, 1989.
77. Steven, W.M., Stewart, G.L., and Seelig, L.L., The effects of maternal ethanol consumption on lactational transfer of immunity to Trichinella spiralis in rats, Alc. Clin. Exp. Res., 16, 884, 1992.
78. Na, H.R., Chervenak, R., and Seelig, L.L., Jr., Effects of maternal alcohol consumption on milk and blood lymphocytes and lgG antibody levels from Trichinella spiralis-infacted rats, Alc. Clin. Exp. Res., 17, 532, 1993.
79. Na, H.R. and Seelig, L.L., Jr., Effect of maternal ethanol consumption on in vitro tumor necrosis factor, interleukin-6 and interleukin-2 production by rat milk and blood leukocytes, Alc. Clin. Exp. Res., 18, 398, 1994.
80. Giberson, P.K. and Blakley, B.R., Effect of ethanol on leukemia susceptibility in mice, Alc. Clin. Exp. Res., 16, 383, 1992.
81. Giberson, P.K. and Blakley, B.R., Effect of postnatal ethanol exposure on expression of differentiation antigens of murine splenic lymphocytes, Alc. Clin. Exp. Res., 18, 21, 1994.
82. Gottesfeld, Z. and LeGrue, S.J., Lactational alcohol exposure elicits long-term immune deficits and increased noradrenergic synaptic transmission in lymphoid organs, Life Sci., 47, 457, 1990b.
83. Fabris, N. and Provinciali, M., Hormones, in Natural Immunity, Nelson, D. S., Ed., Vol. 10, 306, 1989.
84. Berczi, I., The pituitary-thyroid axis, in Pituitary Function and Immunity, Berczi, I., Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 1986.
85. Cupps, T.R and Fauci, A.S., Corticosteroid-mediated immunoregulation in man, Immunol. Rev., 65, 133, 1982.
86. Rudeen, P.K., and Taylor, A.N., Alcohol and neurobiology: Brain development and hormone regulation, in Watson, R.R., Ed., Fetal Alcohol Neuroendocrinopathies, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 1993, chap. 6.
87. Weinberg, J., Prenatal alcohol exposure: Endocrine function of offspring, in Alcohol and the Endocrine System, Zakhari, S., Ed., Res. Monogr. 23, 363, 1993, chap. 18.
88. Olschowka, J.A., O’Donohue, T.L., Mueller, G.P., and Jacobowitz, D.M., The distribution of corticotropin releasing factor-like immunoreactive neurons in rat brain, Peptides, 3, 995, 1982.
89. Bloom, R.E., Battenberg, E.L.F., Rivier, J., and Vale, W., Corticotropin releasing factor (CRF): Immunoreactive neurones and fibers in rat hypothalamus, Regul. Peptides, 4, 43, 1982.
90. Axelrod, J. and Reisine, T.D., Stress hormones: Their interaction and regulation, Science, 224, 452, 1984.
91. Plotsky, P., Bruhn, T., and Otto, S., Central modulation of immunoreactive arginine vasopressin and oxytocin secretion into the hypophyseal-portal circulation by CRF, Endocrinol., 116, 1669, 1985.
92. Rivier, C. and Vale, W., Modulation of stress-induced ACTH release by CRF, catecholamines, and vasopressin, Nature, 305, 325, 1983.
93. Siiteri, P.K., Murai, J.T., Hammond, G.L., Nisker, J.A., Raymoure, W.J., and Kuhn, R.W., The serum transport of steroid hormones, Recent. Prog. Horn. Res., 38, 457, 1982.
94. Calogero, A.E., Gallucci, W.T., Gold, P.W., and Chrousos, G.P., Multiple feedback regulatory loops upon rat hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone secretion, J. Clin. Invest., 82, 767, 1988.
95. Munck, A., Guyre, P., and Holbrook, N., Physiological function of glucocorticoids during stress and their relation to pharmacological actions, Endocrinol. Rev., 5, 25, 1984.
96. Bateman, A., Singh, A., Krai, T., and Solomon, S., The immune-hypomalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, Endocrinol. Rev., 10, 92, 1989.
97. Dougherty, T.F., Effects of hormones on lymphatic tissue, Physiol. Rev., 32, 379, 1952.
98. Marsh, J.T. and Rasmussen, A.F., Response of adrenals, thymus, spleen and leukocytes to shuttle box and confinement stress, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 104, 180, 1960.
99. Haynes, B.F. and Fauci, A.S., The differential effect of in vivo hydrocortisone on the kinetics of subpopulations of human peripheral blood thymus-derived lymphocytes, J. Clin. Invest., 61, 703, 1978.
100. Besedovsky, H.O., Del Rey, A., and Sorkin, E., Neuroendocrine immunoregulation, in Immunoregulation, Fabris, W., Garaci, E., and Hadden, J., Eds., Plenum, London, 1983.
101. Calabrese, J.R., Kling, M.A., and Gold, P.W., Alterations in immunocompetence during stress, bereavement, and depression: Focus on neuroendocrine regulation, Am. J. Psychiatr., 144, 1123, 1987.
102. Blalock, J.E., Harbour-McMenamin, D., and Smith, E.M., Peptide hormones shared by the neuroendocrine and immunologic systems, J. Immunol, 135, 858s, 1985.
103. Gillis, S., Crabtree, G. R, and Smith, K. A., Glucocorticoid induced inhibition of T cell growth factor production I. The effect of mitogen induced lymphocyte proliferation, J. Immunol, 123, 1624, 1979.
104. Besedovsky, H. O., Sorkin, E., Keller, M., and Muller, J., Changes in blood hormone levels during the immune response, Proc. Soc. Exp. Med., 150, 466, 1975.
105. Dunn, A. J., Powell, M. L., Meitin, C., and Small, P. A., Jr., Virus infection as a stressor: Influenza virus elevates plasma concentrations of coitjcosterone, and brain concentrations of MHPG and tryptophan, Physiol. Behav., 45, 591, 1989.
106. Besedovsky, H., Del Rey, A., Sorkin, E., and Dinarello, C. A., Immunoregulatory feedback between interleukin-1 and glucocorticoid hormones, Science, 233, 652, 1986.
107. Berkenbosch, F., Van Oers, J., Del Rey, A., Tilden, F., and Besedovsky, H., Corticotropin releasing factor-producing neurons in the rat activated by interleukin-1, Science, 238, 524, 1987.
108. Sapolsky, R., Rivier, C., Yamamoto, G., Plotsky, P., and Vale, W., Interleukin 1 stimulates the secretion of hypothalamic corticotropin releasing factor, Science, 238, 522, 1987.
109. Uehara, A., Gillis, S., and Arimura, A., Effects of interleukin-1 on hormone release from normal rat pituitary cells in primary culture, Neuroendocrinol., 45, 343, 1987.
110. Tsagarakis, S., Gillies, G., Rees, L.H., Besser, M., and Grossman, A., Interleukin-1 directly stimulates the release of corticotropin releasing factor from rat hypothalamus, Neuroendocrinol., 49, 98, 1989.
111. Marta, S.G., Singh, J., Newton, R., and Sharp, B.M., The adrenocorticotropin response to interleukin-ip instilled into the rat median eminence depends on the local release of catecholamines, Endocrinol., 127, 2175, 1990.
112. Harbuz, M.S. and Lightman, S.L., Stress and the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis: Acute, chronic and immunological activation, J. Endocrinol., 134, 327, 1992.
113. Rivier, C., Vale, W., and Brown, W., In the rat, interleukin-1 a and -f3 stimulate adenocorticotropin and catecholamine release, Endocrinol. 125, 3096, 1989.
114. Ovadia, H., Abramsky, O., Barak, V., Conforti, N., Saphier, D., and Weidenfeld, J., Effect of interleukin-1 on adrenocorticoid activity in intact and hypothalamic deafferented male rats, Exp. Brain Res., 76, 246, 1989.
115. Rivest, S., Torres, G., and Rivier, C., Differential effects of central and peripheral injection of interleukin-1β on brain c-fos expression and neuroendocrine functions, Brain Res., 587, 13, 1992.
116. Sawchenko, P.E. and Swanson, L.W., The organization of noradrenergic pathways from the brainstem to the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei in the rat, Brain Res. Rev., 4, 275, 1982.
117. Dunn, A.J., Systemic interleukin-1 administration stimulates hypothalamic norepinephrine metabolism paralleling the increased plasma corticosterone, Life Sci., 43, 429, 1988.
118. Kabiersch, A., Del Rey, A., Honegger, C.G., and Besedovsky, H.O., Interleukin-1 induces changes in norepinephrine metabolism in the rat brain, Brain Behav. Immunol., 2, 267, 1988.
119. Chuluyan, H.E., Saphier, D., Rohn, W.M., and Dunn, A.J., Noradrenergic innervation of the hypothalamus participates in adrenocortical responses to interleukin-1, Neuroendocrinol., 56, 106, 1992.
120. Sheng, M. and Greenberg, M.E., The regulation and function of c-fos and other immediate early genes in the central nervous system, Neuron, 4, 477, 1990.
121. Morgan, J.I. and Curran, T., Stimulus-transcription coupling in the nervous system: involvement of the inducible proto-oncogenesis fos and jun, Annu. Rev. NeuroscL, 14, 421, 1991.
122. Brady, L.S., Lynn, A.B., Herkenham, M., and Gottesfeld, Z., Systemic interleukin-1 induces early and late patterns of c-fos mRNA expression in brain, J. Neurosci., 14, 4951, 1994.
123. Johnson, H.M., Smith, E.M., Torres, B.A., and Blalock, J.E., Regulation of the in vitro antibody response by neuroendocrine hormones, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 79, 4171, 1982.
124. Johnson, H.M., Torres, B.A., Smith, E.M., Dion, D.L., and Blalock, J.E., Regulation of lymphokine (y-interferon) production by corticotropin, J. Immunol., 132, 246, 1984.
125. Jones, T.H. and Kennedy, R.L., Cytokines and hypothalamic-pituitary function, Cytokine, 5, 531, 1993.
126. Sternberg, E.M., Hill, J.M., Chrousos, G.P., Kamilaris, T., Listwack, S.J., Gold, P.W., and Wilder, R., Inflammatory mediator-induced hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activation is defective in streptococcal cell wall arthritis-susceptible Lewis rats, Proc. Natl. Acad Sci. USA, 86, 2374, 1989.
127. Weinberg, J., Prenatal ethanol exposure alters adrenocortical development of offspring, Alc. Clin. Exp. Res., 13, 73, 1989.
128. Taylor, A.N., Branch, B.J., Nelson, L.R, Lane, L.A., and Poland, R.E., Prenatal ethanol and ontogeny of pituitary-adrenal responses to ethanol and morphine, Alcohol, 3, 255, 1986.
129. Weinberg, J., Hyperresponsiveness to stress: differential effects of prenatal ethanol on males and females, Alc. Clin. Exp. Res., 12, 647, 1988.
130. Angelogianni, P. and Gianoulakis, C., Prenatal exposure to ethanol alters the ontogeny of the J-endorphin response to stress, Alc. Clin. Exp. Res., 13, 564, 1989.
131. Weinberg, J. and Gianoulakis, C., Fetal ethanol exposure alters glucocorticoid and J-endorphin responses to stress, Soc. Neurosci. Abstr., 17, 1596, 1991.
132. Lee, S., Imaki, T., Vale, W., and Rivier, C., Effect of prenatal exposure to ethanol on the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis of the offspring: importance of the time of exposure to ethanol and possible modulating mechanisms, Molec. Cell. Neurosci., 1, 168, 1990.
133. Lee, S. and Rivier, C., Prenatal alcohol exposure blunts interleukin-1 -induced ACTH and J-endorphin secretion by immature rats, Alc. Clin. Exp. Res., 17, 940, 1993.
134. Lancaster, F.E., Alcohol, nitric oxide, and neurotoxicity: is there a connection? A review, Alc. Clin. Exp. Res., 16, 539, 1992.
135. Lee, S. and Rivier, C., Prenatal alcohol exposure alters the hypomalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis response of immune offspring to mterleukin-1: is nitric oxide involved?, Alc. Clin. Exp. Res., 18, 1242, 1994.
136. Rivier, C. and Shen, G.H., In the rat, endogenous nitric oxide modulates the response of the hypothalam ic-pituitary-adrenal axis to interleukin-ip, vasopressin, and oxytocin, J. Neurosci., 14(4), 1985, 1994.
137. Yirmiya, R., Pliati, M.L., Chiappelli, F., and Taylor, A.N., Fetal alcohol exposure attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced fever in rats, Alc. Clin. Exp. Res., 17, 906, 1993.
138. Tilders, F.J.H., DeRijk, R.H., Van Dam, A.-M., Vincent, V.A.M., Schotanus, K., and Persoons, J.H.A., Activation of the hypothal-amus-pituitary-adrenal-axis by bacterial endotoxins: routes and intermediate signals, Psychoneuroendocrinol., 19, 209, 1994.
139. Gottesfeld, Z. and Silverman, P.B., Developmental delays associated with prenatal alcohol exposure are reversed by thyroid hormone treatment, Neurosci. Lett., 109, 42, 1990.
140. Hannigan, J.H., Alcohol exposure and maternal-fetal thyroid function: impact on biobehavioral maturation, in Alcohol and Endocrine System, Zakhari, S., Ed., Res. Monogr., 23, 313, 1993, chap. 16.
141. McGivern, R.F., Raum, W.J., Salido, E., and Redei, E., Lack of prenatal testosterone surge in fetal rats exposed to alcohol: alterations in testicular morphology and physiology, Alc. Clin. Exp. Res., 12, 243, 1988.
142. Kelce, W.R, Ganjam, V.K., and Rudeen, P.K., Inhibition of testicular steroidogenesis in the neonatal rat following acute ethanol exposure, Alcohol, 71, 75, 1990.
143. Bulloch, K., The innervation of immune system tissues and organs, in The Neuro-Immune-Endocrine Connection, Cotman, C.W., Ed., Raven Press, New York, 1987.
144. Felten, D.L., Felten, S.Y., Carlson, S.L., Olschowka, J.A., and Livnat, S., Noradrenergic and peptidergic innervation of lymphoid tissue, J. Immunol, 135, 755s, 1985.
145. Bulloch, K. and Moore, R.Y., Innervation of the thymus gland by brain stem and spinal cord in mouse and rat, Am. J. Anal., 162, 157, 1981.
146. Maslinski, W., Kullberg, M., Nordstrom, O., and Bartfai, T., Muscarinic receptors and receptor-mediated actions on rat thymocytes, J. Neuroimmunol., 17, 265, 1988.
147. Feiten, S.Y. and Feiten, D.L., Innervation of lymphoid tissue, in Psychoneuroimmunology, Ader, R., Feiten, D. L., and Cohen, N., Eds., Academic Press, New York, pp. 27-69, 1991.
148. Feiten, D.L., Feiten, S.Y., and Bellinger, D.L., Noradrenergic sympathetic neural interactions with the immune system: Structure and function, Immunol. Rev., 100, 225, 1987.
149. Madden, K.S., Sanders, V.M., and Felten, D.L., Catecholamine influences and sympathetic neural modulation of immune responsiveness, Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol., 35, 417, 1995.
150. Felten, D.L. and Olschowka, J., Noradrenergic sympathetic innervation of the spleen. II. Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive nerve terminals from synaptic-like contacts on lymphocytes in the splenic white pulp, J. Neurosci. Res., 18, 37, 1987.
151. Ackerman, K.D., Felten, S.Y., Bellinger, D.L., and Felten, D.L., Noradrenergic sympathetic innervation of the spleen: III. Development of innervation in the rat spleen, J. Neurosci. Res., 18, 49, 1987.
152. Ackerman, K.D., Felten, S.Y., Dijkstra, C.D., Livnat, S., and Felten, D.L., Parallel development of noradrenergic innervation and cellular compartmentation in the rat spleen, Exp. Neurol., 103, 239, 1989.
153. Classen, E., Kors, N., Dijkstra, C. D., and van Rooijen, N., Marginal zone of the spleen and the development of specific antibody-forming cells against thymus-dependent and thymus-independent type-2 antigens, Immunology, 57, 399, 1986.
154. Kimura, S., Eldridge, J.H., Michalek, S.M., Morisaki, I., Hamada, S., and McGhee, J.R, Immunoregulation in the rat: ontogeny of B cell response to types 1, 2, and T-dependent antigens, J. Immunol., 134, 2839, 1985.
155. Veerman, A.J.P., The postnatal development of the white pulp in the rat spleen and the onset of immunocompetence against a thymus-dependent antigen, Z. Immun Forsch., 150, 45, 1975.
156. Johnson, D.L. and Gordon, M.A., Characteristics of adrenergic binding sites associated with murine lymphocytes isolated from spleen, J. Immunopharmacol., 2, 435, 1980.
157. Sanders, V.M. and Munson, A.E., Norepinephrine and antibody response, Pharmacol. Rev., 37, 229, 1985.
158. Williams, L.T., Snyderman, R., and Lefkowitz, R.J., Identification of beta-adrenergic receptors in human lymphocytes by (-) 3H-alprenolol binding, J. Clin. Invest., 57, 149, 1976.
159. Besedovsky, H.O., Del Rey, A.E., Sorkin, E., Da Prada, M., and Keller, H.H., Immunoregulation mediated by the sympathetic nervous system, Cell Immunol., 48, 346, 1979.
160. Livnat, S., Feiten, S.Y., Carlson, S.L., Bellinger, D.L., and Feiten, D.L., Involvement of peripheral and central catecholamine systems in neural-immune interactions, J. Neuroimmun., 10, 5, 1985.
161. Madden, K.S. and Livnat, S., Catecholamine action and immunologic reactivity, in Psychoneuroimmunology, Ader, R., Feiten, D. L. and Cohen, N., Eds., pp. 283-310, 1991.
162. Fuchs, B.A., Albright, J.W., and Albright, J.F., β-adrenergic receptors on murine lymphocytes: Density varies with cell maturity and lymphocyte subtype and is decreased after antigen administration, Cell. Immunol., 114, 231, 1988.
163. Fuchs, B.A., Campbell, K.S., and Munson, A.E., Norepinephrine and serotonin content of the murine spleen: Its relationship between to lymphocyte β-adrenergic receptors density and the humoral immune response in vivo and in vitro, Cell. Immunol., 117, 339, 1988.
164. Coffey, R.G. and Hadden, J.W., Neurotransmitters, hormones and cyclic nucleotides in lymphocyte regulation, Fed Proc., 44, 112, 1985.
165. Strom, T.D., Lundin, A.P., and Carpenter, C.B., The role of cyclic nucleotides in lymphocyte activation and function, Prog. Clin. Immunol., 3, 115, 1977.
166. Watson, J., The influence of intracellular levels of cyclic nucleotides on cell proliferation and induction of antibody synthesis, J. Exp. Med., 141, 97, 1975.
167. LeGrue, S. J., Does interleukin-2 stimulus-response coupling result in the generation of intracellular second messenger?, Lymphokine Res., 7, 187, 1988.
168. Besedovsky, H.O., Sorkin, E., Felix, D., and Haas, H., Hypothalamus changes during the immune response, Eur. J. Immunol., 7, 323, 1977.
169. Besedovsky, H.O., Del Rey, A.E., Sorkin, E., Da Prada, M., Burn, R, and Honegger, C., The immune response evokes changes in brain noradrenergic neurons, Science, 221, 564, 1983.
170. Shimizu, N., Hori, T. and Nakane, H., An interleukin-1 ß-induced noradrenaline release in the spleen is mediated by brain corticotropin-releasing factor: An in vivo microanalysis study in conscious rats, Brain Behav. Immunol., 7, 14, 1994.
171. Irwin, M., Hauger, R.L, Brown, M., and Britton, K.T., CRF activates autonomic nervous system and reduces natural killer cytotoxicity, Am. J. Physiol, 255, R744, 1988.
172. Irwin, M., Hauger, R.L., Jones, L., Provencio, M., and Britton, K.T., Sympathetic nervous system mediates central corticotropin-releasing factor induced suppression of natural killer cytotoxicity, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 255, 101, 1990.
173. Sundar, S.K., Becker, K.J., Cierpial, M.A., Carpenter, D.C., Rankin, L.A., Fleener, S.L., Ritchie, J.C., Simson, P. E., and Weiss, J.M., Intracerebroventricular infusion of interleukin 1 rapidly decreases peripheral cellular immune responses, Proc. Natl. Acad Sci. USA, 86, 6398, 1989.
174. Sundar, S.K., Cierpial, M.A., Kitts, C., Ritchie, J.C., and Weiss, J.M., Brain IL-1-induced immunosuppression occurs through activation of both pituitary-adrenal axis and sympathetic nervous system by corticotropin-releasing factor, J. Neurosci., 10(11), 3701, 1990.
175. Sundar, S., Cierpial, M., Kamaraju, L., Long, S., Hsieh, S., Lorenz, C., Aaron, M., Rithcie, J., and Weiss, J., Human immunodeficiency virus glycoprotein (gp 120) infused into rat brain induces interleukin-1 to elevate pituitary adrenal activity and decrease peripheral cellular immune responses, Proc. Natl. Acad Sci. USA, 88, 11246, 1991.
176. Smith, E.M. and Blalock, J.E., A complete regulatory loop between the immune and neuroendocrine systems operates through common signal molecules (hormones) and receptors, in Enkephalins and Endorphins, Stress and the Immune System, Plotnikoff, N. P., Faith, R. E., Murgo, A. J., and Good, R. A., Eds., Plenum Press, New York, 1986.
177. Bellinger, D.L., Lorton, D., Romano, T.D., Olschowka, J.A., Felten, S.Y., and Felten, D.L., Neuropeptide innervation of lymphoid organs, Annals of the New York Acad of Sci., 594, 17, 1990.
178. Payan, D.G., McGillis, J.P., Renold, F.K., Mitsuhashi, M., and Goetzl, E.J., The immunomodulating properties of neuropeptides, in Hormones and Immunity, Berczi, C. and Kovacs, K., Eds., MTP Press, Lancaster, PA, 1986.
179. Goetzl, E.J., Turck, C.W., and Sreedharan, S.P., Production and recognition of neuropeptides by cells of the immune system, in Psychoneuroimmunology, Ader, R, Felten, D. L. and Cohen, N., Eds., pp. 263-282, 1991
180. Brodie, B.B., Costa, E., Dlabac, A., Neff, H.H., and Smookler, H.H., Application of steady-state kinetics to the estimation of synthesis rate and turnover time of tissue catecholamines, J. Pharmac. Exp. Ther., 154, 493, 1966.
181. Hendry, L.A., Control in the development of the vertebrate sympathetic nervous system, Rev. Neurosci., 2, 149, 1976.
182. Levi-Montalcini, R. and Angeletti, P.U., Immunosympathectomy, Pharmac. Rev., 18, 619, 1966.
183. Levi-Montalcini, R. and Hamburger, V., Selective growth stimulating effects of mouse sarcoma on the sensory and sympathetic nervous system of the chick embryo, J. Exp. Zool, 116, 321, 1951.
184. Thorpe, L.W., Morgan, B., Beck, G.Werrbach-Perez, K., and Perez-Polo, J.R., Nerve gorwth factor, in Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Neural Development and Regeneration, Gorio, A., de Vellis, J., Perez-Polo, J.R., and Haber, B., Eds., Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, 1988.
185. Thorpe, L.W. and Perez-Polo, J.R., The influence of nerve growth on the in vitro proliferative response of rat spleen lymphocytes, J. Neurosci. Res., 18, 134, 1987.
186. Thorpe, L.W., Stach, R.W., Morgan, B., and Perez-Polo, J.R., The biology of nerve growth factor: Its interaction with cells of the immune system, in Neural Control of Reproductive Function, Lakoski, J. M., Perez-Polo, J. R, and Rassin, D. K., Eds., Alan R Liss Inc., New York, 1989.
187. Springer, J.E., Nerve growth factor receptors in the central nervous system, Exp. Neurol., 102, 354, 1988.
188. Kornguth, D.I., Rutledge, J.J., Sunderland, E., Siegel, F., Carlson, I., Smallens, J., Juhl, U., and Young, D., Impeded cerebellar development and reduced serum thyroxine levels associated with fetal alcohol intoxication, Brain Res., 177, 347, 1979.
189. Slotkin, T.A., Thyroid hormone regulation of sympathetic nervous system development, in Trends in Autonomic Phamacology, Vol. 3, Kalsner, S., Ed., Taylor and Francis, Philadelphia, 1985.
190. Aloe, L. and Levi-Montalcini, R., Comparative studies on testosterone and L-thyroxine effects on the synthesis of nerve growth factor in mouse submaxillary salivary glands, Exp. Cell. Res., 125, 15, 1980.
191. Walker, P., Weischsel, M.E., Jr., Hoatch, S.B., Poland, R.E., and Fisher, D.A., Effect of thyroxine testosterone and corticosterone on nerve growth factor (NGF) and epidermal growth factor (EGF) concentrations in adult female mouse submaxillary gland: Dissociation of NGF and EGF responses, Endocrinol., 109, 582, 1981.
192. Patel, A.J., Hayashi, M., and Hunt, A., Role of thyroid hormone and nerve growth factor in the development of choline acetyltransferase and other cell-specific marker enzymes in the basal forebrain of the rat, J. Neurochem., 50, 803, 1988.
193. Gallo, P.V. and Weinberg, J., Prenatal ethanol exposure: Pituitary-adrenal activity in pregnant dams and offspring, Neurobehav. Toxicol. Teratol, 4, 515, 1982.
194. Jonakait, G.M., Bohn, M.C., and Black, I.B., Maternal glucocorticoid hormones influence neurotransmitter phenotypic expression in embryos, Science, 210, 551, 1980.
195. Jonakait, G.M., Bohn, M.C., Goldstein, M., and Black, I.B., Elevation of maternal glucocorticoid hormones alters neurotransmitter phenotypic expression in embryos, Dev. Biol., 88, 288, 1981.
196. Otten, J. and Thoenen, H., Modulatory role of glucocorticoids on NGF-mediated enzyme induction in organ cultures of sympathetic ganglia, Brain Res., 111, 438, 1976.
197. Otten, J., Bauman, J.B., and Girard, J., Stimulation of the pituitaiy-adrenocortical axis by nerve growth factor, Nature, 282, 413, 1979.
198. De Simone, R. and Aloe, L., Influence of ethanol consumption on brain nerve growth factor and its target cells in developing and adult rodents, Ann Ist. Super. Sanitd, 29, 179, 1993.
199. Heaton, M.B., Swanson, D.J., Paiva, M., and Walker, D.W., Ethanol exposure affects trophic factor activity and responsiveness in chick embryo, Alcohol, 9, 161, 1992.
200. Walker, D.W., Heaton, M.B., Smothers, C.T., and Hunter, B.E., Chronic ethanol ingestion reduces the neurotrophic activity contained in rat hippocampus, Alc. Clin. Exp. Res., 14, 350, 1990.
201. Gottesfeld, Z., Simpson, S., Yuwiler, A., and Perez-Polo, J.R., Effects of nerve growth factor on splenic norepinephrine and pineal N-acetyltransferase in neonate rats exposed to alcohol in utero: Neuroimmune correlates. Int. J. Dev. Neurosci., (in press).