Are things falling apart? The military and the crisis of democratisation in Nigeria

Journal of Modern African Studies

Volumn 34, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 193-225

  Ihonvbere, Julius O ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0001071478     PISSN: 0022278X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0022278x00055294     Document Type: Article

References (145)

1. See 'Tragedy: Abacha sweeps off democracy, N40 billion down the drain', in TEMPO (Lagos), Special Edition, November 1993.
2. See Toyin Falola and Julius O. Ihonvbere, The Rise and Fall of Nigeria's Second Republic, 1979-84 (London, 1985); Julius O. Ihonvbere, 'Instability and Military Intervention in Politics in the Periphery', in A. O. Sanda and Olusola Ojo (eds.), The Impact of Military Rule on Nigerian Administration (Ile-Ife, 1987); and Julius O. Ihonvbere and Timothy M. Shaw, Towards a Political Economy of Nigeria: petroleum and politics at the semi-periphery (Aldershot, 1988).
3. See Toyin Falola and Julius O. Ihonvbere, The Rise and Fall of Nigeria's Second Republic, 1979-84 (London, 1985); Julius O. Ihonvbere, 'Instability and Military Intervention in Politics in the Periphery', in A. O. Sanda and Olusola Ojo (eds.), The Impact of Military Rule on Nigerian Administration (Ile-Ife, 1987); and Julius O. Ihonvbere and Timothy M. Shaw, Towards a Political Economy of Nigeria: petroleum and politics at the semi-periphery (Aldershot, 1988).
4. See Toyin Falola and Julius O. Ihonvbere, The Rise and Fall of Nigeria's Second Republic, 1979-84 (London, 1985); Julius O. Ihonvbere, 'Instability and Military Intervention in Politics in the Periphery', in A. O. Sanda and Olusola Ojo (eds.), The Impact of Military Rule on Nigerian Administration (Ile-Ife, 1987); and Julius O. Ihonvbere and Timothy M. Shaw, Towards a Political Economy of Nigeria: petroleum and politics at the semi-periphery (Aldershot, 1988).
5. The Nigerian military has never been able to demonstrate that it is more efficient, less corrupt, and better disciplined than other interest groups in the country. According to Olawale R. Olarewaju, TELL (Lagos), 14 February 1994, this has led some to reach the conclusion that 'if there is any society where destruction in all aspects of life is at its peak, it is the Nigerian society under the military'. For a detailed analysis, see 'How the Military Wrecked Nigeria', ibid. 24 January 1994.
6. The Nigerian military has never been able to demonstrate that it is more efficient, less corrupt, and better disciplined than other interest groups in the country. According to Olawale R. Olarewaju, TELL (Lagos), 14 February 1994, this has led some to reach the conclusion that 'if there is any society where destruction in all aspects of life is at its peak, it is the Nigerian society under the military'. For a detailed analysis, see 'How the Military Wrecked Nigeria', ibid. 24 January 1994.
7. Gani Fawehinmi, statement at the launching of his book, The June 12 Crisis (Lagos, 1993), on 3 November 1993.
8. Personal letter to General Sani Abacha by Bolaji Akinyemi, quoted in Godwin Agboroko, 'Change of Guard', in Newswatch (Lagos), 29 November 1993.
9. Following the controversy generated by contacts with Abacha's emissaries, the Campaign for Democracy (CD) claimed it could not have openly opposed the coup before it was announced because that would have meant 'leaking' an otherwise secret plan to the public. It called for comprehensive sanctions against the Abacha régime by the international community, restated its commitment to a sovereign national conference' on the terms of the Nigerian people', and called on the national and state assemblies, state governors and other elected functionaries not to surrender the people's mandate to the military impostors'. Campaign for Democracy, 'CD Rejects the Latest Military Coup', Press Statement, CD secretariat, Lagos, 19 November 1993.
10. For a discussion of the structural roots of instability and other factors which have encouraged military coups in Nigeria, see Okwudiba Nnoli (ed.), Path to Nigerian Development (Dakar, 1981); Claude Ake (ed.), Political Economy of Nigeria (London, 1985); Eme Ekekwe, Class and State in Nigeria (Ibadan, 1986); and Julius O. Ihonvbere, Nigeria: the politics of adjustment and democracy (New Brunswick, NJ, 1994).
11. For a discussion of the structural roots of instability and other factors which have encouraged military coups in Nigeria, see Okwudiba Nnoli (ed.), Path to Nigerian Development (Dakar, 1981); Claude Ake (ed.), Political Economy of Nigeria (London, 1985); Eme Ekekwe, Class and State in Nigeria (Ibadan, 1986); and Julius O. Ihonvbere, Nigeria: the politics of adjustment and democracy (New Brunswick, NJ, 1994).
12. For a discussion of the structural roots of instability and other factors which have encouraged military coups in Nigeria, see Okwudiba Nnoli (ed.), Path to Nigerian Development (Dakar, 1981); Claude Ake (ed.), Political Economy of Nigeria (London, 1985); Eme Ekekwe, Class and State in Nigeria (Ibadan, 1986); and Julius O. Ihonvbere, Nigeria: the politics of adjustment and democracy (New Brunswick, NJ, 1994).
13. For a discussion of the structural roots of instability and other factors which have encouraged military coups in Nigeria, see Okwudiba Nnoli (ed.), Path to Nigerian Development (Dakar, 1981); Claude Ake (ed.), Political Economy of Nigeria (London, 1985); Eme Ekekwe, Class and State in Nigeria (Ibadan, 1986); and Julius O. Ihonvbere, Nigeria: the politics of adjustment and democracy (New Brunswick, NJ, 1994).
14. See Richard Joseph, 'Class, State and Prebendal Politics in Nigeria', in Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics (London), 21, 3, November 1983, pp. 21-38, and Tom Forrest, 'The Political Economy of Civil Rule and the Economic Crisis in Nigeria, 1979-84', in Review of African Political Economy (Sheffield), 35, May 1986, pp. 4-26.
15. See Richard Joseph, 'Class, State and Prebendal Politics in Nigeria', in Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics (London), 21, 3, November 1983, pp. 21-38, and Tom Forrest, 'The Political Economy of Civil Rule and the Economic Crisis in Nigeria, 1979-84', in Review of African Political Economy (Sheffield), 35, May 1986, pp. 4-26.
16. See Adebayo Olukoshi (ed.), The Politics of Structural Adjustment in Nigeria (London, 1993), and Ihonvbere, Nigeria (1994).
17. See Adebayo Olukoshi (ed.), The Politics of Structural Adjustment in Nigeria (London, 1993), and Ihonvbere, Nigeria (1994).
18. Friday N. Ndubuisi, 'Wreckage of a Nation', in National Concord (Lagos), 9 December 1993. See also, Keith B. Richburg, 'Future Nigerian Government May Find Empty Treasury', in The Washington Post, 31 December 1991.
19. Friday N. Ndubuisi, 'Wreckage of a Nation', in National Concord (Lagos), 9 December 1993. See also, Keith B. Richburg, 'Future Nigerian Government May Find Empty Treasury', in The Washington Post, 31 December 1991.
20. See Yusuf Bangura, 'The Crisis of Underdevelopment and the Transition to Civil Rule: conceptualizing the question of democracy in Nigeria', in Review of African Political Economy, 37, 1986, pp. 24-37, and Julius O. Ihonvbere, 'Structural Adjustment and Nigeria's Democratic Transition', in Trans Africa Forum (Washington, DC), 8, 3, Fall 1991, pp. 61-83.
21. See Yusuf Bangura, 'The Crisis of Underdevelopment and the Transition to Civil Rule: conceptualizing the question of democracy in Nigeria', in Review of African Political Economy, 37, 1986, pp. 24-37, and Julius O. Ihonvbere, 'Structural Adjustment and Nigeria's Democratic Transition', in Trans Africa Forum (Washington, DC), 8, 3, Fall 1991, pp. 61-83.
22. Salisu Ahmed-Baba, 'The Plain Truth', in National Concord, 9 December 1993.
23. See Aaron T. Gana, 'The Limits of Political Engineering: a critique of the transition programme', 12th Convocation Lecture, University of Jos, 1993; Pita Ogaba Agbese, 'The Impending Demise of Nigeria's Forthcoming Third Republic', in Africa Today (Denver), 37, 3, 1990, pp. 23-44; and Ihonvbere, Nigeria (1994).
24. See Aaron T. Gana, 'The Limits of Political Engineering: a critique of the transition programme', 12th Convocation Lecture, University of Jos, 1993; Pita Ogaba Agbese, 'The Impending Demise of Nigeria's Forthcoming Third Republic', in Africa Today (Denver), 37, 3, 1990, pp. 23-44; and Ihonvbere, Nigeria (1994).
25. See Aaron T. Gana, 'The Limits of Political Engineering: a critique of the transition programme', 12th Convocation Lecture, University of Jos, 1993; Pita Ogaba Agbese, 'The Impending Demise of Nigeria's Forthcoming Third Republic', in Africa Today (Denver), 37, 3, 1990, pp. 23-44; and Ihonvbere, Nigeria (1994).
26. Femi Falana, 'The Struggle Has Just Started', in TELL, 13 September 1993.
27. See 'Nigeria: transition without end', in Liberty: quarterly journal of the Civil Liberties Organization (Lagos), 4, 1, January-April 1993, pp. 3-7; Abiodun Adeniyi, 'A Nation on Hold', in The Guardian on Sunday (Lagos), 20 June 1993; and Emeka Pat Okolo, 'Political Ajasco Nigeriana', in ibid. 4 July 1993. Ajasco is a type of dance characterised by unsteady and unpredictable movements of the body.
28. See 'Nigeria: transition without end', in Liberty: quarterly journal of the Civil Liberties Organization (Lagos), 4, 1, January-April 1993, pp. 3-7; Abiodun Adeniyi, 'A Nation on Hold', in The Guardian on Sunday (Lagos), 20 June 1993; and Emeka Pat Okolo, 'Political Ajasco Nigeriana', in ibid. 4 July 1993. Ajasco is a type of dance characterised by unsteady and unpredictable movements of the body.
29. See 'Nigeria: transition without end', in Liberty: quarterly journal of the Civil Liberties Organization (Lagos), 4, 1, January-April 1993, pp. 3-7; Abiodun Adeniyi, 'A Nation on Hold', in The Guardian on Sunday (Lagos), 20 June 1993; and Emeka Pat Okolo, 'Political Ajasco Nigeriana', in ibid. 4 July 1993. Ajasco is a type of dance characterised by unsteady and unpredictable movements of the body.
30. See Yinka Oduwole, 'Babangida Rules out Escalation of Political Crisis', in The Guardian (Lagos), 21 July 1993.
31. Paul Adams, 'Nigeria: Babangida's boondoggle', in Africa Report (New York), July-August 1993, p. 26.
32. Femi Falana, 'The Struggle Has Just Started', in TELL, 13 September 1993.
33. Ibid.
34. Gbenga Tanimowo, 'Betraying the People', in The Guardian (Lagos), 9 August 1993.
35. See Fred Gusha, 'Uneasy Lies the Head', in Point (Port Harcourt), 12 July 1993. Sir John Wheeler, MP, a UK member of the International Observer Team, stated categorically that no part of the exercise was 'interfered with'.
36. 'A Vote for NEC', in ibid.
37. Omo Omoruyi, quoted by Onome Osifo-Whiskey and Ayodele Akinkuotu, 'A Dance on the Precipice', in TELL, 19 July 1993.
38. Interview with the CD chairman, Dr Beko Ransome-Kuti, Lagos, December 1993.
39. See Dele Omotunde, 'Babangida's Zig-Zag Democracy', in TELL, 26 July 1993. According to this writer, the Nigerian political class 'seems not aware of the enormity of the calamity that has befallen the nation. Instead of joining forces together to chase the fox away first and then come later to apportion blames to the impetuous chickens among them, they have unwittingly succumbed to the divide-and-rule tactics of their political nemesis'.
40. See Julius O. Ihonvbere and Olufemi Vaughan, 'Nigeria: democracy and civil society. The Nigerian Transition Programme, 1985-1993', in John Wiseman (ed.), Democracy and Political Change in Sub-Saharan Africa (London, 1995), pp. 71-91.
41. See 'Nigeria Boils', in TELL, 19 July 1993, and Wale Akin-Aina, 'Days of Rage', in Newswatch (Lagos), 19 July 1993.
42. See 'Nigeria Boils', in TELL, 19 July 1993, and Wale Akin-Aina, 'Days of Rage', in Newswatch (Lagos), 19 July 1993.
43. Campaign for Democracy, 'Be Ready for More Action as from Monday July 5, 1993', Lagos, CD secretariat, July 1993.
44. Ibid.
45. Civil Liberties Organisation, 'Special Message to the Police and Armed Forces', Lagos, CLO secretariat, 1993.
46. For more details on the protests, see Akin-Aina, loc. cit.; Osifo-Whiskey and Akinkuotu, loc. cit.; Falana, loc. cit.; Anthony Enahoro, 'No Case for Fresh Elections', in TELL, 19 July 1993; and documents at the secretariats of the Constitutional Rights Project and the Committee for the Defence of Human Rights, as well as the CLO and the CD.
47. For more details on the protests, see Akin-Aina, loc. cit.; Osifo-Whiskey and Akinkuotu, loc. cit.; Falana, loc. cit.; Anthony Enahoro, 'No Case for Fresh Elections', in TELL, 19 July 1993; and documents at the secretariats of the Constitutional Rights Project and the Committee for the Defence of Human Rights, as well as the CLO and the CD.
48. For more details on the protests, see Akin-Aina, loc. cit.; Osifo-Whiskey and Akinkuotu, loc. cit.; Falana, loc. cit.; Anthony Enahoro, 'No Case for Fresh Elections', in TELL, 19 July 1993; and documents at the secretariats of the Constitutional Rights Project and the Committee for the Defence of Human Rights, as well as the CLO and the CD.
49. For more details on the protests, see Akin-Aina, loc. cit.; Osifo-Whiskey and Akinkuotu, loc. cit.; Falana, loc. cit.; Anthony Enahoro, 'No Case for Fresh Elections', in TELL, 19 July 1993; and documents at the secretariats of the Constitutional Rights Project and the Committee for the Defence of Human Rights, as well as the CLO and the CD.
50. National Association of Sea Dogs, quoted in Akin-Aina, loc. cit.
51. The Organisation of Nigerians in the Americas (ONA), for instance, sent strongly worded letters to (i) Dr Iyorchia Ayu, then president of the Nigerian Senate, urging him and the National Assembly to lead the protests against Babangida; (ii) the leaders of the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany, and Japan; and (iii) the Secretary-Generals of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), the United Nations (UN), and the Commonwealth.
52. Campaign for Peace and Democracy, 'Protests Suppression of Democracy in Nigeria', in New York Review of Books, 7 October 1993, and Peace and Democracy News (New York), 7, 2, Winter 1993-4.
53. Campaign for Peace and Democracy, 'Protests Suppression of Democracy in Nigeria', in New York Review of Books, 7 October 1993, and Peace and Democracy News (New York), 7, 2, Winter 1993-4.
54. See Paul Adams, 'Nigeria's Government Proscribes Newspapers', in Financial Times (London), 17 August 1993.
55. Shehu Yar Adua was a leading contender for the SDP presidential ticket until disqualified in 1992 by General Babangida. After unsuccessfully sponsoring Alhaji Mohammed Atiku for nomination, Yar Adua emerged as the leader of the anti-Abiola faction within the SDP. He found it easy, based on his personal ambition, to support the Babangida agenda and the annulment of the June 1993 presidential elections.
56. Ibrahim Babangida, 'Valedictory Address to the Nation', State House, Abuja, 26 August 1993, reproduced in full in The Guardian, 27 August 1993.
57. Named after a section in the Nigerian Criminal Code, '419' refers to the now well-known fax scam' through which foreigners and other business persons are defrauded of huge sums of money.
58. Interview with an activist at CD headquarters, Imaria Street, Anthony Village, Lagos, July 1994.
59. Benedicta Ekaba, 'Point Zero in the Rewane Case', in The News (Lagos), 23 October 1995.
60. See Shehu Othman, 'Classes, Crises and Coup: the demise of Shagari's regime', in African Affairs (London), 83, 333, October 1994, pp. 441-61; Herbert Ekwe-Ekwe, 'The Nigerian Plight: Shagari to Buhari', in Third World Quarterly (London), 7, 3, July 1985, pp. 610-25; and Falola and Ihonvbere, op. cit. 1985.
61. See Shehu Othman, 'Classes, Crises and Coup: the demise of Shagari's regime', in African Affairs (London), 83, 333, October 1994, pp. 441-61; Herbert Ekwe-Ekwe, 'The Nigerian Plight: Shagari to Buhari', in Third World Quarterly (London), 7, 3, July 1985, pp. 610-25; and Falola and Ihonvbere, op. cit. 1985.
62. See Shehu Othman, 'Classes, Crises and Coup: the demise of Shagari's regime', in African Affairs (London), 83, 333, October 1994, pp. 441-61; Herbert Ekwe-Ekwe, 'The Nigerian Plight: Shagari to Buhari', in Third World Quarterly (London), 7, 3, July 1985, pp. 610-25; and Falola and Ihonvbere, op. cit. 1985.
63. See Gani Fawehinmi, 'June 12 is the Rebirth of Nigeria', in TELL, 13 September 1993.
64. Ibid.
65. Abraham Useh, 'Return of the Military: fear of apocalypse', in ibid. 6 December 1993.
66. Ayodele Akinkuotu, 'State of the Nation: the drift must stop', in ibid. 14 February 1994.
67. Olusegun Obasanjo, 'Let's Prevent Another Enthronement of Evil', Keynote Address at the Conference Organised by Arewa House, Kaduna, 2 February 1994, reproduced in ibid.
68. Interview with a pro-democracy activist, Lagos, December 1993.
69. Interview with Femi Falani, Lagos, December 1993.
70. See Eric Teniola, 'Dilemma over Proposed Constitution', and Friday Ndubuisi, 'Conference: what role for military?', in National Concord, 1 February 1994.
71. See Eric Teniola, 'Dilemma over Proposed Constitution', and Friday Ndubuisi, 'Conference: what role for military?', in National Concord, 1 February 1994.
72. See 'Get Set for the Worst', in The News, 14 February 1994.
73. 'Construction of Nigeria's Gas Plant Underway', in UBA Monthly Business and Economic Digest (Lagos), 17, 6, June 1994, pp. 11-12.
74. Abraham Useh, loc. cit.
75. Olusegun Obasanjo, op. cit.
76. Nick Damzag, 'The Lessons of June 12', in TELL, 14 February 1993.
77. See, for example, Henry Chukwurah, 'As If There'll Be No Tomorrow', in National Concord, 20 January 1994; Abiola Phillips, 'To Move Forward', and Salisu Suleiman, 'The Contraption Called Nigeria', in The Guardian, 11 February 1994; and Yinka Agboola, 'Those Who Hide Yesterday ', and Emmanuel Ogunlewe, 'What Needs Be Done', in The Punch (Ikeja), 24 February 1994.
78. See, for example, Henry Chukwurah, 'As If There'll Be No Tomorrow', in National Concord, 20 January 1994; Abiola Phillips, 'To Move Forward', and Salisu Suleiman, 'The Contraption Called Nigeria', in The Guardian, 11 February 1994; and Yinka Agboola, 'Those Who Hide Yesterday ', and Emmanuel Ogunlewe, 'What Needs Be Done', in The Punch (Ikeja), 24 February 1994.
79. See, for example, Henry Chukwurah, 'As If There'll Be No Tomorrow', in National Concord, 20 January 1994; Abiola Phillips, 'To Move Forward', and Salisu Suleiman, 'The Contraption Called Nigeria', in The Guardian, 11 February 1994; and Yinka Agboola, 'Those Who Hide Yesterday ', and Emmanuel Ogunlewe, 'What Needs Be Done', in The Punch (Ikeja), 24 February 1994.
80. See, for example, Henry Chukwurah, 'As If There'll Be No Tomorrow', in National Concord, 20 January 1994; Abiola Phillips, 'To Move Forward', and Salisu Suleiman, 'The Contraption Called Nigeria', in The Guardian, 11 February 1994; and Yinka Agboola, 'Those Who Hide Yesterday ', and Emmanuel Ogunlewe, 'What Needs Be Done', in The Punch (Ikeja), 24 February 1994.
81. See, for example, Henry Chukwurah, 'As If There'll Be No Tomorrow', in National Concord, 20 January 1994; Abiola Phillips, 'To Move Forward', and Salisu Suleiman, 'The Contraption Called Nigeria', in The Guardian, 11 February 1994; and Yinka Agboola, 'Those Who Hide Yesterday ', and Emmanuel Ogunlewe, 'What Needs Be Done', in The Punch (Ikeja), 24 February 1994.
82. According to 'Massacres in Nigeria', in Committee for Academic Freedom in Africa Newsletter (New York), 8, Spring 1995, pp. 4-6, 39 other persons were arrested, and 34 declared wanted, including all known human rights and pro-democracy activists in Edo State.
83. See the Committee for Defence of Human Rights publication, Victims, as well as reports by Human Rights Watch-Africa and Amnesty International.
84. Nigerian Military Cracks Down on Democratic Activists', in Newsletter of the National Endowment for Democracy (New York), Summer 1995.
85. Dapo Olorunyomi, 'Coup d'Etat', in The News, 13 March 1995.
86. See 'Coup Fall Out - Aziza Hangs Plotters', in ibid. 24 July 1995.
87. See E. I. Udogu, 'National Integration Attempts in Nigerian Politics', in Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism (Charlottetown), 17, 1-2, 1990, pp. 157-75, and 'The Allurement of Ethnonationalism in Nigerian Politics: the contemporary debate', in Journal of Asian and African Studies (Leiden), 29, 3-4, 1994, pp. 159-171.
88. See E. I. Udogu, 'National Integration Attempts in Nigerian Politics', in Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism (Charlottetown), 17, 1-2, 1990, pp. 157-75, and 'The Allurement of Ethnonationalism in Nigerian Politics: the contemporary debate', in Journal of Asian and African Studies (Leiden), 29, 3-4, 1994, pp. 159-171.
89. See Shamsudeen Adeiza, 'The Realities of Ethnicity and Marginalization in Kogi State', in New Nigerian (Kaduna), 8 January 1993; Yuguda O. Bibika, 'Plight of Bamaja Indigenes of Adamawa State', in Daily Times (Lagos), 29 June 1993; 'Nigeria: the unacceptable marginalization of the East', in Daily Champion (Lagos), 7 October 1993; Ijaw Ethnic National Rights Protection Organisation of Nigeria, Open Letter to Chief Ernest Shonekan', in The Guardian, 2 November 1993; Southern Minorities Forum, 'Communique No. 2', in Vanguard (Lagos). 5 November 1993; and Club 582, 'Abacha, What Have the Igalas Done?', in The Guardian, 18 December 1993.
90. See Shamsudeen Adeiza, 'The Realities of Ethnicity and Marginalization in Kogi State', in New Nigerian (Kaduna), 8 January 1993; Yuguda O. Bibika, 'Plight of Bamaja Indigenes of Adamawa State', in Daily Times (Lagos), 29 June 1993; 'Nigeria: the unacceptable marginalization of the East', in Daily Champion (Lagos), 7 October 1993; Ijaw Ethnic National Rights Protection Organisation of Nigeria, Open Letter to Chief Ernest Shonekan', in The Guardian, 2 November 1993; Southern Minorities Forum, 'Communique No. 2', in Vanguard (Lagos). 5 November 1993; and Club 582, 'Abacha, What Have the Igalas Done?', in The Guardian, 18 December 1993.
91. See Shamsudeen Adeiza, 'The Realities of Ethnicity and Marginalization in Kogi State', in New Nigerian (Kaduna), 8 January 1993; Yuguda O. Bibika, 'Plight of Bamaja Indigenes of Adamawa State', in Daily Times (Lagos), 29 June 1993; 'Nigeria: the unacceptable marginalization of the East', in Daily Champion (Lagos), 7 October 1993; Ijaw Ethnic National Rights Protection Organisation of Nigeria, Open Letter to Chief Ernest Shonekan', in The Guardian, 2 November 1993; Southern Minorities Forum, 'Communique No. 2', in Vanguard (Lagos). 5 November 1993; and Club 582, 'Abacha, What Have the Igalas Done?', in The Guardian, 18 December 1993.
92. See Shamsudeen Adeiza, 'The Realities of Ethnicity and Marginalization in Kogi State', in New Nigerian (Kaduna), 8 January 1993; Yuguda O. Bibika, 'Plight of Bamaja Indigenes of Adamawa State', in Daily Times (Lagos), 29 June 1993; 'Nigeria: the unacceptable marginalization of the East', in Daily Champion (Lagos), 7 October 1993; Ijaw Ethnic National Rights Protection Organisation of Nigeria, Open Letter to Chief Ernest Shonekan', in The Guardian, 2 November 1993; Southern Minorities Forum, 'Communique No. 2', in Vanguard (Lagos). 5 November 1993; and Club 582, 'Abacha, What Have the Igalas Done?', in The Guardian, 18 December 1993.
93. See Shamsudeen Adeiza, 'The Realities of Ethnicity and Marginalization in Kogi State', in New Nigerian (Kaduna), 8 January 1993; Yuguda O. Bibika, 'Plight of Bamaja Indigenes of Adamawa State', in Daily Times (Lagos), 29 June 1993; 'Nigeria: the unacceptable marginalization of the East', in Daily Champion (Lagos), 7 October 1993; Ijaw Ethnic National Rights Protection Organisation of Nigeria, Open Letter to Chief Ernest Shonekan', in The Guardian, 2 November 1993; Southern Minorities Forum, 'Communique No. 2', in Vanguard (Lagos). 5 November 1993; and Club 582, 'Abacha, What Have the Igalas Done?', in The Guardian, 18 December 1993.
94. See Shamsudeen Adeiza, 'The Realities of Ethnicity and Marginalization in Kogi State', in New Nigerian (Kaduna), 8 January 1993; Yuguda O. Bibika, 'Plight of Bamaja Indigenes of Adamawa State', in Daily Times (Lagos), 29 June 1993; 'Nigeria: the unacceptable marginalization of the East', in Daily Champion (Lagos), 7 October 1993; Ijaw Ethnic National Rights Protection Organisation of Nigeria, Open Letter to Chief Ernest Shonekan', in The Guardian, 2 November 1993; Southern Minorities Forum, 'Communique No. 2', in Vanguard (Lagos). 5 November 1993; and Club 582, 'Abacha, What Have the Igalas Done?', in The Guardian, 18 December 1993.
95. See 'Echoes from Ogonis UN Testimony', in Daily Sketch (Ibadan), 23 November 1993; Emmanuel Efeni, 'When Ogoni Got UN Hearing', in The Guardian, 14 December 1995; and Ben Naanen, 'Oil-producing Minorities and the Restructuring of Nigerian Federalism: the case of the Ogoni people', in Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 33, 1, 1995, pp. 46-78.
96. See 'Echoes from Ogonis UN Testimony', in Daily Sketch (Ibadan), 23 November 1993; Emmanuel Efeni, 'When Ogoni Got UN Hearing', in The Guardian, 14 December 1995; and Ben Naanen, 'Oil-producing Minorities and the Restructuring of Nigerian Federalism: the case of the Ogoni people', in Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 33, 1, 1995, pp. 46-78.
97. See 'Echoes from Ogonis UN Testimony', in Daily Sketch (Ibadan), 23 November 1993; Emmanuel Efeni, 'When Ogoni Got UN Hearing', in The Guardian, 14 December 1995; and Ben Naanen, 'Oil-producing Minorities and the Restructuring of Nigerian Federalism: the case of the Ogoni people', in Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 33, 1, 1995, pp. 46-78.
98. Tayo Lukula, 'Final Judgement?', in The News, 25 September 1995.
99. Ogoni Verdicts - Abacha's Final Revenge', in TELL, 13 November 1995.
100. 'Nigeria Foaming with Blood', in The Economist (London), 18-24 November 1995, editorial, PP- 17-18.
101. See Chris Ogbonna 'Sanctions: shape up or ship out', in TELL, 18 December 1995.
102. See Aminu Tijani, 'Nigeria's Diplomatic Crisis: Aso Rock's jitters', in ibid. 4 December 1995, and his 'Aso Rock's Game Plan: Abacha fights back', in ibid. 18 December 1995. Aso Rock is the official house of the Nigerian Government in Abuja, the federal capital.
103. See Aminu Tijani, 'Nigeria's Diplomatic Crisis: Aso Rock's jitters', in ibid. 4 December 1995, and his 'Aso Rock's Game Plan: Abacha fights back', in ibid. 18 December 1995. Aso Rock is the official house of the Nigerian Government in Abuja, the federal capital.
104. To be sure, many popular groups are weak and led by individuals with little or no political experience and credibility. This has implications for their ability to remain relevant, to mobilise the people, and to serve as viable platforms for challenging military dictatorship.
105. Campaign for Democracy, 'CD Rejects the Latest Military Coup', Press Statement, CD secretariat, Lagos, 19 November 1993.
106. According to 'The Military Must Go', interview with Chief Michael Ajasin, in TELL, 10 April 1995, this leader of the Awoist group was unable to persuade Lateef Jakande not to serve in Abacha's cabinet, and was not even consulted by Ebenezer Babatope before the latter did likewise.
107. Tanimowo, loc. cit.
108. See Muyiwa Akintunde, 'How the Military Flaunts Its Might', in Newswatch, 12 July 1993, and 'The Army in Crisis', in The News, 6 December 1993.
109. See Muyiwa Akintunde, 'How the Military Flaunts Its Might', in Newswatch, 12 July 1993, and 'The Army in Crisis', in The News, 6 December 1993.
110. Dan Agbese, 'In Their Custody', in Newswatch, 12 July 1993.
111. Interview, Lagos, December 1993.
112. Abdulrazaq Magaji, 'Law-Makers in Limbo', in Newswatch, 5 July 1993.
113. 'A Financial Sink-hole', in ibid. 29 March 1993.
114. 45 Million Weekly on Hotel Expenses', in Sunday Vanguard (Lagos), 24 October 1993.
115. Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative, Nigeria Stolen by the Generals: Abuja after the Harare Commonwealth declaration (London, Commonwealth Secretariat, 1995), p. 25. Obviously, there is no room for complacency, because all Nigerians need to be encouraged to retain their commitment to democracy. See Olusegun Obasanjo, 'Sustaining Democracy', in Liberty (Lagos), 4, 1, January-April 1993; S. M. Abubakar, 'Nigerians Live in Bondage', in TELL, 6 December 1993; Atiku Abubakar, 'Democracy Now: an Open Letter to the Head of State, General Sani Abacha', in The Punch, 20 December 1993; Abiola Phillips, 'To Move Forward', in The Guardian, 11 February 1994; and 'A Revolution Is Knocking', interview with retired Major-General Alexander Madiebo, in The News, 14 February 1994.
116. Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative, Nigeria Stolen by the Generals: Abuja after the Harare Commonwealth declaration (London, Commonwealth Secretariat, 1995), p. 25. Obviously, there is no room for complacency, because all Nigerians need to be encouraged to retain their commitment to democracy. See Olusegun Obasanjo, 'Sustaining Democracy', in Liberty (Lagos), 4, 1, January-April 1993; S. M. Abubakar, 'Nigerians Live in Bondage', in TELL, 6 December 1993; Atiku Abubakar, 'Democracy Now: an Open Letter to the Head of State, General Sani Abacha', in The Punch, 20 December 1993; Abiola Phillips, 'To Move Forward', in The Guardian, 11 February 1994; and 'A Revolution Is Knocking', interview with retired Major-General Alexander Madiebo, in The News, 14 February 1994.
117. Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative, Nigeria Stolen by the Generals: Abuja after the Harare Commonwealth declaration (London, Commonwealth Secretariat, 1995), p. 25. Obviously, there is no room for complacency, because all Nigerians need to be encouraged to retain their commitment to democracy. See Olusegun Obasanjo, 'Sustaining Democracy', in Liberty (Lagos), 4, 1, January-April 1993; S. M. Abubakar, 'Nigerians Live in Bondage', in TELL, 6 December 1993; Atiku Abubakar, 'Democracy Now: an Open Letter to the Head of State, General Sani Abacha', in The Punch, 20 December 1993; Abiola Phillips, 'To Move Forward', in The Guardian, 11 February 1994; and 'A Revolution Is Knocking', interview with retired Major-General Alexander Madiebo, in The News, 14 February 1994.
118. Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative, Nigeria Stolen by the Generals: Abuja after the Harare Commonwealth declaration (London, Commonwealth Secretariat, 1995), p. 25. Obviously, there is no room for complacency, because all Nigerians need to be encouraged to retain their commitment to democracy. See Olusegun Obasanjo, 'Sustaining Democracy', in Liberty (Lagos), 4, 1, January-April 1993; S. M. Abubakar, 'Nigerians Live in Bondage', in TELL, 6 December 1993; Atiku Abubakar, 'Democracy Now: an Open Letter to the Head of State, General Sani Abacha', in The Punch, 20 December 1993; Abiola Phillips, 'To Move Forward', in The Guardian, 11 February 1994; and 'A Revolution Is Knocking', interview with retired Major-General Alexander Madiebo, in The News, 14 February 1994.
119. Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative, Nigeria Stolen by the Generals: Abuja after the Harare Commonwealth declaration (London, Commonwealth Secretariat, 1995), p. 25. Obviously, there is no room for complacency, because all Nigerians need to be encouraged to retain their commitment to democracy. See Olusegun Obasanjo, 'Sustaining Democracy', in Liberty (Lagos), 4, 1, January-April 1993; S. M. Abubakar, 'Nigerians Live in Bondage', in TELL, 6 December 1993; Atiku Abubakar, 'Democracy Now: an Open Letter to the Head of State, General Sani Abacha', in The Punch, 20 December 1993; Abiola Phillips, 'To Move Forward', in The Guardian, 11 February 1994; and 'A Revolution Is Knocking', interview with retired Major-General Alexander Madiebo, in The News, 14 February 1994.
120. Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative, Nigeria Stolen by the Generals: Abuja after the Harare Commonwealth declaration (London, Commonwealth Secretariat, 1995), p. 25. Obviously, there is no room for complacency, because all Nigerians need to be encouraged to retain their commitment to democracy. See Olusegun Obasanjo, 'Sustaining Democracy', in Liberty (Lagos), 4, 1, January-April 1993; S. M. Abubakar, 'Nigerians Live in Bondage', in TELL, 6 December 1993; Atiku Abubakar, 'Democracy Now: an Open Letter to the Head of State, General Sani Abacha', in The Punch, 20 December 1993; Abiola Phillips, 'To Move Forward', in The Guardian, 11 February 1994; and 'A Revolution Is Knocking', interview with retired Major-General Alexander Madiebo, in The News, 14 February 1994.
121. See Taiwo Akinlami, 'Time to End Military Rule', in Tempo (Lagos), 28 December 1995, and 'Abacha Must Go', in ibid.
122. See Taiwo Akinlami, 'Time to End Military Rule', in Tempo (Lagos), 28 December 1995, and 'Abacha Must Go', in ibid.
123. See Sam Ogwa, 'Nigeria: trekking towards democracy', in West Africa (London), 25 December 1995-7 January 1996; Moses Ezuluike, 'Politicians Prepare for Negotiations', in Daily Champion (Lagos), 11 January 1996; Stephen Iyolo and Femi Ade Ogbontiba, 'Govt to Parley with Select Politicians', in Nigerian Tribune (Ibadan), 11 January 1996; and Akpo Esajere, 'Pitfalls in Transition, by Ciroma', in The Guardian, 18 January 1996.
124. See Sam Ogwa, 'Nigeria: trekking towards democracy', in West Africa (London), 25 December 1995-7 January 1996; Moses Ezuluike, 'Politicians Prepare for Negotiations', in Daily Champion (Lagos), 11 January 1996; Stephen Iyolo and Femi Ade Ogbontiba, 'Govt to Parley with Select Politicians', in Nigerian Tribune (Ibadan), 11 January 1996; and Akpo Esajere, 'Pitfalls in Transition, by Ciroma', in The Guardian, 18 January 1996.
125. See Sam Ogwa, 'Nigeria: trekking towards democracy', in West Africa (London), 25 December 1995-7 January 1996; Moses Ezuluike, 'Politicians Prepare for Negotiations', in Daily Champion (Lagos), 11 January 1996; Stephen Iyolo and Femi Ade Ogbontiba, 'Govt to Parley with Select Politicians', in Nigerian Tribune (Ibadan), 11 January 1996; and Akpo Esajere, 'Pitfalls in Transition, by Ciroma', in The Guardian, 18 January 1996.
126. See Sam Ogwa, 'Nigeria: trekking towards democracy', in West Africa (London), 25 December 1995-7 January 1996; Moses Ezuluike, 'Politicians Prepare for Negotiations', in Daily Champion (Lagos), 11 January 1996; Stephen Iyolo and Femi Ade Ogbontiba, 'Govt to Parley with Select Politicians', in Nigerian Tribune (Ibadan), 11 January 1996; and Akpo Esajere, 'Pitfalls in Transition, by Ciroma', in The Guardian, 18 January 1996.
127. 'Abacha's Anniversary Broadcast', in West Africa, 9-15 October 1995.
128. See 'Walter Ofonagoro Warns Government's Critics' and Isa Abdulsalami, Oyo Police Warn Against Rallies', in The Guardian, 22 December 1995; and 'Abacha's Axe Falls on Workers: thousands rendered jobless', in The Week (Lagos), 22 January 1996.
129. See 'Walter Ofonagoro Warns Government's Critics' and Isa Abdulsalami, Oyo Police Warn Against Rallies', in The Guardian, 22 December 1995; and 'Abacha's Axe Falls on Workers: thousands rendered jobless', in The Week (Lagos), 22 January 1996.
130. See 'Walter Ofonagoro Warns Government's Critics' and Isa Abdulsalami, Oyo Police Warn Against Rallies', in The Guardian, 22 December 1995; and 'Abacha's Axe Falls on Workers: thousands rendered jobless', in The Week (Lagos), 22 January 1996.
131. See 'Police Nab NADECO Members in Benin', in The Punch, 22 December 1995; Dipo Onabanjo, 'Liars in Government', in ibid. 11 January 1996; and John Ogbodo, 'March Polls, a Time Bomb-Sule Lamido', in Today's News Today (Lagos), 18 January 1996.
132. See 'Police Nab NADECO Members in Benin', in The Punch, 22 December 1995; Dipo Onabanjo, 'Liars in Government', in ibid. 11 January 1996; and John Ogbodo, 'March Polls, a Time Bomb-Sule Lamido', in Today's News Today (Lagos), 18 January 1996.
133. See 'Police Nab NADECO Members in Benin', in The Punch, 22 December 1995; Dipo Onabanjo, 'Liars in Government', in ibid. 11 January 1996; and John Ogbodo, 'March Polls, a Time Bomb-Sule Lamido', in Today's News Today (Lagos), 18 January 1996.
134. It is important to mention that some of the appointees to these committees lack the credibility to make them of much use to a beleaguered régime.
135. See Diran Odeyemi, Kehinde Olaosebikan, and Sufuyan Ojeifo, 'Afenifere Awaits NECON Rules', in Vanguard, 11 January 1996.
136. See 'Panic Grips Aso Rock - Military on Red Alert', in TELL, 4 December 1995; '"There Will Be More Bloodshed..." Saro Wiwa's Brother', in ibid. 15 January 1996; and 'We Are in a Mess - Dapo Fafowora', in Tempo, 18 January 1996.
137. See 'Panic Grips Aso Rock - Military on Red Alert', in TELL, 4 December 1995; '"There Will Be More Bloodshed..." Saro Wiwa's Brother', in ibid. 15 January 1996; and 'We Are in a Mess - Dapo Fafowora', in Tempo, 18 January 1996.
138. See 'Panic Grips Aso Rock - Military on Red Alert', in TELL, 4 December 1995; '"There Will Be More Bloodshed..." Saro Wiwa's Brother', in ibid. 15 January 1996; and 'We Are in a Mess - Dapo Fafowora', in Tempo, 18 January 1996.
139. See 'Panic Grips Aso Rock', loc. cit.; 'The Junta's War Plan - How Abacha Will Deal with the World', in TELL, 18 December 1995; 'First Blood - Nigeria Takes on South Africa', in Thi Sunday Magazine (Lagos), 14 January 1996; and 'Nigeria Versus South Africa', in The Week, 15 January 1996.
140. See 'Panic Grips Aso Rock', loc. cit.; 'The Junta's War Plan - How Abacha Will Deal with the World', in TELL, 18 December 1995; 'First Blood - Nigeria Takes on South Africa', in Thi Sunday Magazine (Lagos), 14 January 1996; and 'Nigeria Versus South Africa', in The Week, 15 January 1996.
141. See 'Panic Grips Aso Rock', loc. cit.; 'The Junta's War Plan - How Abacha Will Deal with the World', in TELL, 18 December 1995; 'First Blood - Nigeria Takes on South Africa', in Thi Sunday Magazine (Lagos), 14 January 1996; and 'Nigeria Versus South Africa', in The Week, 15 January 1996.
142. See 'Panic Grips Aso Rock', loc. cit.; 'The Junta's War Plan - How Abacha Will Deal with the World', in TELL, 18 December 1995; 'First Blood - Nigeria Takes on South Africa', in Thi Sunday Magazine (Lagos), 14 January 1996; and 'Nigeria Versus South Africa', in The Week, 15 January 1996.
143. Abacha's Anniversary Broadcast', op. cit.
144. See 'It's Time to Quit - Enahoro Warns Abacha', in The News, 22 January 1996.
145. Nigeria is extremely dependent on oil for foreign-exchange earnings, as well as for resources needed to bribe the opposition and mediate the edges of contradictions and conflicts. Sanctions can hardly worsen the condition of the poor, who have never benefited from the régime's 'rents' and revenues since 1958. See 'FG Earns $1.7 bn from Crude Oil Sales', in UBA Monthly Business and Economic Digest, 17, 6, June 1994.