The decision to confess falsely: Rational choice and irrational action

Denver University Law Review

Volumn 74, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 979-1122

  Ofshe, Richard J ^a,b   Leo, Richard A ^a,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0001152711     PISSN: 08839409     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (418)

1. We thank Paul Cassell and Welsh White for helpful comments. This article extends and documents the model of interrogation influence that we first developed in RICHARD J. OFSHE & RICHARD A. LEO, THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF POLICE INTERROGATION: THE THEORY AND CLASSIFICATION OF TRUE AND FALSE CONFESSIONS 189-251 (1997) [hereinafter OFSHE & LEO, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY]. The interrogation transcripts and interviews excerpted herein come from more than 125 cases of disputed interrogation that Richard J. Ofshe evaluated between 1987 and 1997 and from additional interrogation transcripts and case materials that Richard A. Leo collected during the same period. Although not all of the interrogations are mentioned in this article, the disputed interrogations that resulted in statements were classified as either voluntary true, coerced true, stress-compliant false, coerced-compliant false, persuaded or coerced-persuaded false confessions. Voluntary false confessions that were not elicited by police interrogation are also contained in the archive. The excerpts are unedited, with the exception of ellipses inserted by the author when deleting redundant statements. All specific examples of interrogation tactics are taken from recordings of interrogations in major felony or murder cases. All of these interrogations resulted in confessions. The persons classified as guilty were convicted at their trials or entered guilty pleas. The persons classified as false confessors are almost all individuals who were either proven innocent by indisputable evidence before trial and therefore not tried, proven innocent and acquitted at trial, acquitted at trial or found guilty and subsequently proven innocent. In a few instances the persons identified as false confessors were convicted at trial or entered a guilty plea despite maintaining their innocence. An independent analysis of the case facts has led to their classification as false confessors for research purposes. For a discussion of case classification, see Richard A. Leo & Richard J. Ofshe, The Consequences of False Confessions: Deprivations of Liberty and Miscarriages of Justice in the Age of Psychological Interrogation, 88 J. CRIM. L. & CRIMINOLOGY (forthcoming 1997) [hereinafter Leo & Ofshe, Consequences].
2. We thank Paul Cassell and Welsh White for helpful comments. This article extends and documents the model of interrogation influence that we first developed in RICHARD J. OFSHE & RICHARD A. LEO, THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF POLICE INTERROGATION: THE THEORY AND CLASSIFICATION OF TRUE AND FALSE CONFESSIONS 189-251 (1997) [hereinafter OFSHE & LEO, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY]. The interrogation transcripts and interviews excerpted herein come from more than 125 cases of disputed interrogation that Richard J. Ofshe evaluated between 1987 and 1997 and from additional interrogation transcripts and case materials that Richard A. Leo collected during the same period. Although not all of the interrogations are mentioned in this article, the disputed interrogations that resulted in statements were classified as either voluntary true, coerced true, stress-compliant false, coerced-compliant false, persuaded or coerced-persuaded false confessions. Voluntary false confessions that were not elicited by police interrogation are also contained in the archive. The excerpts are unedited, with the exception of ellipses inserted by the author when deleting redundant statements. All specific examples of interrogation tactics are taken from recordings of interrogations in major felony or murder cases. All of these interrogations resulted in confessions. The persons classified as guilty were convicted at their trials or entered guilty pleas. The persons classified as false confessors are almost all individuals who were either proven innocent by indisputable evidence before trial and therefore not tried, proven innocent and acquitted at trial, acquitted at trial or found guilty and subsequently proven innocent. In a few instances the persons identified as false confessors were convicted at trial or entered a guilty plea despite maintaining their innocence. An independent analysis of the case facts has led to their classification as false confessors for research purposes. For a discussion of case classification, see Richard A. Leo & Richard J. Ofshe, The Consequences of False Confessions: Deprivations of Liberty and Miscarriages of Justice in the Age of Psychological Interrogation, 88 J. CRIM. L. & CRIMINOLOGY (forthcoming 1997) [hereinafter Leo & Ofshe, Consequences].
3. See. e.g., EDWIN BORCHARD, CONVICTING THE INNOCENT (1932); JEROME FRANK & BARBARA FRANK, NOT GUILTY (1957); C. RONALD HUFF ET AL., CONVICTED BUT INNOCENT: WRONGFUL CONVICTION AND PUBLIC POLICY (1996); HUGO MUNSTERBERG, ON THE WITNESS STAND: ESSAYS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND CRIME (1908); EDWARD D. RADIN, THE INNOCENTS (1964); THEODORE REIK, THE COMPULSION TO CONFESS: ON THE PSYCHOANALYSIS OF CRIME AND PUNISHMENT (1945); O. JOHN ROGGE, WHY MEN CONFESS (1959); MARTIN YANT, PRE-SUMED GUILTY: WHEN INNOCENT PEOPLE ARE WRONGLY CONVICTED (1991); Hugo Adam Bedau & Michael L. Radelet, Miscarriages of Justice in Potentially Capital Cases, 40 STAN. L. REV. 21 (1987).
4. See. e.g., EDWIN BORCHARD, CONVICTING THE INNOCENT (1932); JEROME FRANK & BARBARA FRANK, NOT GUILTY (1957); C. RONALD HUFF ET AL., CONVICTED BUT INNOCENT: WRONGFUL CONVICTION AND PUBLIC POLICY (1996); HUGO MUNSTERBERG, ON THE WITNESS STAND: ESSAYS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND CRIME (1908); EDWARD D. RADIN, THE INNOCENTS (1964); THEODORE REIK, THE COMPULSION TO CONFESS: ON THE PSYCHOANALYSIS OF CRIME AND PUNISHMENT (1945); O. JOHN ROGGE, WHY MEN CONFESS (1959); MARTIN YANT, PRE-SUMED GUILTY: WHEN INNOCENT PEOPLE ARE WRONGLY CONVICTED (1991); Hugo Adam Bedau & Michael L. Radelet, Miscarriages of Justice in Potentially Capital Cases, 40 STAN. L. REV. 21 (1987).
5. See. e.g., EDWIN BORCHARD, CONVICTING THE INNOCENT (1932); JEROME FRANK & BARBARA FRANK, NOT GUILTY (1957); C. RONALD HUFF ET AL., CONVICTED BUT INNOCENT: WRONGFUL CONVICTION AND PUBLIC POLICY (1996); HUGO MUNSTERBERG, ON THE WITNESS STAND: ESSAYS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND CRIME (1908); EDWARD D. RADIN, THE INNOCENTS (1964); THEODORE REIK, THE COMPULSION TO CONFESS: ON THE PSYCHOANALYSIS OF CRIME AND PUNISHMENT (1945); O. JOHN ROGGE, WHY MEN CONFESS (1959); MARTIN YANT, PRE-SUMED GUILTY: WHEN INNOCENT PEOPLE ARE WRONGLY CONVICTED (1991); Hugo Adam Bedau & Michael L. Radelet, Miscarriages of Justice in Potentially Capital Cases, 40 STAN. L. REV. 21 (1987).
6. See. e.g., EDWIN BORCHARD, CONVICTING THE INNOCENT (1932); JEROME FRANK & BARBARA FRANK, NOT GUILTY (1957); C. RONALD HUFF ET AL., CONVICTED BUT INNOCENT: WRONGFUL CONVICTION AND PUBLIC POLICY (1996); HUGO MUNSTERBERG, ON THE WITNESS STAND: ESSAYS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND CRIME (1908); EDWARD D. RADIN, THE INNOCENTS (1964); THEODORE REIK, THE COMPULSION TO CONFESS: ON THE PSYCHOANALYSIS OF CRIME AND PUNISHMENT (1945); O. JOHN ROGGE, WHY MEN CONFESS (1959); MARTIN YANT, PRE-SUMED GUILTY: WHEN INNOCENT PEOPLE ARE WRONGLY CONVICTED (1991); Hugo Adam Bedau & Michael L. Radelet, Miscarriages of Justice in Potentially Capital Cases, 40 STAN. L. REV. 21 (1987).
7. See. e.g., EDWIN BORCHARD, CONVICTING THE INNOCENT (1932); JEROME FRANK & BARBARA FRANK, NOT GUILTY (1957); C. RONALD HUFF ET AL., CONVICTED BUT INNOCENT: WRONGFUL CONVICTION AND PUBLIC POLICY (1996); HUGO MUNSTERBERG, ON THE WITNESS STAND: ESSAYS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND CRIME (1908); EDWARD D. RADIN, THE INNOCENTS (1964); THEODORE REIK, THE COMPULSION TO CONFESS: ON THE PSYCHOANALYSIS OF CRIME AND PUNISHMENT (1945); O. JOHN ROGGE, WHY MEN CONFESS (1959); MARTIN YANT, PRE-SUMED GUILTY: WHEN INNOCENT PEOPLE ARE WRONGLY CONVICTED (1991); Hugo Adam Bedau & Michael L. Radelet, Miscarriages of Justice in Potentially Capital Cases, 40 STAN. L. REV. 21 (1987).
8. See. e.g., EDWIN BORCHARD, CONVICTING THE INNOCENT (1932); JEROME FRANK & BARBARA FRANK, NOT GUILTY (1957); C. RONALD HUFF ET AL., CONVICTED BUT INNOCENT: WRONGFUL CONVICTION AND PUBLIC POLICY (1996); HUGO MUNSTERBERG, ON THE WITNESS STAND: ESSAYS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND CRIME (1908); EDWARD D. RADIN, THE INNOCENTS (1964); THEODORE REIK, THE COMPULSION TO CONFESS: ON THE PSYCHOANALYSIS OF CRIME AND PUNISHMENT (1945); O. JOHN ROGGE, WHY MEN CONFESS (1959); MARTIN YANT, PRE-SUMED GUILTY: WHEN INNOCENT PEOPLE ARE WRONGLY CONVICTED (1991); Hugo Adam Bedau & Michael L. Radelet, Miscarriages of Justice in Potentially Capital Cases, 40 STAN. L. REV. 21 (1987).
9. See. e.g., EDWIN BORCHARD, CONVICTING THE INNOCENT (1932); JEROME FRANK & BARBARA FRANK, NOT GUILTY (1957); C. RONALD HUFF ET AL., CONVICTED BUT INNOCENT: WRONGFUL CONVICTION AND PUBLIC POLICY (1996); HUGO MUNSTERBERG, ON THE WITNESS STAND: ESSAYS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND CRIME (1908); EDWARD D. RADIN, THE INNOCENTS (1964); THEODORE REIK, THE COMPULSION TO CONFESS: ON THE PSYCHOANALYSIS OF CRIME AND PUNISHMENT (1945); O. JOHN ROGGE, WHY MEN CONFESS (1959); MARTIN YANT, PRE-SUMED GUILTY: WHEN INNOCENT PEOPLE ARE WRONGLY CONVICTED (1991); Hugo Adam Bedau & Michael L. Radelet, Miscarriages of Justice in Potentially Capital Cases, 40 STAN. L. REV. 21 (1987).
10. See. e.g., EDWIN BORCHARD, CONVICTING THE INNOCENT (1932); JEROME FRANK & BARBARA FRANK, NOT GUILTY (1957); C. RONALD HUFF ET AL., CONVICTED BUT INNOCENT: WRONGFUL CONVICTION AND PUBLIC POLICY (1996); HUGO MUNSTERBERG, ON THE WITNESS STAND: ESSAYS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND CRIME (1908); EDWARD D. RADIN, THE INNOCENTS (1964); THEODORE REIK, THE COMPULSION TO CONFESS: ON THE PSYCHOANALYSIS OF CRIME AND PUNISHMENT (1945); O. JOHN ROGGE, WHY MEN CONFESS (1959); MARTIN YANT, PRE-SUMED GUILTY: WHEN INNOCENT PEOPLE ARE WRONGLY CONVICTED (1991); Hugo Adam Bedau & Michael L. Radelet, Miscarriages of Justice in Potentially Capital Cases, 40 STAN. L. REV. 21 (1987).
11. See. e.g., EDWIN BORCHARD, CONVICTING THE INNOCENT (1932); JEROME FRANK & BARBARA FRANK, NOT GUILTY (1957); C. RONALD HUFF ET AL., CONVICTED BUT INNOCENT: WRONGFUL CONVICTION AND PUBLIC POLICY (1996); HUGO MUNSTERBERG, ON THE WITNESS STAND: ESSAYS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND CRIME (1908); EDWARD D. RADIN, THE INNOCENTS (1964); THEODORE REIK, THE COMPULSION TO CONFESS: ON THE PSYCHOANALYSIS OF CRIME AND PUNISHMENT (1945); O. JOHN ROGGE, WHY MEN CONFESS (1959); MARTIN YANT, PRE-SUMED GUILTY: WHEN INNOCENT PEOPLE ARE WRONGLY CONVICTED (1991); Hugo Adam Bedau & Michael L. Radelet, Miscarriages of Justice in Potentially Capital Cases, 40 STAN. L. REV. 21 (1987).
12. For a review of this literature, see OFSHE & LEO, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, supra note 1; Saul M. Kassin, The Psychology of Confession Evidence, 52 AM. PSYCHOL. 221-33 (1997).
13. For a review of this literature, see OFSHE & LEO, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, supra note 1; Saul M. Kassin, The Psychology of Confession Evidence, 52 AM. PSYCHOL. 221-33 (1997).
14. See, e.g., John Baldwin, Police Interview Techniques: Establishing Truth of Proof?, 33 BRIT. J. OF CRIMINOLOGY 326 (1993); Barrie L. living, Police Interrogation: A Case Study of Current Practice (Royal Comm'n on Criminal Procedure, Research Study No. 2, 1980); Barrie L. Irving & Linden Hilgendorf, Police Interrogation: The Psychological Approach (Royal Comm'n on Criminal Procedure, Research Study No. 1, 1980); Richard A. Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room, 86 J. CRIM. L. & CRIMINOLOGY 266 (1996) [hereinafter Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room]; Paul Softley, Police Interrogation: An Observational Study in Four Police Stations (Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure, Research Study No. 4, 1980); Michael L. Wald et al., Interrogations in New Haven: The Impact of Miranda, 76 YALE L. J. 1519 (1967).
15. See, e.g., John Baldwin, Police Interview Techniques: Establishing Truth of Proof?, 33 BRIT. J. OF CRIMINOLOGY 326 (1993); Barrie L. living, Police Interrogation: A Case Study of Current Practice (Royal Comm'n on Criminal Procedure, Research Study No. 2, 1980); Barrie L. Irving & Linden Hilgendorf, Police Interrogation: The Psychological Approach (Royal Comm'n on Criminal Procedure, Research Study No. 1, 1980); Richard A. Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room, 86 J. CRIM. L. & CRIMINOLOGY 266 (1996) [hereinafter Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room]; Paul Softley, Police Interrogation: An Observational Study in Four Police Stations (Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure, Research Study No. 4, 1980); Michael L. Wald et al., Interrogations in New Haven: The Impact of Miranda, 76 YALE L. J. 1519 (1967).
16. See, e.g., John Baldwin, Police Interview Techniques: Establishing Truth of Proof?, 33 BRIT. J. OF CRIMINOLOGY 326 (1993); Barrie L. living, Police Interrogation: A Case Study of Current Practice (Royal Comm'n on Criminal Procedure, Research Study No. 2, 1980); Barrie L. Irving & Linden Hilgendorf, Police Interrogation: The Psychological Approach (Royal Comm'n on Criminal Procedure, Research Study No. 1, 1980); Richard A. Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room, 86 J. CRIM. L. & CRIMINOLOGY 266 (1996) [hereinafter Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room]; Paul Softley, Police Interrogation: An Observational Study in Four Police Stations (Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure, Research Study No. 4, 1980); Michael L. Wald et al., Interrogations in New Haven: The Impact of Miranda, 76 YALE L. J. 1519 (1967).
17. See, e.g., John Baldwin, Police Interview Techniques: Establishing Truth of Proof?, 33 BRIT. J. OF CRIMINOLOGY 326 (1993); Barrie L. living, Police Interrogation: A Case Study of Current Practice (Royal Comm'n on Criminal Procedure, Research Study No. 2, 1980); Barrie L. Irving & Linden Hilgendorf, Police Interrogation: The Psychological Approach (Royal Comm'n on Criminal Procedure, Research Study No. 1, 1980); Richard A. Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room, 86 J. CRIM. L. & CRIMINOLOGY 266 (1996) [hereinafter Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room]; Paul Softley, Police Interrogation: An Observational Study in Four Police Stations (Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure, Research Study No. 4, 1980); Michael L. Wald et al., Interrogations in New Haven: The Impact of Miranda, 76 YALE L. J. 1519 (1967).
18. See, e.g., John Baldwin, Police Interview Techniques: Establishing Truth of Proof?, 33 BRIT. J. OF CRIMINOLOGY 326 (1993); Barrie L. living, Police Interrogation: A Case Study of Current Practice (Royal Comm'n on Criminal Procedure, Research Study No. 2, 1980); Barrie L. Irving & Linden Hilgendorf, Police Interrogation: The Psychological Approach (Royal Comm'n on Criminal Procedure, Research Study No. 1, 1980); Richard A. Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room, 86 J. CRIM. L. & CRIMINOLOGY 266 (1996) [hereinafter Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room]; Paul Softley, Police Interrogation: An Observational Study in Four Police Stations (Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure, Research Study No. 4, 1980); Michael L. Wald et al., Interrogations in New Haven: The Impact of Miranda, 76 YALE L. J. 1519 (1967).
19. See, e.g., John Baldwin, Police Interview Techniques: Establishing Truth of Proof?, 33 BRIT. J. OF CRIMINOLOGY 326 (1993); Barrie L. living, Police Interrogation: A Case Study of Current Practice (Royal Comm'n on Criminal Procedure, Research Study No. 2, 1980); Barrie L. Irving & Linden Hilgendorf, Police Interrogation: The Psychological Approach (Royal Comm'n on Criminal Procedure, Research Study No. 1, 1980); Richard A. Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room, 86 J. CRIM. L. & CRIMINOLOGY 266 (1996) [hereinafter Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room]; Paul Softley, Police Interrogation: An Observational Study in Four Police Stations (Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure, Research Study No. 4, 1980); Michael L. Wald et al., Interrogations in New Haven: The Impact of Miranda, 76 YALE L. J. 1519 (1967).
20. See, e.g., Gisli H. GUDJONSSON, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, CONFESSIONS AND TESTIMONY (1992) [hereinafter GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS]; LAWRENCE S. WRIGHTSMAN & SAUL M. KASSIN, CONFESSIONS IN THE COURTROOM (1993); Phillip M. Coons, Misuse of Forensic Hypnosis: A Hypnotically Elicited False Confession with the Apparent Creation of a Multiple Personality, 36 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 1 (1988); Gisli Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, A Proven Case of False Confession: Psychological Aspects of the Coerced-Compliant Type, 30 MED. SCI. & L. 329 (1990); Gisli H. Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, False Confessions, Psychological Effects of Interrogation, in RECONSTRUCTING THE PAST: THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGISTS IN CRIMINAL TRIALS 253-69 (A. Trankel ed., 1982); Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1; Mickey McMahon, False Confession and Police Deception: The Interrogation, Incarceration and Release of an Innocent Veteran, 13 AM. J. FORENSIC PSYCHOL. 5 (1995); Stephen Moston et al., The Effects of Case Characteristics on Suspect Behavior During Police Questioning, 32 BRIT. J. CRIMINOLOGY 23 (1992); Richard J. Ofshe, Coerced Confessions: The Logic of Seemingly Irrational Action, 6 CULTIC STUD. J. 1 (1989) [hereinafter Ofshe, Coerced Confessions]; Richard J. Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis During Interrogation: False Confession Due to Dissociative State; Mis-Identified Multiple Personality and the Satanic Cult Hypothesis, 40 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 125 (1992) [hereinafter Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis]; T.N. Thomas, Polygraphy and Coerced-Compliant False Confession: 'Serviceman E' Redevivus, 35 SCI. & JUST. 133 (1995); Welsh S. White, False Confessions and the Constitution: Safeguards Against Untrustworthy Confessions, 32 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 105 (1997); Philip Zimbardo, Coercion and Compliance: The Psychology of Police Confessions, in THE TRIPLE REVOLUTION 492-508 (C. Perruci & M. Pilisuk eds., 1971); Richard A. Leo, False Memory, False Confession: When Police Interrogations Go Wrong, presented at the Annual Meetings of the Law & Society Association, Toronto, Can. (June 1995) (unpublished manuscript, on file with the Denver University Law Review) [hereinafter Leo, False Memory].
21. See, e.g., Gisli H. GUDJONSSON, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, CONFESSIONS AND TESTIMONY (1992) [hereinafter GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS]; LAWRENCE S. WRIGHTSMAN & SAUL M. KASSIN, CONFESSIONS IN THE COURTROOM (1993); Phillip M. Coons, Misuse of Forensic Hypnosis: A Hypnotically Elicited False Confession with the Apparent Creation of a Multiple Personality, 36 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 1 (1988); Gisli Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, A Proven Case of False Confession: Psychological Aspects of the Coerced-Compliant Type, 30 MED. SCI. & L. 329 (1990); Gisli H. Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, False Confessions, Psychological Effects of Interrogation, in RECONSTRUCTING THE PAST: THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGISTS IN CRIMINAL TRIALS 253-69 (A. Trankel ed., 1982); Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1; Mickey McMahon, False Confession and Police Deception: The Interrogation, Incarceration and Release of an Innocent Veteran, 13 AM. J. FORENSIC PSYCHOL. 5 (1995); Stephen Moston et al., The Effects of Case Characteristics on Suspect Behavior During Police Questioning, 32 BRIT. J. CRIMINOLOGY 23 (1992); Richard J. Ofshe, Coerced Confessions: The Logic of Seemingly Irrational Action, 6 CULTIC STUD. J. 1 (1989) [hereinafter Ofshe, Coerced Confessions]; Richard J. Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis During Interrogation: False Confession Due to Dissociative State; Mis-Identified Multiple Personality and the Satanic Cult Hypothesis, 40 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 125 (1992) [hereinafter Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis]; T.N. Thomas, Polygraphy and Coerced-Compliant False Confession: 'Serviceman E' Redevivus, 35 SCI. & JUST. 133 (1995); Welsh S. White, False Confessions and the Constitution: Safeguards Against Untrustworthy Confessions, 32 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 105 (1997); Philip Zimbardo, Coercion and Compliance: The Psychology of Police Confessions, in THE TRIPLE REVOLUTION 492-508 (C. Perruci & M. Pilisuk eds., 1971); Richard A. Leo, False Memory, False Confession: When Police Interrogations Go Wrong, presented at the Annual Meetings of the Law & Society Association, Toronto, Can. (June 1995) (unpublished manuscript, on file with the Denver University Law Review) [hereinafter Leo, False Memory].
22. See, e.g., Gisli H. GUDJONSSON, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, CONFESSIONS AND TESTIMONY (1992) [hereinafter GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS]; LAWRENCE S. WRIGHTSMAN & SAUL M. KASSIN, CONFESSIONS IN THE COURTROOM (1993); Phillip M. Coons, Misuse of Forensic Hypnosis: A Hypnotically Elicited False Confession with the Apparent Creation of a Multiple Personality, 36 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 1 (1988); Gisli Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, A Proven Case of False Confession: Psychological Aspects of the Coerced-Compliant Type, 30 MED. SCI. & L. 329 (1990); Gisli H. Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, False Confessions, Psychological Effects of Interrogation, in RECONSTRUCTING THE PAST: THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGISTS IN CRIMINAL TRIALS 253-69 (A. Trankel ed., 1982); Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1; Mickey McMahon, False Confession and Police Deception: The Interrogation, Incarceration and Release of an Innocent Veteran, 13 AM. J. FORENSIC PSYCHOL. 5 (1995); Stephen Moston et al., The Effects of Case Characteristics on Suspect Behavior During Police Questioning, 32 BRIT. J. CRIMINOLOGY 23 (1992); Richard J. Ofshe, Coerced Confessions: The Logic of Seemingly Irrational Action, 6 CULTIC STUD. J. 1 (1989) [hereinafter Ofshe, Coerced Confessions]; Richard J. Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis During Interrogation: False Confession Due to Dissociative State; Mis-Identified Multiple Personality and the Satanic Cult Hypothesis, 40 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 125 (1992) [hereinafter Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis]; T.N. Thomas, Polygraphy and Coerced-Compliant False Confession: 'Serviceman E' Redevivus, 35 SCI. & JUST. 133 (1995); Welsh S. White, False Confessions and the Constitution: Safeguards Against Untrustworthy Confessions, 32 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 105 (1997); Philip Zimbardo, Coercion and Compliance: The Psychology of Police Confessions, in THE TRIPLE REVOLUTION 492-508 (C. Perruci & M. Pilisuk eds., 1971); Richard A. Leo, False Memory, False Confession: When Police Interrogations Go Wrong, presented at the Annual Meetings of the Law & Society Association, Toronto, Can. (June 1995) (unpublished manuscript, on file with the Denver University Law Review) [hereinafter Leo, False Memory].
23. See, e.g., Gisli H. GUDJONSSON, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, CONFESSIONS AND TESTIMONY (1992) [hereinafter GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS]; LAWRENCE S. WRIGHTSMAN & SAUL M. KASSIN, CONFESSIONS IN THE COURTROOM (1993); Phillip M. Coons, Misuse of Forensic Hypnosis: A Hypnotically Elicited False Confession with the Apparent Creation of a Multiple Personality, 36 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 1 (1988); Gisli Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, A Proven Case of False Confession: Psychological Aspects of the Coerced-Compliant Type, 30 MED. SCI. & L. 329 (1990); Gisli H. Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, False Confessions, Psychological Effects of Interrogation, in RECONSTRUCTING THE PAST: THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGISTS IN CRIMINAL TRIALS 253-69 (A. Trankel ed., 1982); Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1; Mickey McMahon, False Confession and Police Deception: The Interrogation, Incarceration and Release of an Innocent Veteran, 13 AM. J. FORENSIC PSYCHOL. 5 (1995); Stephen Moston et al., The Effects of Case Characteristics on Suspect Behavior During Police Questioning, 32 BRIT. J. CRIMINOLOGY 23 (1992); Richard J. Ofshe, Coerced Confessions: The Logic of Seemingly Irrational Action, 6 CULTIC STUD. J. 1 (1989) [hereinafter Ofshe, Coerced Confessions]; Richard J. Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis During Interrogation: False Confession Due to Dissociative State; Mis-Identified Multiple Personality and the Satanic Cult Hypothesis, 40 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 125 (1992) [hereinafter Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis]; T.N. Thomas, Polygraphy and Coerced-Compliant False Confession: 'Serviceman E' Redevivus, 35 SCI. & JUST. 133 (1995); Welsh S. White, False Confessions and the Constitution: Safeguards Against Untrustworthy Confessions, 32 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 105 (1997); Philip Zimbardo, Coercion and Compliance: The Psychology of Police Confessions, in THE TRIPLE REVOLUTION 492-508 (C. Perruci & M. Pilisuk eds., 1971); Richard A. Leo, False Memory, False Confession: When Police Interrogations Go Wrong, presented at the Annual Meetings of the Law & Society Association, Toronto, Can. (June 1995) (unpublished manuscript, on file with the Denver University Law Review) [hereinafter Leo, False Memory].
24. See, e.g., Gisli H. GUDJONSSON, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, CONFESSIONS AND TESTIMONY (1992) [hereinafter GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS]; LAWRENCE S. WRIGHTSMAN & SAUL M. KASSIN, CONFESSIONS IN THE COURTROOM (1993); Phillip M. Coons, Misuse of Forensic Hypnosis: A Hypnotically Elicited False Confession with the Apparent Creation of a Multiple Personality, 36 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 1 (1988); Gisli Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, A Proven Case of False Confession: Psychological Aspects of the Coerced-Compliant Type, 30 MED. SCI. & L. 329 (1990); Gisli H. Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, False Confessions, Psychological Effects of Interrogation, in RECONSTRUCTING THE PAST: THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGISTS IN CRIMINAL TRIALS 253-69 (A. Trankel ed., 1982); Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1; Mickey McMahon, False Confession and Police Deception: The Interrogation, Incarceration and Release of an Innocent Veteran, 13 AM. J. FORENSIC PSYCHOL. 5 (1995); Stephen Moston et al., The Effects of Case Characteristics on Suspect Behavior During Police Questioning, 32 BRIT. J. CRIMINOLOGY 23 (1992); Richard J. Ofshe, Coerced Confessions: The Logic of Seemingly Irrational Action, 6 CULTIC STUD. J. 1 (1989) [hereinafter Ofshe, Coerced Confessions]; Richard J. Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis During Interrogation: False Confession Due to Dissociative State; Mis-Identified Multiple Personality and the Satanic Cult Hypothesis, 40 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 125 (1992) [hereinafter Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis]; T.N. Thomas, Polygraphy and Coerced-Compliant False Confession: 'Serviceman E' Redevivus, 35 SCI. & JUST. 133 (1995); Welsh S. White, False Confessions and the Constitution: Safeguards Against Untrustworthy Confessions, 32 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 105 (1997); Philip Zimbardo, Coercion and Compliance: The Psychology of Police Confessions, in THE TRIPLE REVOLUTION 492-508 (C. Perruci & M. Pilisuk eds., 1971); Richard A. Leo, False Memory, False Confession: When Police Interrogations Go Wrong, presented at the Annual Meetings of the Law & Society Association, Toronto, Can. (June 1995) (unpublished manuscript, on file with the Denver University Law Review) [hereinafter Leo, False Memory].
25. See, e.g., Gisli H. GUDJONSSON, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, CONFESSIONS AND TESTIMONY (1992) [hereinafter GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS]; LAWRENCE S. WRIGHTSMAN & SAUL M. KASSIN, CONFESSIONS IN THE COURTROOM (1993); Phillip M. Coons, Misuse of Forensic Hypnosis: A Hypnotically Elicited False Confession with the Apparent Creation of a Multiple Personality, 36 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 1 (1988); Gisli Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, A Proven Case of False Confession: Psychological Aspects of the Coerced-Compliant Type, 30 MED. SCI. & L. 329 (1990); Gisli H. Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, False Confessions, Psychological Effects of Interrogation, in RECONSTRUCTING THE PAST: THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGISTS IN CRIMINAL TRIALS 253-69 (A. Trankel ed., 1982); Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1; Mickey McMahon, False Confession and Police Deception: The Interrogation, Incarceration and Release of an Innocent Veteran, 13 AM. J. FORENSIC PSYCHOL. 5 (1995); Stephen Moston et al., The Effects of Case Characteristics on Suspect Behavior During Police Questioning, 32 BRIT. J. CRIMINOLOGY 23 (1992); Richard J. Ofshe, Coerced Confessions: The Logic of Seemingly Irrational Action, 6 CULTIC STUD. J. 1 (1989) [hereinafter Ofshe, Coerced Confessions]; Richard J. Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis During Interrogation: False Confession Due to Dissociative State; Mis-Identified Multiple Personality and the Satanic Cult Hypothesis, 40 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 125 (1992) [hereinafter Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis]; T.N. Thomas, Polygraphy and Coerced-Compliant False Confession: 'Serviceman E' Redevivus, 35 SCI. & JUST. 133 (1995); Welsh S. White, False Confessions and the Constitution: Safeguards Against Untrustworthy Confessions, 32 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 105 (1997); Philip Zimbardo, Coercion and Compliance: The Psychology of Police Confessions, in THE TRIPLE REVOLUTION 492-508 (C. Perruci & M. Pilisuk eds., 1971); Richard A. Leo, False Memory, False Confession: When Police Interrogations Go Wrong, presented at the Annual Meetings of the Law & Society Association, Toronto, Can. (June 1995) (unpublished manuscript, on file with the Denver University Law Review) [hereinafter Leo, False Memory].
26. See, e.g., Gisli H. GUDJONSSON, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, CONFESSIONS AND TESTIMONY (1992) [hereinafter GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS]; LAWRENCE S. WRIGHTSMAN & SAUL M. KASSIN, CONFESSIONS IN THE COURTROOM (1993); Phillip M. Coons, Misuse of Forensic Hypnosis: A Hypnotically Elicited False Confession with the Apparent Creation of a Multiple Personality, 36 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 1 (1988); Gisli Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, A Proven Case of False Confession: Psychological Aspects of the Coerced-Compliant Type, 30 MED. SCI. & L. 329 (1990); Gisli H. Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, False Confessions, Psychological Effects of Interrogation, in RECONSTRUCTING THE PAST: THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGISTS IN CRIMINAL TRIALS 253-69 (A. Trankel ed., 1982); Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1; Mickey McMahon, False Confession and Police Deception: The Interrogation, Incarceration and Release of an Innocent Veteran, 13 AM. J. FORENSIC PSYCHOL. 5 (1995); Stephen Moston et al., The Effects of Case Characteristics on Suspect Behavior During Police Questioning, 32 BRIT. J. CRIMINOLOGY 23 (1992); Richard J. Ofshe, Coerced Confessions: The Logic of Seemingly Irrational Action, 6 CULTIC STUD. J. 1 (1989) [hereinafter Ofshe, Coerced Confessions]; Richard J. Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis During Interrogation: False Confession Due to Dissociative State; Mis-Identified Multiple Personality and the Satanic Cult Hypothesis, 40 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 125 (1992) [hereinafter Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis]; T.N. Thomas, Polygraphy and Coerced-Compliant False Confession: 'Serviceman E' Redevivus, 35 SCI. & JUST. 133 (1995); Welsh S. White, False Confessions and the Constitution: Safeguards Against Untrustworthy Confessions, 32 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 105 (1997); Philip Zimbardo, Coercion and Compliance: The Psychology of Police Confessions, in THE TRIPLE REVOLUTION 492-508 (C. Perruci & M. Pilisuk eds., 1971); Richard A. Leo, False Memory, False Confession: When Police Interrogations Go Wrong, presented at the Annual Meetings of the Law & Society Association, Toronto, Can. (June 1995) (unpublished manuscript, on file with the Denver University Law Review) [hereinafter Leo, False Memory].
27. See, e.g., Gisu H. GUDJONSSON, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, CONFESSIONS AND TESTIMONY (1992) [hereinafter GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS]; LAWRENCE S. WRIGHTSMAN & SAUL M. KASSIN, CONFESSIONS IN THE COURTROOM (1993); Phillip M. Coons, Misuse of Forensic Hypnosis: A Hypnotically Elicited False Confession with the Apparent Creation of a Multiple Personality, 36 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 1 (1988); Gisli Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, A Proven Case of False Confession: Psychological Aspects of the Coerced-Compliant Type, 30 MED. SCI. & L. 329 (1990); Gisli H. Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, False Confessions, Psychological Effects of Interrogation, in RECONSTRUCTING THE PAST: THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGISTS IN CRIMINAL TRIALS 253-69 (A. Trankel ed., 1982); Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1; Mickey McMahon, False Confession and Police Deception: The Interrogation, Incarceration and Release of an Innocent Veteran, 13 AM. J. FORENSIC PSYCHOL. 5 (1995); Stephen Moston et al., The Effects of Case Characteristics on Suspect Behavior During Police Questioning, 32 BRIT. J. CRIMINOLOGY 23 (1992); Richard J. Ofshe, Coerced Confessions: The Logic of Seemingly Irrational Action, 6 CULTIC STUD. J. 1 (1989) [hereinafter Ofshe, Coerced Confessions]; Richard J. Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis During Interrogation: False Confession Due to Dissociative State; Mis-Identified Multiple Personality and the Satanic Cult Hypothesis, 40 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 125 (1992) [hereinafter Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis]; T.N. Thomas, Polygraphy and Coerced-Compliant False Confession: 'Serviceman E' Redevivus, 35 SCI. & JUST. 133 (1995); Welsh S. White, False Confessions and the Constitution: Safeguards Against Untrustworthy Confessions, 32 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 105 (1997); Philip Zimbardo, Coercion and Compliance: The Psychology of Police Confessions, in THE TRIPLE REVOLUTION 492-508 (C. Perruci & M. Pilisuk eds., 1971); Richard A. Leo, False Memory, False Confession: When Police Interrogations Go Wrong, presented at the Annual Meetings of the Law & Society Association, Toronto, Can. (June 1995) (unpublished manuscript, on file with the Denver University Law Review) [hereinafter Leo, False Memory].
28. See, e.g., Gisli H. GUDJONSSON, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, CONFESSIONS AND TESTIMONY (1992) [hereinafter GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS]; LAWRENCE S. WRIGHTSMAN & SAUL M. KASSIN, CONFESSIONS IN THE COURTROOM (1993); Phillip M. Coons, Misuse of Forensic Hypnosis: A Hypnotically Elicited False Confession with the Apparent Creation of a Multiple Personality, 36 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 1 (1988); Gisli Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, A Proven Case of False Confession: Psychological Aspects of the Coerced-Compliant Type, 30 MED. SCI. & L. 329 (1990); Gisli H. Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, False Confessions, Psychological Effects of Interrogation, in RECONSTRUCTING THE PAST: THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGISTS IN CRIMINAL TRIALS 253-69 (A. Trankel ed., 1982); Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1; Mickey McMahon, False Confession and Police Deception: The Interrogation, Incarceration and Release of an Innocent Veteran, 13 AM. J. FORENSIC PSYCHOL. 5 (1995); Stephen Moston et al., The Effects of Case Characteristics on Suspect Behavior During Police Questioning, 32 BRIT. J. CRIMINOLOGY 23 (1992); Richard J. Ofshe, Coerced Confessions: The Logic of Seemingly Irrational Action, 6 CULTIC STUD. J. 1 (1989) [hereinafter Ofshe, Coerced Confessions]; Richard J. Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis During Interrogation: False Confession Due to Dissociative State; Mis-Identified Multiple Personality and the Satanic Cult Hypothesis, 40 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 125 (1992) [hereinafter Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis]; T.N. Thomas, Polygraphy and Coerced-Compliant False Confession: 'Serviceman E' Redevivus, 35 SCI. & JUST. 133 (1995); Welsh S. White, False Confessions and the Constitution: Safeguards Against Untrustworthy Confessions, 32 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 105 (1997); Philip Zimbardo, Coercion and Compliance: The Psychology of Police Confessions, in THE TRIPLE REVOLUTION 492-508 (C. Perruci & M. Pilisuk eds., 1971); Richard A. Leo, False Memory, False Confession: When Police Interrogations Go Wrong, presented at the Annual Meetings of the Law & Society Association, Toronto, Can. (June 1995) (unpublished manuscript, on file with the Denver University Law Review) [hereinafter Leo, False Memory].
29. See, e.g., Gisli H. GUDJONSSON, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, CONFESSIONS AND TESTIMONY (1992) [hereinafter GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS]; LAWRENCE S. WRIGHTSMAN & SAUL M. KASSIN, CONFESSIONS IN THE COURTROOM (1993); Phillip M. Coons, Misuse of Forensic Hypnosis: A Hypnotically Elicited False Confession with the Apparent Creation of a Multiple Personality, 36 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 1 (1988); Gisli Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, A Proven Case of False Confession: Psychological Aspects of the Coerced-Compliant Type, 30 MED. SCI. & L. 329 (1990); Gisli H. Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, False Confessions, Psychological Effects of Interrogation, in RECONSTRUCTING THE PAST: THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGISTS IN CRIMINAL TRIALS 253-69 (A. Trankel ed., 1982); Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1; Mickey McMahon, False Confession and Police Deception: The Interrogation, Incarceration and Release of an Innocent Veteran, 13 AM. J. FORENSIC PSYCHOL. 5 (1995); Stephen Moston et al., The Effects of Case Characteristics on Suspect Behavior During Police Questioning, 32 BRIT. J. CRIMINOLOGY 23 (1992); Richard J. Ofshe, Coerced Confessions: The Logic of Seemingly Irrational Action, 6 CULTIC STUD. J. 1 (1989) [hereinafter Ofshe, Coerced Confessions]; Richard J. Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis During Interrogation: False Confession Due to Dissociative State; Mis-Identified Multiple Personality and the Satanic Cult Hypothesis, 40 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 125 (1992) [hereinafter Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis]; T.N. Thomas, Polygraphy and Coerced-Compliant False Confession: 'Serviceman E' Redevivus, 35 SCI. & JUST. 133 (1995); Welsh S. White, False Confessions and the Constitution: Safeguards Against Untrustworthy Confessions, 32 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 105 (1997); Philip Zimbardo, Coercion and Compliance: The Psychology of Police Confessions, in THE TRIPLE REVOLUTION 492-508 (C. Perruci & M. Pilisuk eds., 1971); Richard A. Leo, False Memory, False Confession: When Police Interrogations Go Wrong, presented at the Annual Meetings of the Law & Society Association, Toronto, Can. (June 1995) (unpublished manuscript, on file with the Denver University Law Review) [hereinafter Leo, False Memory].
30. See, e.g., Gisli H. GUDJONSSON, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, CONFESSIONS AND TESTIMONY (1992) [hereinafter GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS]; LAWRENCE S. WRIGHTSMAN & SAUL M. KASSIN, CONFESSIONS IN THE COURTROOM (1993); Phillip M. Coons, Misuse of Forensic Hypnosis: A Hypnotically Elicited False Confession with the Apparent Creation of a Multiple Personality, 36 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 1 (1988); Gisli Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, A Proven Case of False Confession: Psychological Aspects of the Coerced-Compliant Type, 30 MED. SCI. & L. 329 (1990); Gisli H. Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, False Confessions, Psychological Effects of Interrogation, in RECONSTRUCTING THE PAST: THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGISTS IN CRIMINAL TRIALS 253-69 (A. Trankel ed., 1982); Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1; Mickey McMahon, False Confession and Police Deception: The Interrogation, Incarceration and Release of an Innocent Veteran, 13 AM. J. FORENSIC PSYCHOL. 5 (1995); Stephen Moston et al., The Effects of Case Characteristics on Suspect Behavior During Police Questioning, 32 BRIT. J. CRIMINOLOGY 23 (1992); Richard J. Ofshe, Coerced Confessions: The Logic of Seemingly Irrational Action, 6 CULTIC STUD. J. 1 (1989) [hereinafter Ofshe, Coerced Confessions]; Richard J. Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis During Interrogation: False Confession Due to Dissociative State; Mis-Identified Multiple Personality and the Satanic Cult Hypothesis, 40 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 125 (1992) [hereinafter Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis]; T.N. Thomas, Polygraphy and Coerced-Compliant False Confession: 'Serviceman E' Redevivus, 35 SCI. & JUST. 133 (1995); Welsh S. White, False Confessions and the Constitution: Safeguards Against Untrustworthy Confessions, 32 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 105 (1997); Philip Zimbardo, Coercion and Compliance: The Psychology of Police Confessions, in THE TRIPLE REVOLUTION 492-508 (C. Perruci & M. Pilisuk eds., 1971); Richard A. Leo, False Memory, False Confession: When Police Interrogations Go Wrong, presented at the Annual Meetings of the Law & Society Association, Toronto, Can. (June 1995) (unpublished manuscript, on file with the Denver University Law Review) [hereinafter Leo, False Memory].
31. See, e.g., Gisli H. GUDJONSSON, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, CONFESSIONS AND TESTIMONY (1992) [hereinafter GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS]; LAWRENCE S. WRIGHTSMAN & SAUL M. KASSIN, CONFESSIONS IN THE COURTROOM (1993); Phillip M. Coons, Misuse of Forensic Hypnosis: A Hypnotically Elicited False Confession with the Apparent Creation of a Multiple Personality, 36 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 1 (1988); Gisli Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, A Proven Case of False Confession: Psychological Aspects of the Coerced-Compliant Type, 30 MED. SCI. & L. 329 (1990); Gisli H. Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, False Confessions, Psychological Effects of Interrogation, in RECONSTRUCTING THE PAST: THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGISTS IN CRIMINAL TRIALS 253-69 (A. Trankel ed., 1982); Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1; Mickey McMahon, False Confession and Police Deception: The Interrogation, Incarceration and Release of an Innocent Veteran, 13 AM. J. FORENSIC PSYCHOL. 5 (1995); Stephen Moston et al., The Effects of Case Characteristics on Suspect Behavior During Police Questioning, 32 BRIT. J. CRIMINOLOGY 23 (1992); Richard J. Ofshe, Coerced Confessions: The Logic of Seemingly Irrational Action, 6 CULTIC STUD. J. 1 (1989) [hereinafter Ofshe, Coerced Confessions]; Richard J. Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis During Interrogation: False Confession Due to Dissociative State; Mis-Identified Multiple Personality and the Satanic Cult Hypothesis, 40 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 125 (1992) [hereinafter Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis]; T.N. Thomas, Polygraphy and Coerced-Compliant False Confession: 'Serviceman E' Redevivus, 35 SCI. & JUST. 133 (1995); Welsh S. White, False Confessions and the Constitution: Safeguards Against Untrustworthy Confessions, 32 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 105 (1997); Philip Zimbardo, Coercion and Compliance: The Psychology of Police Confessions, in THE TRIPLE REVOLUTION 492-508 (C. Perruci & M. Pilisuk eds., 1971); Richard A. Leo, False Memory, False Confession: When Police Interrogations Go Wrong, presented at the Annual Meetings of the Law & Society Association, Toronto, Can. (June 1995) (unpublished manuscript, on file with the Denver University Law Review) [hereinafter Leo, False Memory].
32. See, e.g., Gisli H. GUDJONSSON, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, CONFESSIONS AND TESTIMONY (1992) [hereinafter GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS]; LAWRENCE S. WRIGHTSMAN & SAUL M. KASSIN, CONFESSIONS IN THE COURTROOM (1993); Phillip M. Coons, Misuse of Forensic Hypnosis: A Hypnotically Elicited False Confession with the Apparent Creation of a Multiple Personality, 36 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 1 (1988); Gisli Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, A Proven Case of False Confession: Psychological Aspects of the Coerced-Compliant Type, 30 MED. SCI. & L. 329 (1990); Gisli H. Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, False Confessions, Psychological Effects of Interrogation, in RECONSTRUCTING THE PAST: THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGISTS IN CRIMINAL TRIALS 253-69 (A. Trankel ed., 1982); Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1; Mickey McMahon, False Confession and Police Deception: The Interrogation, Incarceration and Release of an Innocent Veteran, 13 AM. J. FORENSIC PSYCHOL. 5 (1995); Stephen Moston et al., The Effects of Case Characteristics on Suspect Behavior During Police Questioning, 32 BRIT. J. CRIMINOLOGY 23 (1992); Richard J. Ofshe, Coerced Confessions: The Logic of Seemingly Irrational Action, 6 CULTIC STUD. J. 1 (1989) [hereinafter Ofshe, Coerced Confessions]; Richard J. Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis During Interrogation: False Confession Due to Dissociative State; Mis-Identified Multiple Personality and the Satanic Cult Hypothesis, 40 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 125 (1992) [hereinafter Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis]; T.N. Thomas, Polygraphy and Coerced-Compliant False Confession: 'Serviceman E' Redevivus, 35 SCI. & JUST. 133 (1995); Welsh S. White, False Confessions and the Constitution: Safeguards Against Untrustworthy Confessions, 32 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 105 (1997); Philip Zimbardo, Coercion and Compliance: The Psychology of Police Confessions, in THE TRIPLE REVOLUTION 492-508 (C. Perruci & M. Pilisuk eds., 1971); Richard A. Leo, False Memory, False Confession: When Police Interrogations Go Wrong, presented at the Annual Meetings of the Law & Society Association, Toronto, Can. (June 1995) (unpublished manuscript, on file with the Denver University Law Review) [hereinafter Leo, False Memory].
33. See, e.g., Gisli H. GUDJONSSON, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, CONFESSIONS AND TESTIMONY (1992) [hereinafter GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS]; LAWRENCE S. WRIGHTSMAN & SAUL M. KASSIN, CONFESSIONS IN THE COURTROOM (1993); Phillip M. Coons, Misuse of Forensic Hypnosis: A Hypnotically Elicited False Confession with the Apparent Creation of a Multiple Personality, 36 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 1 (1988); Gisli Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, A Proven Case of False Confession: Psychological Aspects of the Coerced-Compliant Type, 30 MED. SCI. & L. 329 (1990); Gisli H. Gudjonsson & James MacKeith, False Confessions, Psychological Effects of Interrogation, in RECONSTRUCTING THE PAST: THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGISTS IN CRIMINAL TRIALS 253-69 (A. Trankel ed., 1982); Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1; Mickey McMahon, False Confession and Police Deception: The Interrogation, Incarceration and Release of an Innocent Veteran, 13 AM. J. FORENSIC PSYCHOL. 5 (1995); Stephen Moston et al., The Effects of Case Characteristics on Suspect Behavior During Police Questioning, 32 BRIT. J. CRIMINOLOGY 23 (1992); Richard J. Ofshe, Coerced Confessions: The Logic of Seemingly Irrational Action, 6 CULTIC STUD. J. 1 (1989) [hereinafter Ofshe, Coerced Confessions]; Richard J. Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis During Interrogation: False Confession Due to Dissociative State; Mis-Identified Multiple Personality and the Satanic Cult Hypothesis, 40 INT'L J. CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL HYPNOSIS 125 (1992) [hereinafter Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis]; T.N. Thomas, Polygraphy and Coerced-Compliant False Confession: 'Serviceman E' Redevivus, 35 SCI. & JUST. 133 (1995); Welsh S. White, False Confessions and the Constitution: Safeguards Against Untrustworthy Confessions, 32 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 105 (1997); Philip Zimbardo, Coercion and Compliance: The Psychology of Police Confessions, in THE TRIPLE REVOLUTION 492-508 (C. Perruci & M. Pilisuk eds., 1971); Richard A. Leo, False Memory, False Confession: When Police Interrogations Go Wrong, presented at the Annual Meetings of the Law & Society Association, Toronto, Can. (June 1995) (unpublished manuscript, on file with the Denver University Law Review) [hereinafter Leo, False Memory].
34. See, e.g., Danyl J. Bem, Inducing Belief in False Confessions, 3 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 707 (1966); Saul M. Kassin & Lawrence Wrightsman, Coerced Confessions, Judicial Instructions, and Mock Juror Verdicts, 11 J. APPLIED SOC. PSYCHOL. 489 (1980); Saul M. Kassin and Karlyn McNall, Police Interrogations and Confessions: Communicating Promises and Threats by Pragmatic Implication, 15 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 233 (1991) [hereinafter Kassin & McNall, Police Interrogations]; Saul M. Kassin & Lawrence M. Wrightsman, Prior Confessions and Mock Juror Verdicts, 10 J. APPLIED Soc. PSYCHOL. 133 (1980); Saul M. Kassin & Katherine Keichel, The Social Psychology of False Confessions: Compliance, Internalization and Confabulation, 7 PSYCHOL, SCI. 125 (1996); Christina Maslach, The 'Truth' About False Confessions, 20 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOLOGY 141 (1971).
35. See, e.g., Danyl J. Bem, Inducing Belief in False Confessions, 3 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 707 (1966); Saul M. Kassin & Lawrence Wrightsman, Coerced Confessions, Judicial Instructions, and Mock Juror Verdicts, 11 J. APPLIED SOC. PSYCHOL. 489 (1980); Saul M. Kassin and Karlyn McNall, Police Interrogations and Confessions: Communicating Promises and Threats by Pragmatic Implication, 15 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 233 (1991) [hereinafter Kassin & McNall, Police Interrogations]; Saul M. Kassin & Lawrence M. Wrightsman, Prior Confessions and Mock Juror Verdicts, 10 J. APPLIED Soc. PSYCHOL. 133 (1980); Saul M. Kassin & Katherine Keichel, The Social Psychology of False Confessions: Compliance, Internalization and Confabulation, 7 PSYCHOL, SCI. 125 (1996); Christina Maslach, The 'Truth' About False Confessions, 20 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOLOGY 141 (1971).
36. See, e.g., Danyl J. Bem, Inducing Belief in False Confessions, 3 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 707 (1966); Saul M. Kassin & Lawrence Wrightsman, Coerced Confessions, Judicial Instructions, and Mock Juror Verdicts, 11 J. APPLIED SOC. PSYCHOL. 489 (1980); Saul M. Kassin and Karlyn McNall, Police Interrogations and Confessions: Communicating Promises and Threats by Pragmatic Implication, 15 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 233 (1991) [hereinafter Kassin & McNall, Police Interrogations]; Saul M. Kassin & Lawrence M. Wrightsman, Prior Confessions and Mock Juror Verdicts, 10 J. APPLIED Soc. PSYCHOL. 133 (1980); Saul M. Kassin & Katherine Keichel, The Social Psychology of False Confessions: Compliance, Internalization and Confabulation, 7 PSYCHOL, SCI. 125 (1996); Christina Maslach, The 'Truth' About False Confessions, 20 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOLOGY 141 (1971).
37. See, e.g., Danyl J. Bem, Inducing Belief in False Confessions, 3 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 707 (1966); Saul M. Kassin & Lawrence Wrightsman, Coerced Confessions, Judicial Instructions, and Mock Juror Verdicts, 11 J. APPLIED SOC. PSYCHOL. 489 (1980); Saul M. Kassin and Karlyn McNall, Police Interrogations and Confessions: Communicating Promises and Threats by Pragmatic Implication, 15 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 233 (1991) [hereinafter Kassin & McNall, Police Interrogations]; Saul M. Kassin & Lawrence M. Wrightsman, Prior Confessions and Mock Juror Verdicts, 10 J. APPLIED Soc. PSYCHOL. 133 (1980); Saul M. Kassin & Katherine Keichel, The Social Psychology of False Confessions: Compliance, Internalization and Confabulation, 7 PSYCHOL, SCI. 125 (1996); Christina Maslach, The 'Truth' About False Confessions, 20 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOLOGY 141 (1971).
38. See, e.g., Danyl J. Bem, Inducing Belief in False Confessions, 3 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 707 (1966); Saul M. Kassin & Lawrence Wrightsman, Coerced Confessions, Judicial Instructions, and Mock Juror Verdicts, 11 J. APPLIED SOC. PSYCHOL. 489 (1980); Saul M. Kassin and Karlyn McNall, Police Interrogations and Confessions: Communicating Promises and Threats by Pragmatic Implication, 15 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 233 (1991) [hereinafter Kassin & McNall, Police Interrogations]; Saul M. Kassin & Lawrence M. Wrightsman, Prior Confessions and Mock Juror Verdicts, 10 J. APPLIED Soc. PSYCHOL. 133 (1980); Saul M. Kassin & Katherine Keichel, The Social Psychology of False Confessions: Compliance, Internalization and Confabulation, 7 PSYCHOL, SCI. 125 (1996); Christina Maslach, The 'Truth' About False Confessions, 20 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOLOGY 141 (1971).
39. See, e.g., Danyl J. Bem, Inducing Belief in False Confessions, 3 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 707 (1966); Saul M. Kassin & Lawrence Wrightsman, Coerced Confessions, Judicial Instructions, and Mock Juror Verdicts, 11 J. APPLIED SOC. PSYCHOL. 489 (1980); Saul M. Kassin and Karlyn McNall, Police Interrogations and Confessions: Communicating Promises and Threats by Pragmatic Implication, 15 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 233 (1991) [hereinafter Kassin & McNall, Police Interrogations]; Saul M. Kassin & Lawrence M. Wrightsman, Prior Confessions and Mock Juror Verdicts, 10 J. APPLIED Soc. PSYCHOL. 133 (1980); Saul M. Kassin & Katherine Keichel, The Social Psychology of False Confessions: Compliance, Internalization and Confabulation, 7 PSYCHOL, SCI. 125 (1996); Christina Maslach, The 'Truth' About False Confessions, 20 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOLOGY 141 (1971).
40. The most recent observational study of interrogation in America found that suspects gave partial or full confessions 42% of the time. Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room, supra note 4, at 270.
41. Stephan v. State, 711 P.2d 1156, 1157-58 (Alaska 1985) (stating that "an unexcused failure to electronically record a custodial interrogation conducted in a place of detention violates a suspect's right to due process"); Mallott v. State, 608 P.2d 737, 743 n.5 (Alaska 1980) (establishing the recording requirement).
42. State v. Scales, 518 N.W.2d 587, 592 (Minn. 1994).
43. Police and Criminal Evidence Act, 1984, ch. 60 (Eng).
44. See William A. Geller, Videotaping Interrogations and Confessions, NAT'L INST. OF JUST.: RESEARCH IN BRIEF, Mar. 1993, at 1; William A. Geller, Police Videotaping of Suspect Interrogations and Confessions (1992) (report to the National Institute of Justice).
45. See William A. Geller, Videotaping Interrogations and Confessions, NAT'L INST. OF JUST.: RESEARCH IN BRIEF, Mar. 1993, at 1; William A. Geller, Police Videotaping of Suspect Interrogations and Confessions (1992) (report to the National Institute of Justice).
46. Unlike the Supreme Court's analysis in Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436, 445-55 (1966), it is no longer necessary to rely on interrogation industry accounts to learn what happens in the confines of those base, little rooms in the bowels of police stations across America.
47. See Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1.
48. See Richard A. Leo, From Coercion to Deception: The Changing Nature of Police Interrogation in America, 18 CRIME, L. & SOC. CHANGE 35 (1992) [hereinafter Leo, From Coercion to Deception].
49. See Paul G. Cassell, The Exotic and the Routine: An Empirical Essay on the Tradeoffs Between False Confessions and Lost Confessions, 88 J. CRIM. L. & CRIMINOLOGY (forthcoming 1998).
50. See Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1.
51. See OFSHE & LEO, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, supra note 1; E.L. Hilgendorf & Barrie Irving, A Decision Model of Confessions, in PSYCHOLOGY IN LEGAL CONTEXTS 67 (S.M. Lloyd-Bostock ed., 1981); Irving & Hilgendorf, supra note 4.
52. See OFSHE & LEO, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, supra note 1; E.L. Hilgendorf & Barrie Irving, A Decision Model of Confessions, in PSYCHOLOGY IN LEGAL CONTEXTS 67 (S.M. Lloyd-Bostock ed., 1981); Irving & Hilgendorf, supra note 4.
53. See discussion infra Parts III.B.2.c.-III.B.2.f.
54. See discussion infra Part II.F.
55. See, e.g., FRED E. INBAU ET AL., CRIMINAL INTERROGATION AND CONFESSIONS 147 (3d ed. 1986) ("None of what is recommended will induce an innocent person to confess."). The only advice this manual gives interrogators with respect to avoiding taking a false confession is that before doing something about which there might be a concern, the investigator should ask himself, "[i]s what I am about to do, or say, apt to make an innocent person confess? If the answer is no the interrogator should go ahead and do or say what is contemplated." Id. at 217. The authors of this well-known, widely read, and highly influential interrogation training manual do not even have an index reference for "false confessions." See also Brian C. Jayne & Joseph P. Buckley, Criminal Interrogation Techniques on Trial, SEC. MGMT., Oct. 1992, at 69 (stating that "none of these techniques, in and of themselves, is unique to interrogation, and none of them would cause an innocent suspect to confess to a crime").
56. See, e.g., FRED E. INBAU ET AL., CRIMINAL INTERROGATION AND CONFESSIONS 147 (3d ed. 1986) ("None of what is recommended will induce an innocent person to confess."). The only advice this manual gives interrogators with respect to avoiding taking a false confession is that before doing something about which there might be a concern, the investigator should ask himself, "[i]s what I am about to do, or say, apt to make an innocent person confess? If the answer is no the interrogator should go ahead and do or say what is contemplated." Id. at 217. The authors of this well-known, widely read, and highly influential interrogation training manual do not even have an index reference for "false confessions." See also Brian C. Jayne & Joseph P. Buckley, Criminal Interrogation Techniques on Trial, SEC. MGMT., Oct. 1992, at 69 (stating that "none of these techniques, in and of themselves, is unique to interrogation, and none of them would cause an innocent suspect to confess to a crime").
57. JOHN HENRY WIGMORE, EVIDENCE IN TRIALS AT COMMON LAW § 820b. at 303 (James H. Chadbourn ed., 1970).
58. See OFSHE & LEO, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, supra note 1; DAVID SIMON, HOMICIDE: A YEAR ON THE KILLING STREETS (1991); Kassin, supra note 3; Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room, supra note 4, at 298.
59. See OFSHE & LEO, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, supra note 1; DAVID SIMON, HOMICIDE: A YEAR ON THE KILLING STREETS (1991); Kassin, supra note 3; Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room, supra note 4, at 298.
60. See OFSHE & LEO, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, supra note 1; DAVID SIMON, HOMICIDE: A YEAR ON THE KILLING STREETS (1991); Kassin, supra note 3; Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room, supra note 4, at 298.
61. See Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room, supra note 4.
62. Id.
63. See SAMUEL WALKER, SENSE AND NONSENSE ABOUT CRIME AND DRUGS: A POLICY GUIDE (3d ed. 1994).
64. Paul G. Cassell & Bret J. Hayman, Police Interrogation in the 1990s: An Empirical Study of the Effects of Miranda, 43 UCLA L. REV. 839, 905-12 (1996).
65. See PETER F. NARDULLI ET AL., THE TENOR OF JUSTICE: CRIMINAL COURTS AND THE GUILTY PLEA PROCESS (1988).
66. Gerard R. Miller & F. Joseph Boster, Three Images of the Trial: Their Implications for Psychological Research, in PSYCHOLOGY AND THE LEGAL PROCESS (Bruce Dennis Sales ed., 1977).
67. Because the majority of interrogators and criminal suspects are men, we use male pronouns throughout this paper.
68. See Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1.
69. See supra note 1 and accompanying text.
70. We often choose not to indicate whether quoted material was taken from the interrogation of an innocent or a guilty party. The confessor's guilt or innocence makes little or no difference in how the tactics of contemporary American interrogation are implemented. Often, interrogators have considerable evidence indicating the guilt of someone they decide to interrogate, but in investigations that culminate in a confession from an innocent, this is never true. When an innocent is interrogated, all of the evidence an interrogator claims to possess is invented or erroneous. Even when the suspect is guilty and an interrogator has some evidence against him, much of what is claimed may be invented. Although the truth of an interrogator's claim to any piece of evidence is questionable, and his picture of what the future holds for the suspect is deliberately distorted, these truths cannot be guessed based either on his statements or his conduct For an innocent to decide to confess, he must believe that the evidence the interrogator claims to have actually exists, even if he believes it is entirely mistaken or has been fabricated. He must also believe that his future is as certain as the interrogator paints it, even though it is unjust. The reader is invited to sometimes pause after reading an interrogation excerpt, suspend disbelief, imagine being confronted with whatever the interrogator has just said and, presuming that the suspect believes it, ponder this question: Might a reasonable, innocent person fully enmeshed in the sort of interrogation described by the quoted materials become demoralized, fearful, hopeless and so panicked that he might comply and make the choice to falsely confess?
71. This analysis presumes that the crime under investigation is homicide.
72. See DECISION MAKING (W. Edwards & A. Tversky eds. 1967); ANATOL M. RAPOPORT & A. CHAMMAH, PRISONER'S DILEMMA (1965); JOHN VON NEUMANN & OSKAR MORGENSTERN, THEORY OF GAMES AND ECONOMIC BEHAVIOR (1944).
73. See DECISION MAKING (W. Edwards & A. Tversky eds. 1967); ANATOL M. RAPOPORT & A. CHAMMAH, PRISONER'S DILEMMA (1965); JOHN VON NEUMANN & OSKAR MORGENSTERN, THEORY OF GAMES AND ECONOMIC BEHAVIOR (1944).
74. See DECISION MAKING (W. Edwards & A. Tversky eds. 1967); ANATOL M. RAPOPORT & A. CHAMMAH, PRISONER'S DILEMMA (1965); JOHN VON NEUMANN & OSKAR MORGENSTERN, THEORY OF GAMES AND ECONOMIC BEHAVIOR (1944).
75. The decision-making model presented in this paper applies both to interrogations that produce true confessions as well as interrogations that produce false confessions. For purposes of this paper, however, we focus almost exclusively on false confessions. For an analysis that focuses both on true and false confessions, see OFSHE & LEO, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, supra note 1.
76. In the Phoenix Temple murder case, Maricopa County Sheriff's detectives subjected five mistakenly chosen individuals to psychological interrogation and succeeded in eliciting three false confessions to mass murder, a batting average of .600. Richard Ofshe, I'm Guilty If You Say So, in CONVICTING THE INNOCENT: THE STORY OF A MURDER, A FALSE CONFESSION, AND THE STRUGGLE TO FREE A "WRONG" MAN (Donald S. Connery ed., 1996); see also Roger Parloff, False Confessions, AM. LAW., May 1993, at 58-62; Russell Kimball & Linda Greenberg, False Confessions, PHOENIX MAG., Nov. 1993, at 85-95.
77. In the Phoenix Temple murder case, Maricopa County Sheriff's detectives subjected five mistakenly chosen individuals to psychological interrogation and succeeded in eliciting three false confessions to mass murder, a batting average of .600. Richard Ofshe, I'm Guilty If You Say So, in CONVICTING THE INNOCENT: THE STORY OF A MURDER, A FALSE CONFESSION, AND THE STRUGGLE TO FREE A "WRONG" MAN (Donald S. Connery ed., 1996); see also Roger Parloff, False Confessions, AM. LAW., May 1993, at 58-62; Russell Kimball & Linda Greenberg, False Confessions, PHOENIX MAG., Nov. 1993, at 85-95.
78. In the Phoenix Temple murder case, Maricopa County Sheriff's detectives subjected five mistakenly chosen individuals to psychological interrogation and succeeded in eliciting three false confessions to mass murder, a batting average of .600. Richard Ofshe, I'm Guilty If You Say So, in CONVICTING THE INNOCENT: THE STORY OF A MURDER, A FALSE CONFESSION, AND THE STRUGGLE TO FREE A "WRONG" MAN (Donald S. Connery ed., 1996); see also Roger Parloff, False Confessions, AM. LAW., May 1993, at 58-62; Russell Kimball & Linda Greenberg, False Confessions, PHOENIX MAG., Nov. 1993, at 85-95.
79. See GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, supra note 5; OFSHE & LEO, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, supra note 1; WRIGHTSMAN & KASSIN, supra note 5; Coons, supra note 5; Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1; Ofshe, Coerced Confessions, supra note 5; Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis, supra note 5; McMahon, supra note 5; Thomas, supra note 5; White, supra note 5; Zimbardo, supra note 5; Leo, False Memory, supra note 5.
80. See GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, supra note 5; OFSHE & LEO, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, supra note 1; WRIGHTSMAN & KASSIN, supra note 5; Coons, supra note 5; Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1; Ofshe, Coerced Confessions, supra note 5; Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis, supra note 5; McMahon, supra note 5; Thomas, supra note 5; White, supra note 5; Zimbardo, supra note 5; Leo, False Memory, supra note 5.
81. See GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, supra note 5; OFSHE & LEO, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, supra note 1; WRIGHTSMAN & KASSIN, supra note 5; Coons, supra note 5; Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1; Ofshe, Coerced Confessions, supra note 5; Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis, supra note 5; McMahon, supra note 5; Thomas, supra note 5; White, supra note 5; Zimbardo, supra note 5; Leo, False Memory, supra note 5.
82. See GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, supra note 5; OFSHE & LEO, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, supra note 1; WRIGHTSMAN & KASSIN, supra note 5; Coons, supra note 5; Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1; Ofshe, Coerced Confessions, supra note 5; Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis, supra note 5; McMahon, supra note 5; Thomas, supra note 5; White, supra note 5; Zimbardo, supra note 5; Leo, False Memory, supra note 5.
83. See GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, supra note 5; OFSHE & LEO, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, supra note 1; WRIGHTSMAN & KASSIN, supra note 5; Coons, supra note 5; Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1; Ofshe, Coerced Confessions, supra note 5; Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis, supra note 5; McMahon, supra note 5; Thomas, supra note 5; White, supra note 5; Zimbardo, supra note 5; Leo, False Memory, supra note 5.
84. See GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, supra note 5; OFSHE & LEO, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, supra note 1; WRIGHTSMAN & KASSIN, supra note 5; Coons, supra note 5; Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1; Ofshe, Coerced Confessions, supra note 5; Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis, supra note 5; McMahon, supra note 5; Thomas, supra note 5; White, supra note 5; Zimbardo, supra note 5; Leo, False Memory, supra note 5.
85. See GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, supra note 5; OFSHE & LEO, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, supra note 1; WRIGHTSMAN & KASSIN, supra note 5; Coons, supra note 5; Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1; Ofshe, Coerced Confessions, supra note 5; Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis, supra note 5; McMahon, supra note 5; Thomas, supra note 5; White, supra note 5; Zimbardo, supra note 5; Leo, False Memory, supra note 5.
86. Police trainers and interrogation manuals mislead detectives into believing that they can • divine whether a suspect is innocent or guilty from simple non-verbal and behavioral responses to their questions. See INBAU ET AL., supra note 20; see also DAVID ZULAWSKI & DOUGLAS WICKLANDER, PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF INTERVIEW AND INTERROGATION (1993). There are no non-verbal or behavioral signs that somehow distinguish truth-tellers from liars. See Paul Ekman & Maureen O'Sullivan, Who Can Catch a Liar?, 46 AM. PSYCHOL. 913 (1991).
87. Police trainers and interrogation manuals mislead detectives into believing that they can • divine whether a suspect is innocent or guilty from simple non-verbal and behavioral responses to their questions. See INBAU ET AL., supra note 20; see also DAVID ZULAWSKI & DOUGLAS WICKLANDER, PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF INTERVIEW AND INTERROGATION (1993). There are no non-verbal or behavioral signs that somehow distinguish truth-tellers from liars. See Paul Ekman & Maureen O'Sullivan, Who Can Catch a Liar?, 46 AM. PSYCHOL. 913 (1991).
88. "Pragmatic implication" refers to information processing that occurs "between the lines," or is inferred from what the speaker is saying or suggesting. See Kassin & McNall, Police Interrogations, supra note 6; see also Richard E. Nisbett & Timothy DeCamp Wilson, Telling More Than We Can Know: Verbal Reports on Mental Processes, 84 PSYCHOL. REV. 231 (1977); Richard J. Harris & Gregory E. Monaco, Psychology of Pragmatic Implication: Information Processing Between the Lines, 107 J. EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 1 (1978).
89. "Pragmatic implication" refers to information processing that occurs "between the lines," or is inferred from what the speaker is saying or suggesting. See Kassin & McNall, Police Interrogations, supra note 6; see also Richard E. Nisbett & Timothy DeCamp Wilson, Telling More Than We Can Know: Verbal Reports on Mental Processes, 84 PSYCHOL. REV. 231 (1977); Richard J. Harris & Gregory E. Monaco, Psychology of Pragmatic Implication: Information Processing Between the Lines, 107 J. EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 1 (1978).
90. "Pragmatic implication" refers to information processing that occurs "between the lines," or is inferred from what the speaker is saying or suggesting. See Kassin & McNall, Police Interrogations, supra note 6; see also Richard E. Nisbett & Timothy DeCamp Wilson, Telling More Than We Can Know: Verbal Reports on Mental Processes, 84 PSYCHOL. REV. 231 (1977); Richard J. Harris & Gregory E. Monaco, Psychology of Pragmatic Implication: Information Processing Between the Lines, 107 J. EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 1 (1978).
91. Empirical studies have found that the vast majority of suspects - ranging from approximately 78% to 96% - waive their Miranda rights. See Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room, supra note 4; George C. Thomas III, Plain Talk About the Miranda Empirical Debate: A 'Steady State' Theory of Confessions, 43 UCLA L. REV. 933 (1996).
92. Empirical studies have found that the vast majority of suspects - ranging from approximately 78% to 96% - waive their Miranda rights. See Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room, supra note 4; George C. Thomas III, Plain Talk About the Miranda Empirical Debate: A 'Steady State' Theory of Confessions, 43 UCLA L. REV. 933 (1996).
93. See infra Part II.F.
94. A criminal admission is "[t]he avowal of a fact or of circumstances from which guilt may be inferred, but only tending to prove the offense charged, and not amounting to a confession of guilt." BLACK'S LAW DICTIONARY 48 (6th ed. 1990). A confession is a "voluntary statement made by a person . . . wherein he acknowledges himself to be guilty of the offense charged, and discloses the circumstances of the act or the share and participation which he had in it." Id. at 296.
95. As interrogators are presently trained, they fail to obtain corroboration of a confessor's statement in many of the ways that are possible. Typically, an interrogator will seek to demonstrate the validity of one or more points that are dramatic (i.e., method of killing, unusual method of binding or silencing the victim, etc.). There are a host of far less dramatic pieces of information that a true perpetrator would be likely to know and would be at least, or perhaps more, likely to surrender. While these sorts of facts are not dramatic, they are just as valuable for establishing that the suspect has personal knowledge of the crime. Such things might include a description of the room in which the crime happened, especially if it has distinctive furnishings (assuming that the suspect has never before been there), the type of clothing the victim was wearing, the method of entry into the residence, etc.
96. See, e.g., Miles Corwin, False Confessions and Tips Still Flow in Simpson Case, L.A. TIMES, Mar. 25, 1996, at A1.
97. See INBAU ET AL., supra note 20, at 198.
98. See id. at 172.
99. Id. at 173.
100. Id. at 73, 192-93.
101. Id. at 105, 180-81.
102. Techniques currently taught to investigators tend to contaminate the suspect Id. at 189.
103. When the alternative answers are small in number ("Was the body face up or face down?"), a correct answer does not necessarily reveal anything about whether the person knew the answer or made an accurate guess - someone who is ignorant will be right 50% of the time. When the number of possible answers are enormous ("Exactly where did you hide the murder weapon in the 72 hours since the crime?") and the suspect's answer leads the investigator to the evidence, the significance of a hit can be as great as a DNA match with a probability of error in the tens of millions. 52. Interrogation Transcript of Johnny Lee Wilson, Lawrence County, Mo., Sheriff's Dep't (Apr. 18, 1986).
104. Interrogation Transcript of Edgar Garrett, Goshen, Ind., Police Dep't (Jan. 27, 1995) (Case No. 20C01-9502-CF-003).
105. Interrogation Transcripts of Dante Parker, Leo Bruce, and Mark Nunez, Maricopa County, Ariz., Sheriffs Office (Sept. 12, 1991); see supra note 36 and accompanying text.
106. Interrogation Transcripts of George Abney, Flagstaff, Ariz., Police Dep't (Aug. 28-Sept 1, 1987).
107. Interrogation Transcript of Richard Bingham, Sitka, Alaska, Police Dep't (May 15, 1996).
108. See OFSHE & LEO, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, supra note 1, at 222-26.
109. Interrogation Transcript of Wilson, supra note 52.
110. See OFSHE & LEO, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, supra note 1.
111. See infra Part III.B.3.b.
112. Indiana v. Garrett, No. 20C01-9501-CF-003 (Ind. Cir. Ct., Goshen, Ind., Nov. 7, 1995).
113. Interrogation Transcripts of Parker et al., supra note 54. See Parloff, supra note 36; Kimball & Greenberg, supra note 36.
114. State of Arizona v. George Abney, No. 13314 (Coconino Cty. Sup. Ct., Flagstaff, Ariz., July 19, 1988).
115. Alaska v. Bingham, No. 9601712 (Alaska Super. Ct., June 20, 1997).
116. See OFSHE & LEO. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, supra note 1, at 207-20.
117. Interrogation is a time-sequenced process. As it progresses, a suspect's perceptions of his situation change due to the tactics through which interrogation is carried out Early in the process a suspect's perception of the consequences of each of the three possible choices open to him will be different than what it is later. At the start he may believe that both invoking his Miranda rights and maintaining his denial of responsibility are associated with arrest and trial. In the beginning, he may believe that only confession leads to certain punishment for something he did not do. Later, in reaction to the investigator's strategy, he will likely associate both invoking his Miranda rights and maintaining denial with arrest and the harshest possible punishment; he will associate confessing with minimizing his inevitable punishment. Under these circumstances, a person who can no longer tolerate the stress of interrogation will reason that it is better to escape it by complying with the investigator's demands and confessing rather than by remaining silent or invoking his Miranda rights.
118. See GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, supra note 5.
119. Id.
120. Id.
121. See Brown v. Mississippi, 297 U.S. 278 (1936); Ashcraft v. Tennessee, 327 U.S. 274 (1946).
122. For example, in Lynumn v. Illinois, 372 U.S. 528 (1963), Chicago Police officers threatened to arrest Lynumn - which, they told her, would lead to a cut-off of her welfare payments, the loss of her children, and a prison term - if she did not confess to selling marijuana. Lynumn confessed and was subsequently sentenced to 10-11 years. The Supreme Court unanimously ruled that police coerced her confession and reversed her conviction. In Leyra v. Denno, 347 U.S. 556 (1954), a police psychiatrist elicited a confession from Leyra after explicitly promising him that he would be let off easily if he admitted murdering his parents. As in Lynumn, the Supreme Court ruled that Leyra's confession was coerced and reversed his conviction. Id. at 537. While the use of explicit threats and promises may no longer be as common as in the 1950s and 1960s, interrogators currently employ more subtle and camouflaged threats and promises to elicit confessions of guilt The accident scenario technique, for example, is nothing more than a device for delivering veiled threats and promises: it communicates the expectation that the suspect will receive a lower level of punishment if he confesses (leniency), but that he will receive a significantly higher level of punishment if he does not confess (threat). See infra Part III.B.2.f.
123. See Kassin and McNall, Police Interrogations, supra note 6.
124. Id. at 248 ("Although the courts take promises and threats more seriously when they are made explicitly than when they are implicit in an interrogator's remarks, our data indicate that because people often process information 'between the lines'. . . these different means of communication are functionally equivalent in their impact").
125. Interrogation Transcript of Tom Sawyer, Clearwater, Fla., Police Dep't (Nov. 6-7, 1986) (Case No. 86-28504); Interrogation Transcript of Garrett, supra note 53.
126. Interrogation Transcript of Peter Reilly, Connecticut State Police Headquarters, Hartford, Conn. (Sept. 29, 1973).
127. Interrogation Transcript of Bradley Page, Oakland, Cal., Police Dep't (Dec. 10, 1984); Interrogation Transcript of Paul Ingram, Thurston County, Wash., Sheriffs Dep't (Nov. 28-29, 1988); see also Ofshe, Inadvertent Hypnosis, supra note 5.
128. Interrogation Transcript of Diane Colwell, San Diego, Cal., Police Dep't (Nov. 8, 1994) (Case No. 94-20678).
129. The illustration of the decision model begins here since the Miranda advisement often signals the beginning of the obviously accusatory portion of the interrogation process.
130. See Richard A. Leo, The Impact of Miranda Revisited, 86 J. CRIM. L. & CRIMINOLOGY 621 (1996) [hereinafter Leo, Miranda Revisited].
131. This sometimes occurs even during recorded interrogations.
132. See Harris v. New York, 401 U.S. 222, 224 (1971).
133. See Leo, From Coercion to Deception, supra note 14, at 43-44.
134. Interrogation Transcript of Tom Jordan, Placer County, Cal., Sheriffs Dep't 3 (Apr. 8, 1993).
135. Interrogation Transcript of Albert Gonsalves, Sacramento, Cal., Police Dep't 1 (Dec. 16, 1992).
136. Interrogation Transcript of Shane Schmitt, Sacramento, Cal., Police Dep't 1 (Aug. 27, 1992).
137. Interrogation Transcript of John Adams, Barrow, Alaska, Police Dep't 5 (Sept 3, 1993).
138. See supra note 40.
139. Interrogation Transcript of Page, supra note 76, Tape 3, at 4-5.
140. Interrogation Transcript of Kentrick McCoy, Sacramento, Cal., Police Dep't 14-15 (Sept 1, 1996).
141. See INBAU ET AL., supra note 20, at 77.
142. Interview by Richard Ofshe with Rick Geis, Detective, Seattle, Wash., Police Dep't 9 (Jan. 17, 1996).
143. Interrogation Transcript of Jeffrey Christian Crouch, Pasco County, Fla., Sheriffs Office 7 (Jan. 28, 1987) (Case No. 87-008093).
144. Interrogation Transcript of Robert Byars, San Diego, Cal., Police Dep't 84 (Dec. 21, 1993).
145. Interrogation Transcript of Michelle Duke, Kern County, Cal., Sheriff's Office 27 (Aug. 27, 1995) (Case No. 95-95-33322).
146. Interrogation Transcript of Elmer Lee Nance, San Diego, Cal., Police Dep't, Tape 2, at 29-30 (Sept 27, 1991).
147. Interrogation Transcript of Eric Jerrod, San Diego, Cal., Police Dep't 4 (Sept 24, 1995).
148. Interrogation Transcript of Nance, supra note 95, at 16-17.
149. Id. at 41-42.
150. Interrogation Transcript of Jason Albritton, San Diego, Cal., Police Dep't 148-49 (July 20, 1995) (Case No. CD114372, P66142).
151. Interrogation Transcript of Alan Adams, Sonoma County, Cal., Sheriff's Office 2 (July 4, 1991) (Case No. 910605-16).
152. Id. at 7.
153. The most recent observational study of interrogation in the America found that in 85% of the interrogations observed, investigators used the tactic of confronting suspects with the evidence of their guilt. In 43% of the interrogations, investigators attempted to undermine the suspect's confidence in his denial. In 30% of the interrogations, suspects were confronted with false evidence. See Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room, supra note 4, at 267.
154. INBAU ET AL., supra note 20, at xiii-xiv.
155. Interrogation Transcript of Adams, supra note 100, at 3-4.
156. Interview of Kenneth Register by Richard Ofshe at 15-16 (Aug. 24, 1992).
157. Id. at 17-18.
158. id. at 22-23.
159. Interrogation Transcript of Newell DePuy, Richmond, Cal., Police Dep't 39-40 (May 20, 1995).
160. Interrogation Transcript of Viktor Jarod, San Diego, Cal., Police Dep't 48-49 (Sept. 24, 1995).
161. Interrogation Transcript of Duke, supra note 94, at 18-19.
162. Interrogation Transcript of Calvin Shane Myers, Salt Lake City, Utah, Police Dep't 11-12 (Case No. 94-6578).
163. Eventually this man confessed to avoid a threatened penalty. At trial he was acquitted. See infra notes 263-265 and accompanying text 113. Interrogation Transcript of Eugene Livingston, Vallejo, Cal., Police Dep't, Solano County, Cal., Prosecutor's Office, and Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), FBI Office in Albany, Ga., 58 (Dec. 18, 1993).
164. Interrogation Transcript of Robert Junior Anderson, San Francisco, Cal., Police Dep't 23 (undated).
165. Interrogation Transcript of Garrett, supra note 53, at 274.
166. Interrogation Transcript of Lisa Peng, Orange County, Cal., Sheriff's Dep't 95 (Jan. 8, 1994) (translation from Chinese).
167. Interrogation Transcript of Childs, Solano County, Cal., Sheriff's Dep't 18-19 (Apr. 26, 1992).
168. Interrogation Transcript of Myers, supra note 111, at 9-10.
169. Interrogation Transcript of Martin Salazar, Boynton Beach, Fla., Police Dep't 24 (Feb. 17, 1996).
170. Interrogation Transcript of Nance, supra note 95, Tape 1, at 36-37.
171. The name of the man identified as the killer has been deleted because he has never been arrested for this homicide.
172. Interview of David Adams by Richard Ofshe. Broward County, Fla. 28-29 (Mar. 18, 1993).
173. Interrogation Transcript of Billy Wayne Smith, Kern County, Cal., Sheriff's Office, Tape 2, Side A, at 11-12 (Nov. 22, 1992).
174. Interrogation Transcript of Livingston, supra note 113, at 3-4.
175. See supra note 36 and accompanying text.
176. Interrogation Transcript of Bruce, supra note 54, Tape 2, at 34-35.
177. Id. Tape 3, at 12.
178. Interrogation Transcript of Nunez, supra note 54, Tape 4, at 18-19.
179. Interrogation Transcript of Sonja Stapleton, Los Angeles, Cal., Police Dep't 13 (Oct. 12, 1994).
180. Id. at 24.
181. Id. at 25.
182. Id. at 32.
183. Interrogation Transcript of Albritton, supra note 99, at 76.
184. Interrogation Transcript of DePuy, supra note 108, at 28.
185. Interrogation Transcript of Jerrod, supra note 96, at 18.
186. Interrogation Transcript of Crouch, supra note 92, at 6.
187. Interrogation Transcript of James Nimblett, San Diego, Cal., Police Dep't 14 (July 30, 1990).
188. Interrogation Transcript of Michael Johnson, Solano County, Cal., Sheriff's Dep't 45 (Apr. 26-27, 1992).
189. Interrogation Transcript of Robert Lindell, Anchorage, Alaska, Police Dep't 11-12 (May 6, 1994).
190. The supposed bite wound was actually a knife wound. The suspect was shocked by these test results. See id.
191. Interrogation Transcript of Abney, supra note 55, Interview 3, Video 2, at 45.
192. Interrogation Transcript of Jamie Givens, Tucson, Ariz., Police Dep't 12 (Nov. 16, 1995).
193. Interrogation Transcript of Peng, supra note 116, at 73.
194. Interrogation Transcript of Stephen Lamont Williams, San Mateo County, Cal., Sheriff's Detective Bureau Office 5-6 (July 6, 1992).
195. Id. at 22-23.
196. Id. at 53.
197. Interrogation Transcript of Robert Smith, Richmond, Cal., Police Dep't 17 (Mar. 26, 1991).
198. Interview of Jerry Lee Louis by Toby Hockett in Arcadia, Fla. (July 31, 1992); see also Interview of Jessie Misskelley by Richard Ofshe in West Memphis, Ark. (Dec. 15, 1993).
199. Interrogation Transcript of Nimblett, supra note 137, at 7.
200. Interrogation Transcript of McCoy, supra note 89, at 114-15.
201. Interrogation Transcript of Smith, supra note 147, at 11-12.
202. Id. at 15-17.
203. Id. at 32.
204. Id. at 41.
205. See DAVID THORESON LYKKEN, A TREMOR IN THE BLOOD: USES AND ABUSES OF THE LIE DETECTOR (1981).
206. Interrogation Transcript of Nance, supra note 95, at 4-5.
207. Interrogation Transcript of Susan Johnson, Anchorage, Alaska, Police Dep't 13 (Sept. 30, 1993).
208. Interrogation Transcript of Susan Johnson, Anchorage, Alaska, Police Dep't 4-5 (Sept. 28, 1993).
209. Interrogation Transcript of Gonsalves, supra note 84, at 53-55.
210. Interrogation Transcript of Adams, supra note 86, at 17.
211. Interrogation Transcript of Reilly, supra note 75, at 37-38.
212. Interrogation Transcript of Wright, Sacramento, CaL., Sheriff's Dep't 1-2 (Aug. 20, 1993).
213. Interrogation Transcript of Sawyer, supra note 74, at 167.
214. See Interview with Louis, supra note 148.
215. Interview of Martin Salazar by Richard Ofshe 36 (May 16, 1996).
216. Interrogation Transcript of Page, supra note 76, Tape 4, at 25.
217. See Moston et al., supra note 5 (discussing strength of evidence on three factors that predict the decision to confess).
218. Interrogation Transcript of Schmitt, supra note 85, at 142.
219. Interrogation Transcript of Anderson, supra note 114, at 34.
220. Interrogation Transcript of Salazar, supra note 119, at 27.
221. Interview of Louis, supra note 148.
222. Id. at 49.
223. See FRANZ KAFKA, THE METAMORPHOSIS, IN THE PENAL COLONY, AND OTHER STORIES (Willa Muir & Edwin Muir trans., Schocken Books 1995) (1919).
224. Interrogation Transcript of Bruce, supra note 54, Tape 1, at 11-12.
225. Interview of Salazar, supra note 165, at 90-91.
226. Interrogation Transcript of Bruce, supra note 54, Tape 2, at 40.
227. Interview of Louis, supra note 145, at 16-17.
228. Interrogation Transcript of Bruce, supra note 54, at 29.
229. Interrogation Transcript of Nunez, supra note 54, Tape 3, at 10.
230. Id. Tape 4, at 8.
231. Interrogation Transcript of Wright, supra note 162, at 33.
232. This man stood trial for the triple murder because of his coerced confession, only to be acquitted by a jury who watched his interrogation and confession on videotape. The jury considered the videotape in light of the fact that the state had no evidence except that he admitted participation in a crime he could not describe, with others whose identities he was unable to supply, even when complying with the interrogator's demands would save his life. See infra text accompanying notes 263-65.
233. Interrogation Transcript of Livingston, supra note 113, at 48.
234. Id. at 126.
235. Id. at 70.
236. Interrogation Transcript of Trena Richardson, Flagstaff, Ariz., Police Dep't 77 (Apr. 20, 1994).
237. Interrogation Transcript of Page, supra note 76, Tape 4, at 4-5.
238. Interview of Louis, supra note 148, at 26.
239. Interview of Adams, supra note 122, at 52.
240. Interrogation Transcript of Sawyer, supra note 74, at 291.
241. In the illustrations below, the interrogators' evidence ploys are entirely fabricated in examples taken from cases in which the suspect is innocent, and may or may not be fabricated in cases in which the suspect committed the crime. The likely guilt or innocence of suspects has not been identified in all of the case illustrations. It should therefore be kept in mind that the interrogator's repeated assertions that the suspect's position is hopeless does not mean that his statements about the case evidence are accurate. In the illustrations below, this is rarely the case. A presumption that what the interrogator says is true and that the suspect is guilty will cause the reader to misperceive the situation of the person who receives the interrogator's intended persuasive communication.
242. Interrogation Transcript of Jarod, supra note 109, at 54.
243. A recent observational study found that 88% of suspects are exposed to some sort of appeals to self interest. See Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room, supra note 4, at 267.
244. See infra text accompanying notes 96-130.
245. Interrogation Transcript of Domingo Villaneuva, Redwood City, Cal., Police Dep't 15 (Nov. 11, 1996).
246. See INBAU ET AL., supra note 20, at 196-97.
247. Interrogation Transcript of Villanueva, supra note 195, at 15.
248. Id. at 17.
249. Id. at 21.
250. Id. at 16.
251. The most recent observational study of interrogation found that 23% of suspects interrogated made incriminating statements and an additional 42% confessed in run-of-the-mill interrogations. Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room, supra note 4, at 280.
252. A recent study of interrogation in the United States observed that in 37% of cases, interrogators appealed to the importance of cooperating as part of their strategy for eliciting an admission. Interrogators appealed to the suspect's conscience 23% of the time, and used praise or flattery in 30% of the cases. Id. at 267.
253. Interrogation Transcript of Abney, supra note 55, Interview 3, Video 3, at 18.
254. Interrogation Transcript of DePuy, supra note 108, at 27.
255. Interrogation Transcript of Andrew Childs, supra note 117, at 6.
256. Interrogation Transcript of Peter Reilly, supra note 75, at 99.
257. Interrogation Transcript of John Doe, Costa Mesa, Cal., Police Dep't 23-54 (Sept 1, 1995). The defendant's actual name is concealed because of his age. Id. at 54.
258. Interrogation Transcript of Albritton, supra note 99, at 76-77.
259. Interrogation Transcript of Susan Johnson, Anchorage, Alaska, Police Dep't 32 (Nov. 29, 1993).
260. Interrogation Transcript of James Thomas, Clark County, Wash., Sheriff's Office 61 (Dec. 20, 1993).
261. Interrogation Transcript of Martin Salazar, Boynton Beach, Fla., Police Dep't 49-50 (Feb. 23, 1996).
262. Interrogation Transcript of Wright, supra note 162, at 10.
263. Interrogation Transcript of Abney, supra note 55, Interview 3, at 14.
264. Interrogation Transcript of Adams, supra note 100, at 1.
265. Interrogation Transcript of Nance, supra note 95, Tape 2, at 4-5.
266. Interrogation Transcript of Schmitt, supra note 85, at 132.
267. Interrogation Transcript of Richardson, supra note 186, at 124.
268. Interrogation Transcript of Johnson, supra note 138, at 24.
269. Interrogation Transcript of Page, supra note 76, Tape 4, at 3-4.
270. Interrogation Transcript of Robert Fitzsimmons, Sacramento, Cal., Police Dep't 29 (July 10, 1996).
271. Id. at 31.
272. Id. at 36.
273. Id. at 37.
274. Id. at 42.
275. Id. at 52.
276. Id.
277. Id. at 73.
278. Interrogation Transcript of Anderson, supra note 114, at 3.
279. Interrogation Transcript of Reilly, supra note 75, at 283.
280. Interrogation Transcript of Richardson, supra note 186, at 126.
281. Interrogation Transcript of Nimblett, supra note 137, at 32.
282. Interrogation Transcript of Bernard Knight, East Palo Alto, Cal., District Attorneys' Investigators 26-27 (Sept. 24, 1992) (Case No. E92-11302).
283. Interrogation Transcript of Russell Stone, Salt Lake City, Utah, Police Dep't 46 (Dec. 5, 1995).
284. Id. at 50.
285. Interrogation Transcript of Livingston, supra note 113, at 79-80.
286. Interrogation Transcript of Nunez, supra note 54, Tape 3, at 12-13.
287. Interrogation Transcript of Vince Yarborough, Vallejo, Cal., Police Dep't 20 (1994) (Case No. 94-02881).
288. Interrogation Transcript of Danielle Barchers, San Diego, Cal., Police Dep't 493 (Sept. 24, 1995).
289. Interrogation Transcript of Reilly, supra note 75, at 191.
290. Id. at 250-51.
291. Interrogation Transcript of Abney, supra note 55, Interview 3, at 16.
292. Id. at 19.
293. Interrogation Transcript of Beverly Huckstep, Palmer, Alaska, Police Dep't 5 (Dec. 21, 1992).
294. See Kassin & McNall, Police Interrogations, supra note 6; Nisbett & Wilson, supra note 39; Harris & Monaco, supra note 39.
295. Interrogation Transcript of Livingston, supra note 113, at 36-38.
296. Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1.
297. Interrogation Transcript of Shandy Huggins, Pompano Beach, Fla., Police Dep't 3 (Feb. 10, 1995).
298. Id. at 14.
299. Interrogation Transcript of Parker, supra note 54, Tape 2, at 13-14.
300. Id. Tape 3, at 3.
301. Interrogation Transcript of Leo Burgos, Compton, Cal., Police Dep't 45 (Apr. 4, 1996).
302. Id. at 46.
303. Id. at 48.
304. Id. at 50.
305. Id. at 51.
306. Interrogation Transcript of Parker, supra note 54, Tape 7, at 9-10.
307. Interview of Adams, supra note 122, at 35-38.
308. Interview of Register, supra note 105, at 29-30.
309. Interrogation Transcript of Page, supra note 76, Tape 3, at 3, 5.
310. Interrogation Transcript of Richardson, supra note 186, at 24.
311. Id. at 78-79.
312. Id. at 91-92.
313. This is a reference to an earlier conversation in which the interrogators told the suspect that cooperating was his "light at the end of the tunnel." Interrogation Transcript of Livingston, supra note 113.
314. Id.
315. Even though his so-called confession was obviously both involuntary and unreliable, it was nevertheless allowed into evidence at trial. The jury acquitted him of the triple murder charges.
316. In most of the illustrations below, the interrogators' references to incriminating evidence are erroneous and/or false.
317. A recent observational study found that investigators attempted to minimize the seriousness of the crime in 22% of their interrogations. See Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room, supra note 4, at 267.
318. Interrogation Transcript of Doe, supra note 207, at 32.
319. Interrogation Transcript of Crouch, supra note 92, at 27-28.
320. Interrogation Transcript of Nance, supra note 95, Tape 3, at 3.
321. Interrogation Transcript of Schmitt, supra note 85, at 37.
322. Interrogation Transcript of Johnson, supra note 157, at 68.
323. Interrogation Transcript of Anderson, supra note 114, at 21.
324. Interrogation Transcript of Knight, supra note 232, at 18.
325. Interrogation Transcript of Wright, supra note 162, at 35.
326. Interrogation Transcript of Salazar, supra note 119, at 50-51.
327. Interrogation Transcript of Nimblett, supra note 137, at 36.
328. Id.
329. Id. at 46.
330. The police confirmed their discussion of sentencing options with the suspect during this unrecorded interrogation.
331. Interview with John Chew, Toms River, NJ. 24, 27-29 (Aug. 9, 1994).
332. Interrogation Transcript of Page, supra note 76, Tape 4, at 27.
333. See INBAU ET AL., supra note 20.
334. Id. at 104.
335. See Kassin & McNall, Police Interrogations, supra note 6.
336. See INBAU ET AL., supra note 20, at 327-47.
337. Id. at 333.
338. Interrogation Transcript of Knight, supra note 232, at 24-25.
339. Id. at 25.
340. Interrogation Transcript of Reilly, supra note 75, at 121-22.
341. Interrogation Transcript of Peng, supra note 116, at 81-82.
342. Interrogation Transcript of Yarborough, supra note 237, at 9.
343. Interrogation Transcript of Wright, supra note 162, at 41.
344. Id. at 42-43.
345. Id. at 44.
346. The suspect said that he had seen the gun in the hand of one of his acquaintances and had physically tried to stop the robbery shortly before the other man shot the victim. The suspect's account was confirmed by the statement of a surviving victim of the crime.
347. Interrogation Transcript of Wright, supra note 162, at 76.
348. Martin Salazar's innocence was established shortly before trial. A fingerprint in the victim's blood had been discovered on the socket end of the extension cord used to strangle her. The print was neither the victim's nor Martin Salazar's. After the defense discovered that the prosecution had hidden this exculpatory evidence, the prosecution dropped all charges against Salazar. After charges were dismissed, the detective who elicited the coerced confession refused to accept the state attorney's dismissal. He located a forensic expert who would report that Salazar's fingerprints could not be excluded. The state re-indicted Salazar. At this time, Salazar is awaiting trial.
349. Interrogation Transcript of Salazar, supra note 211, at 41-42.
350. Id. 3143-44.
351. Although the detective denied explicitly threatening the suspect with the death penalty, he described how he formatted a crime scenario that could not possible have been true, educated the suspect to the various levels of homicide and their components, explained the penalties for each, and pointed out that the suspect was the only person who was in the room and therefore the only one who could really say what happened. The detective had been trained to use the Inbau, Reid, and Buckley method.
352. Interrogation Transcript of Salazar, supra note 211, at 68-70.
353. The detectives had to have known that the death threat reports were true since they watched the specialist do his work via hidden video recording and monitoring systems. The tape of the specialist's session with the suspect has never been given to the defense.
354. Interrogation Transcript of Salazar, supra note 211, at 50-51.
355. Interview of Salazar, supra note 165, at 70-74.
356. Interview of Louis, supra note 171, at 84.
357. Id. at 95.
358. Interview of Kris Howe by Richard Ofshe in Seattle, Wash. 23 (Oct 28, 1994).
359. Interview of Register, supra note 105, at 45.
360. Interview of Louis, supra note 171, at 81-82.
361. See INBAU ET AL., supra note 20, at 47, 143.
362. See Darryl J. Bern, Self-Perception Theory, 6 ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 1 (1972).
363. Interrogation Transcript of Reilly, supra note 75, at 129.
364. The investigator told him that someone who had once been an alcoholic might be subject to "dry blackouts" - equivalents to a blackout caused by alcohol but supposedly affecting a person who has no alcohol in his system.
365. Interrogation Transcript of Sawyer, supra note 74, at 204.
366. Id. at 217.
367. Second signed statement of Richard Lapointe, Hartford, Conn., Police Dep't (Mar. 8, 1987); see also Ofshe, supra note 36.
368. Interrogation Transcript of Sawyer, supra note 74, at 206-07, 211.
369. See OFSHE & LEO, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, supra note 1, at 218.
370. Interrogation Transcript of Page, supra note 76, Tape 2, at 2-4.
371. Interrogation Transcript of Reilly, supra note 75, at 199.
372. See OFSHE & LEO, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, supra note 1.
373. Interrogation Transcript of Garrett, supra note 53, at 25.
374. Id. at 50.
375. Id. at 44.
376. Garrett had not consumed any alcohol for more than 24 hours prior to his daughter's disappearance.
377. Id. at 319.
378. Id. at 327.
379. Id.
380. Id. at 332-33.
381. Id. at 344-45.
382. Id.
383. Id. at 355.
384. Id. at 356.
385. See supra text accompanying note 60.
386. As David Simon points out, "The fraud that claims it is somehow in a suspect's interest to talk with police will forever be the catalyst in any criminal interrogation. It is a fiction propped up against the greater weight of logic itself." SIMON, supra note 22, at 201. See also Richard A. Leo, Miranda's Revenge: Police Interrogation as a Confidence Game, 30 LAW & SOC'Y REV. 259-88 (1996).
387. According to current interpretations of the Fourteenth Amendment due process clause, a confession is inadmissible if police interrogation methods overbear the suspect's will and thus cause him to make an involuntary confession. Rogers v. Richmond, 365 U.S. 534, 544 (1961). Under this standard, the voluntariness (and hence admissibility) of a confession is evaluated case-by-case based on the totality of the circumstances (i.e., the facts of the case, the suspect's personality characteristics, the specific police interrogation methods, etc.). Davis v. North Carolina, 384 U.S. 737, 741-42 (1966). The Fourteenth Amendment due process clause additionally permits courts to exclude as "involuntary" confessions obtained by fundamentally unfair police methods, regardless of the confession's voluntariness. See Rogers v. Richmond, 365 U.S. 534 (1961); see also Yale Kamisar, What is an Involuntary Confession? Some Comments on Inbau and Reid's CRIMINAL INTERROGATIONS AND CONFESSIONS, 17 RUTGERS L. REV. 728-59 (1963).
388. According to the Sixth Amendment, a confession may be excluded from evidence if after a suspect has been indicted he is questioned outside the presence of a lawyer. Massiah v. United States, 377 U.S. 201 (1964).
389. The Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination permits judges to exclude confessions from evidence if police did not properly recite the Miranda warnings or if they did not obtain a knowing and voluntary waiver. Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966).
390. See White, supra note 5.
391. See generally Richard A. Leo, Miranda and the Problem of False Confessions, in RICHARD A. LEO & GEORGE C. THOMAS III, THE MIRANDA DEBATE: LAW, JUSTICE AND POLICING (forthcoming 1998).
392. See Cassell & Hayman, supra note 26; Leo, Inside the Interrogation Room, supra note 4.
393. The Supreme Court has recently stated that assessing a confession's lack of reliability "is a matter to be governed by the evidentiary law of the forum . . . and not by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment." Colorado v. Connelly, 479 U.S. 157, 167 (1986). See generally White, supra note 5.
394. See GUDJONSSON, supra note 5; OFSHE & LEO, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, supra note 1; Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1.
395. See GUDJONSSON, supra note 5; OFSHE & LEO, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, supra note 1; Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1.
396. For a discussion of the various types and logic of police-induced false confession, see supra Parts II.F.1-3.
397. See id.
398. See supra Part III.B.3.
399. Stephan v. State, 711 P.2d 1156, 1159 n.6 (Alaska 1985) (noting that "[w]hile [this] observation may be an overstatement in absolute terms, it is probably generally valid") (citing Harris v. State, 678 P.2d 397 (Alaska App. 1984)).
400. See Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1.
401. Although the constitutional law of criminal procedure currently offers no substantive safeguards against the use of false confession evidence at trial, the Fourteenth Amendment due process clause could be interpreted to forbid the admission of unreliable confession evidence independent of the interrogation procedures used to elicit confessions. For more general suggestions about possible constitutional safeguards against the admission of unreliable confession evidence, see White, supra note 5.
402. See Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1.
403. When judges do in fact suppress false confession statements, prosecutors almost always dismiss all charges against the innocent suspect because they lack any other evidence linking him to the crime. See Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1.
404. See State v. Scales, 518 N.W.2d 587, 592 (Minn. 1994); Stephan v. State, 711 P.2d 1156 (Alaska 1985); Mallott v. State, 608 P.2d 737, 743 n.5 (Alaska 1980).
405. See YALE KAMISAR, POLICE INTERROGATION AND CONFESSIONS: ESSAYS IN LAW AND POLICY (1980); Heather S. Berger, Let's Go to the Videotape: A Proposal to Legislate Videotaping of Confessions, 3 ALB. L.J. SCI. & TECH. 165; Paul G. Cassell, Miranda's Social Costs: An Empirical Reassessment, 90 NW. U. L. REV. 387 (1996); Leo, Miranda Revisited, supra note 79; White, supra note 5; Glanville Williams, The Authentication of Statements to the Police, 1979 CRIM. L. REV. 6; Ingrid Kane, Note, No More Secrets: Proposed Minnesota State Due Process Requirement That Law Enforcement Officers Electronically Record Custodial Interrogation and Confessions, 77 MINN. L. REV. 983 (1993); Geller, Police Videotaping supra note 11.
406. See YALE KAMISAR, POLICE INTERROGATION AND CONFESSIONS: ESSAYS IN LAW AND POLICY (1980); Heather S. Berger, Let's Go to the Videotape: A Proposal to Legislate Videotaping of Confessions, 3 ALB. L.J. SCI. & TECH. 165; Paul G. Cassell, Miranda's Social Costs: An Empirical Reassessment, 90 NW. U. L. REV. 387 (1996); Leo, Miranda Revisited, supra note 79; White, supra note 5; Glanville Williams, The Authentication of Statements to the Police, 1979 CRIM. L. REV. 6; Ingrid Kane, Note, No More Secrets: Proposed Minnesota State Due Process Requirement That Law Enforcement Officers Electronically Record Custodial Interrogation and Confessions, 77 MINN. L. REV. 983 (1993); Geller, Police Videotaping supra note 11.
407. See YALE KAMISAR, POLICE INTERROGATION AND CONFESSIONS: ESSAYS IN LAW AND POLICY (1980); Heather S. Berger, Let's Go to the Videotape: A Proposal to Legislate Videotaping of Confessions, 3 ALB. L.J. SCI. & TECH. 165; Paul G. Cassell, Miranda's Social Costs: An Empirical Reassessment, 90 NW. U. L. REV. 387 (1996); Leo, Miranda Revisited, supra note 79; White, supra note 5; Glanville Williams, The Authentication of Statements to the Police, 1979 CRIM. L. REV. 6; Ingrid Kane, Note, No More Secrets: Proposed Minnesota State Due Process Requirement That Law Enforcement Officers Electronically Record Custodial Interrogation and Confessions, 77 MINN. L. REV. 983 (1993); Geller, Police Videotaping supra note 11.
408. See YALE KAMISAR, POLICE INTERROGATION AND CONFESSIONS: ESSAYS IN LAW AND POLICY (1980); Heather S. Berger, Let's Go to the Videotape: A Proposal to Legislate Videotaping of Confessions, 3 ALB. L.J. SCI. & TECH. 165; Paul G. Cassell, Miranda's Social Costs: An Empirical Reassessment, 90 NW. U. L. REV. 387 (1996); Leo, Miranda Revisited, supra note 79; White, supra note 5; Glanville Williams, The Authentication of Statements to the Police, 1979 CRIM. L. REV. 6; Ingrid Kane, Note, No More Secrets: Proposed Minnesota State Due Process Requirement That Law Enforcement Officers Electronically Record Custodial Interrogation and Confessions, 77 MINN. L. REV. 983 (1993); Geller, Police Videotaping supra note 11.
409. See YALE KAMISAR, POLICE INTERROGATION AND CONFESSIONS: ESSAYS IN LAW AND POLICY (1980); Heather S. Berger, Let's Go to the Videotape: A Proposal to Legislate Videotaping of Confessions, 3 ALB. L.J. SCI. & TECH. 165; Paul G. Cassell, Miranda's Social Costs: An Empirical Reassessment, 90 NW. U. L. REV. 387 (1996); Leo, Miranda Revisited, supra note 79; White, supra note 5; Glanville Williams, The Authentication of Statements to the Police, 1979 CRIM. L. REV. 6; Ingrid Kane, Note, No More Secrets: Proposed Minnesota State Due Process Requirement That Law Enforcement Officers Electronically Record Custodial Interrogation and Confessions, 77 MINN. L. REV. 983 (1993); Geller, Police Videotaping supra note 11.
410. See YALE KAMISAR, POLICE INTERROGATION AND CONFESSIONS: ESSAYS IN LAW AND POLICY (1980); Heather S. Berger, Let's Go to the Videotape: A Proposal to Legislate Videotaping of Confessions, 3 ALB. L.J. SCI. & TECH. 165; Paul G. Cassell, Miranda's Social Costs: An Empirical Reassessment, 90 NW. U. L. REV. 387 (1996); Leo, Miranda Revisited, supra note 79; White, supra note 5; Glanville Williams, The Authentication of Statements to the Police, 1979 CRIM. L. REV. 6; Ingrid Kane, Note, No More Secrets: Proposed Minnesota State Due Process Requirement That Law Enforcement Officers Electronically Record Custodial Interrogation and Confessions, 77 MINN. L. REV. 983 (1993); Geller, Police Videotaping supra note 11.
411. See Leo, Miranda Revisited, supra note 79; Geller, Police Videotaping, supra note 11.
412. See Leo, From Coercion to Deception, supra note 14.
413. See Kassin & McNall, Police Interrogations, supra note 6.
414. See id.
415. Interrogators are trained to make no notes while extracting a confession statement See INBAU ET AL., supra note 20, at 173. They are also advised to engage in activities that will contaminate innocent suspects' knowledge of crime facts. See id. at 171, 189.
416. Kyles v. Whitley, 514 U.S. 419, 437-38 (1995). The court was addressing a prosecutor's "responsibility for failing to disclose favorable evidence rising to a material level of importance . . . ." Id. The state's defense was that the prosecutor did not withhold - he did not know, because the police did not tell him. The court noted that "no one doubts that police investigators sometimes fail to inform a prosecutor of all they know." Id. at 438 (emphasis added).
417. See GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, supra note 5; HUFF ET AL., supra note 2; WRIGHTSMAN & KASSIN, supra note 5; YANT, supra note 2; Bedau & Radelet, supra note 2; Kassin, supra note 3; Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1; Ofshe, supra note 36; Radelet et al., supra note 2.
418. See GUDJONSSON, PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERROGATIONS, supra note 5; HUFF ET AL., supra note 2; WRIGHTSMAN & KASSIN, supra note 5; YANT, supra note 2; Bedau & Radelet, supra note 2; Kassin, supra note 3; Leo & Ofshe, Consequences, supra note 1; Ofshe, supra note 36; Radelet et al., supra note 2.