Paleoindian cave dwellers in the Amazon: The peopling of the Americas

Science

Volumn 272, Issue 5260, 1996, Pages 373-382

  Roosevelt, A C ^a,b   Lima Da Costa, M ^c   Lopes Machado, C ^d   Michab, M ^e   Mercier, N ^e   Valladas, H ^e   Feathers, J ^f   Barnett, W ^g   Imazio Da Silveira, M ^h   Henderson, A ⁱ   Silva, J ^j   Chernoff, B ^a   Reese, D S ^a   Holman, J A ^k   Toth, N ^l   Schick, K ^l  

^a FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT CHICAGO   (United States)

^c FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF PARÁ   (Brazil)

^d Reserva Florestal de Linhares   (Brazil)

^e CNRS   (France)

^f UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^g DIVISION OF INVERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY   (United States)

^h UNIVERSITY OF SÃO PAULO   (Brazil)

ⁱ INSTITUTE OF SYSTEMATIC BOTANY   (United States)

^j Center for Desert Archaeology   (United States)

^k MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^l INDIANA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

more..

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0001060078     PISSN: 00368075     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1126/science.272.5260.373     Document Type: Article

References (109)

1. B. M. Fagan, The Great Journey (Thames and Hudson, London, 1987)
2. J F. Hoffecker, W. R. Powers, T. Goebel, Science 259, 46 (1993).
3. T C Lynch, in Early South Americans, J. E. Jennings, Ed (Freeman, San Francisco, CA, 1983), pp. 87-139.
4. The Clovis tradition was thought to have begun 12,000 to 11,500 years ago, but dates that early are no longer considered valid [C. V. Haynes Jr., in 14C Dating and the Peopling of the New World, R. E Taylor, A. Long, R S Kra, Eds. (Springer-Verlag, New York, 1992), pp. 355-374]. Dates earlier than 11,200 yr B.P. are outliers or are associated with disturbance or possible contamination from old carbon, such as lignite coal [for example, G. Frison, in Clovis: Origins and Adaptations, R. Bonnischen and K. L. Turnmise, Eds. (Center for the Study of the First Americans, Corvallis, OR, 1993). p. 135]. Most Clovis and Folsom dates were run on combined samples of wood charcoal.
5. The Clovis tradition was thought to have begun 12,000 to 11,500 years ago, but dates that early are no longer considered valid [C. V. Haynes Jr., in 14C Dating and the Peopling of the New World, R. E Taylor, A. Long, R S Kra, Eds. (Springer-Verlag, New York, 1992), pp. 355-374]. Dates earlier than 11,200 yr B.P. are outliers or are associated with disturbance or possible contamination from old carbon, such as lignite coal [for example, G. Frison, in Clovis: Origins and Adaptations, R. Bonnischen and K. L. Turnmise, Eds. (Center for the Study of the First Americans, Corvallis, OR, 1993). p. 135]. Most Clovis and Folsom dates were run on combined samples of wood charcoal.
6. Common in the Clovis tradition tool complex are fluted and unfluted lanceolate bifaces, blades and flakes, scrapers made on blades and flakes, perforators, and in some sites, cobble tools.
7. R. C. Bailey et al., Am. Anthropol. 91, 59 (1989), T. N. Headland, Hum. Ecol. 15, 463 (1987), R C. Bailey and T. N. Headlund. ibid. 19, 261 (1991)
8. R. C. Bailey et al., Am. Anthropol. 91, 59 (1989), T. N. Headland, Hum. Ecol. 15, 463 (1987), R C. Bailey and T. N. Headlund. ibid. 19, 261 (1991)
9. R. C. Bailey et al., Am. Anthropol. 91, 59 (1989), T. N. Headland, Hum. Ecol. 15, 463 (1987), R C. Bailey and T. N. Headlund. ibid. 19, 261 (1991)
10. A C Roosevelt and A Haller, organizers, Amazonia. A Dynamic Habitat, Past, Present, and Future (taped symposium no 25-2, AAAS, Washington, DC, 1990); S. Beckerman, Am. Anthropol. 81, 533 (1979).
11. A C Roosevelt and A Haller, organizers, Amazonia. A Dynamic Habitat, Past, Present, and Future (taped symposium no 25-2, AAAS, Washington, DC, 1990); S. Beckerman, Am. Anthropol. 81, 533 (1979).
12. A. C. Roosevelt, Adv. Econ Bot. 7, 31 (1989), and in Advances in Historical Ecology, W. Balee, Ed. (Columbia Univ. Press, New York, in press).
13. A. C. Roosevelt, Adv. Econ Bot. 7, 31 (1989), and in Advances in Historical Ecology, W. Balee, Ed. (Columbia Univ. Press, New York, in press).
14. G. R. Willey, An Introduction to American Archaeology: Vol. 1: South America (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1971); I Rouse, Quat, Res. 6, 567 (1976)
15. G. R. Willey, An Introduction to American Archaeology: Vol. 1: South America (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1971); I Rouse, Quat, Res. 6, 567 (1976)
16. A. L. Bryan, Ed., Early Man in America from a Circum-Pacific Perspective (Archaeological Researches International, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, 1978)
17. A. L Bryan, Ed., New Evidence for the Pleistocene Peopling of the Amencas (Center for the Study of Early Man, Orono, ME, 1986).
18. R. G Bednank, Antiquity 81, 101 (1989)
19. T. D. Dillehay, G. A. Calderon, G. Politis, M. Beltrao, J World Prehist. 6, 145 (1992).
20. N. Guidon and A. Delibnas, Anthropologie (Paris) 89, 385 (1986); R S. MacNeish, Am. Sci 64, 316 (1976).
21. N. Guidon and A. Delibnas, Anthropologie (Paris) 89, 385 (1986); R S. MacNeish, Am. Sci 64, 316 (1976).
22. D. F. Dincauze, Adv. World Archaeol 3, 275 (1984), C. V. Haynes Jr , Am Antiq. 45, 583 (1980); T. E. Lynch, ibid. 55, 12 (1991)
23. D. F. Dincauze, Adv. World Archaeol 3, 275 (1984), C. V. Haynes Jr , Am Antiq. 45, 583 (1980); T. E. Lynch, ibid. 55, 12 (1991)
24. D. F. Dincauze, Adv. World Archaeol 3, 275 (1984), C. V. Haynes Jr , Am Antiq. 45, 583 (1980); T. E. Lynch, ibid. 55, 12 (1991)
25. S. Bowman, Radiocarbon Dating (Univ. of California Press/British Museum, Berkeley, CA, 1990), pp 27-30, R. E. Taylor, Ed., Radiocarbon Dating. An Archaeological Perspective (Academic Press, Orlando, FL, 1987) ; J. A J Gowlett and R. E M Hedges, Eds , Archaeological Results from Accelerator Dating (Oxford University Committee for Archaeology, Monograph 11, Institute of Archaeology, Oxford, 1986)
26. S. Bowman, Radiocarbon Dating (Univ. of California Press/British Museum, Berkeley, CA, 1990), pp 27-30, R. E. Taylor, Ed., Radiocarbon Dating. An Archaeological Perspective (Academic Press, Orlando, FL, 1987) ; J. A J Gowlett and R. E M Hedges, Eds , Archaeological Results from Accelerator Dating (Oxford University Committee for Archaeology, Monograph 11, Institute of Archaeology, Oxford, 1986)
27. S. Bowman, Radiocarbon Dating (Univ. of California Press/British Museum, Berkeley, CA, 1990), pp 27-30, R. E. Taylor, Ed., Radiocarbon Dating. An Archaeological Perspective (Academic Press, Orlando, FL, 1987) ; J. A J Gowlett and R. E M Hedges, Eds , Archaeological Results from Accelerator Dating (Oxford University Committee for Archaeology, Monograph 11, Institute of Archaeology, Oxford, 1986)
28. N. Toth, in The First Americans, T D Dillehay and D J Meltzer, Eds (CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1991), pp 53-76
29. The painted rockshelter Caverna da Pedra Furada has 42 consistent charcoal dates ∼50,000 to 17,000 yr B P [N. Guidon and A. Delibrias, Nature 321, 769 (1986)]. Rare, flaked stones from lower levels of the Alice Boer site are undated. Higher levels contained the triangular points and other tools A small charcoal sample with the deepest point was 14,200 ± 1150 yr B.P , but three dates just above were ∼6000 yr B P. Five TL dates between ∼11,000 and 3000 yr B.P. on flint fit radiocarbon ages of ∼10,500 yr B.P and younger [M. Beltrão, C. R. Ennquez, J. Danon, E. Zuleta, G. Poupeau, in (11), pp. 203-213;
30. W. Hurt, ibid , pp 215-219] Highly disturbed limestone caves around Lagoa Santa contained human bones, megafauna, modern biota, stone flakes, and pigment. Radiocarbon dates of ∼25,000 to 10,200 yr B P. on scarce charcoal ranged much earlier than those on human bone mineral, dated ∼10,000 to 7000 yr B.P.
31. [A. Prous. Anthropologie (Paris) 90.257 (1986); in (11), pp 173-182] Other sites with rare, triangular, stemmed bifacial points; numerous limaces; modern biota, human skeletons, and pigment have nine radiocarbon dates between 10,700 and 9000 yr B.P Three pre-Clovis dates between 21,000 and 16.000 yr B.P. have uncertain associations
32. [P. I. Schmitz, Estud. Atacameños 8, 16 (1987);
33. J. World Prehist 1, 53 (1987)] Ibiqui sites have two dates of 12,770 and 12,690 yr B.P. on plant remains with flakes that are near but not with megafauna, but the sites had prehuman carbon dated 12,690 to 33,600 yr B P. Eighteen dates between 11,500 and 9500 yr B.P. came from Uruguai sites with hearths, triangular stemmed points, and modern biota. Abrigo do Sol, a sandstone shelter with petroglyphs, stone flakes, modern flora, and disturbed stratigraphy had three questionable pre-Clovis radiocarbon dates of 12,300, 14,470 (a small sample), and 14,700 yr B P. distributed discordantly among 24 dates between circa (ca.) 11,600 and 6000 yr B P
34. [E Miller, Estud. Atacameños 8, 37 (1987)]
35. A. Taddei, Estud. Atacameños 8, 62 (1987).
36. Tagua Tagua and Quereo, which are ancient lake sites, contained possibly cut megafauna bones, bone tools, and mollusks, and had six radiocarbon datas between 11,600 and 10,925 yr B P. on plant remains Tagua Tagua also had several lithic flakes [L. Nunez, J Varela, R. Casamiquela, in Estud. Atacameños 8, 142 (1987)] Carbonates may have affected the dates, which at Quereo were the same over several meters of depth rather than in a sequence. Lower levels of La Moderna had rare flaked rocks, megafauna, one discordant date of 12,330 yr B.P , and several dates between 7000 and 6550 yr BP Levels with extinct fauna in Mylodon Cave gave 18 discordant dates between 13,500 and 5000 yr B.P. and no evidence for humans in pre-Clovis levels [G L. Mengoni Gonalons, in (11), pp. 271-279], Las Buitreras contained 16 flaked rocks with possibly butchered megafauna dated 7670 yr B P. [S E Caviglia, H. D. Yacobaccio, L A. Borrero, in (11), pp. 295-313]. Lower levels of a painted cave at Los Toldos had 48 flaked rocks, pigment, abundant guanaco, rare megafauna, and a single date of 12,600 yr B P Higher levels had several dates between ca. 11,000 and 7500 yr B.P., associated with subtriangular, stemmed bifacial points; other tools; and modern game [A Cardich, L A. Cardich, A. Hajduk, Relac Soc. Argent Antrop. N S. 7, 85 (1973); in (13), pp. 169-170]. Fishtail points and one date of 12,390 yr B P. came from Cueva del Medio, but seven others from the same hearth were 10,550 to 9595 yr B.P [C. Gnecco. Lithic Technology 19, 35, (1994)] Fishtail point sites are summarized in (13), pp. 168-172. Human skeletons from two sites [J. B Bird, M Bird, J. Hyslop, Travels and Archaeology in South Chile (Univ. of Iowa Press, Iowa City, IA, 1988)] gave collagen radiocarbon dates in the middle Holocene and appear to be intrusive [R. A Housley, Archaeometry 34, 337 (1992)].
37. Tagua Tagua and Quereo, which are ancient lake sites, contained possibly cut megafauna bones, bone tools, and mollusks, and had six radiocarbon datas between 11,600 and 10,925 yr B P. on plant remains Tagua Tagua also had several lithic flakes [L. Nunez, J Varela, R. Casamiquela, in Estud. Atacameños 8, 142 (1987)] Carbonates may have affected the dates, which at Quereo were the same over several meters of depth rather than in a sequence. Lower levels of La Moderna had rare flaked rocks, megafauna, one discordant date of 12,330 yr B.P , and several dates between 7000 and 6550 yr BP Levels with extinct fauna in Mylodon Cave gave 18 discordant dates between 13,500 and 5000 yr B.P. and no evidence for humans in pre-Clovis levels [G L. Mengoni Gonalons, in (11), pp. 271-279], Las Buitreras contained 16 flaked rocks with possibly butchered megafauna dated 7670 yr B P. [S E Caviglia, H. D. Yacobaccio, L A. Borrero, in (11), pp. 295-313]. Lower levels of a painted cave at Los Toldos had 48 flaked rocks, pigment, abundant guanaco, rare megafauna, and a single date of 12,600 yr B P Higher levels had several dates between ca. 11,000 and 7500 yr B.P., associated with subtriangular, stemmed bifacial points; other tools; and modern game [A Cardich, L A. Cardich, A. Hajduk, Relac Soc. Argent Antrop. N S. 7, 85 (1973); in (13), pp. 169-170]. Fishtail points and one date of 12,390 yr B P. came from Cueva del Medio, but seven others from the same hearth were 10,550 to 9595 yr B.P [C. Gnecco. Lithic Technology 19, 35, (1994)] Fishtail point sites are summarized in (13), pp. 168-172. Human skeletons from two sites [J. B Bird, M Bird, J. Hyslop, Travels and Archaeology in South Chile (Univ. of Iowa Press, Iowa City, IA, 1988)] gave collagen radiocarbon dates in the middle Holocene and appear to be intrusive [R. A Housley, Archaeometry 34, 337 (1992)].
38. Tagua Tagua and Quereo, which are ancient lake sites, contained possibly cut megafauna bones, bone tools, and mollusks, and had six radiocarbon datas between 11,600 and 10,925 yr B P. on plant remains Tagua Tagua also had several lithic flakes [L. Nunez, J Varela, R. Casamiquela, in Estud. Atacameños 8, 142 (1987)] Carbonates may have affected the dates, which at Quereo were the same over several meters of depth rather than in a sequence. Lower levels of La Moderna had rare flaked rocks, megafauna, one discordant date of 12,330 yr B.P , and several dates between 7000 and 6550 yr BP Levels with extinct fauna in Mylodon Cave gave 18 discordant dates between 13,500 and 5000 yr B.P. and no evidence for humans in pre-Clovis levels [G L. Mengoni Gonalons, in (11), pp. 271-279], Las Buitreras contained 16 flaked rocks with possibly butchered megafauna dated 7670 yr B P. [S E Caviglia, H. D. Yacobaccio, L A. Borrero, in (11), pp. 295-313]. Lower levels of a painted cave at Los Toldos had 48 flaked rocks, pigment, abundant guanaco, rare megafauna, and a single date of 12,600 yr B P Higher levels had several dates between ca. 11,000 and 7500 yr B.P., associated with subtriangular, stemmed bifacial points; other tools; and modern game [A Cardich, L A. Cardich, A. Hajduk, Relac Soc. Argent Antrop. N S. 7, 85 (1973); in (13), pp. 169-170]. Fishtail points and one date of 12,390 yr B P. came from Cueva del Medio, but seven others from the same hearth were 10,550 to 9595 yr B.P [C. Gnecco. Lithic Technology 19, 35, (1994)] Fishtail point sites are summarized in (13), pp. 168-172. Human skeletons from two sites [J. B Bird, M Bird, J. Hyslop, Travels and Archaeology in South Chile (Univ. of Iowa Press, Iowa City, IA, 1988)] gave collagen radiocarbon dates in the middle Holocene and appear to be intrusive [R. A Housley, Archaeometry 34, 337 (1992)].
39. Tagua Tagua and Quereo, which are ancient lake sites, contained possibly cut megafauna bones, bone tools, and mollusks, and had six radiocarbon datas between 11,600 and 10,925 yr B P. on plant remains Tagua Tagua also had several lithic flakes [L. Nunez, J Varela, R. Casamiquela, in Estud. Atacameños 8, 142 (1987)] Carbonates may have affected the dates, which at Quereo were the same over several meters of depth rather than in a sequence. Lower levels of La Moderna had rare flaked rocks, megafauna, one discordant date of 12,330 yr B.P , and several dates between 7000 and 6550 yr BP Levels with extinct fauna in Mylodon Cave gave 18 discordant dates between 13,500 and 5000 yr B.P. and no evidence for humans in pre-Clovis levels [G L. Mengoni Gonalons, in (11), pp. 271-279], Las Buitreras contained 16 flaked rocks with possibly butchered megafauna dated 7670 yr B P. [S E Caviglia, H. D. Yacobaccio, L A. Borrero, in (11), pp. 295-313]. Lower levels of a painted cave at Los Toldos had 48 flaked rocks, pigment, abundant guanaco, rare megafauna, and a single date of 12,600 yr B P Higher levels had several dates between ca. 11,000 and 7500 yr B.P., associated with subtriangular, stemmed bifacial points; other tools; and modern game [A Cardich, L A. Cardich, A. Hajduk, Relac Soc. Argent Antrop. N S. 7, 85 (1973); in (13), pp. 169-170]. Fishtail points and one date of 12,390 yr B P. came from Cueva del Medio, but seven others from the same hearth were 10,550 to 9595 yr B.P [C. Gnecco. Lithic Technology 19, 35, (1994)] Fishtail point sites are summarized in (13), pp. 168-172. Human skeletons from two sites [J. B Bird, M Bird, J. Hyslop, Travels and Archaeology in South Chile (Univ. of Iowa Press, Iowa City, IA, 1988)] gave collagen radiocarbon dates in the middle Holocene and appear to be intrusive [R. A Housley, Archaeometry 34, 337 (1992)].
40. Tagua Tagua and Quereo, which are ancient lake sites, contained possibly cut megafauna bones, bone tools, and mollusks, and had six radiocarbon datas between 11,600 and 10,925 yr B P. on plant remains Tagua Tagua also had several lithic flakes [L. Nunez, J Varela, R. Casamiquela, in Estud. Atacameños 8, 142 (1987)] Carbonates may have affected the dates, which at Quereo were the same over several meters of depth rather than in a sequence. Lower levels of La Moderna had rare flaked rocks, megafauna, one discordant date of 12,330 yr B.P , and several dates between 7000 and 6550 yr BP Levels with extinct fauna in Mylodon Cave gave 18 discordant dates between 13,500 and 5000 yr B.P. and no evidence for humans in pre-Clovis levels [G L. Mengoni Gonalons, in (11), pp. 271-279], Las Buitreras contained 16 flaked rocks with possibly butchered megafauna dated 7670 yr B P. [S E Caviglia, H. D. Yacobaccio, L A. Borrero, in (11), pp. 295-313]. Lower levels of a painted cave at Los Toldos had 48 flaked rocks, pigment, abundant guanaco, rare megafauna, and a single date of 12,600 yr B P Higher levels had several dates between ca. 11,000 and 7500 yr B.P., associated with subtriangular, stemmed bifacial points; other tools; and modern game [A Cardich, L A. Cardich, A. Hajduk, Relac Soc. Argent Antrop. N S. 7, 85 (1973); in (13), pp. 169-170]. Fishtail points and one date of 12,390 yr B P. came from Cueva del Medio, but seven others from the same hearth were 10,550 to 9595 yr B.P [C. Gnecco. Lithic Technology 19, 35, (1994)] Fishtail point sites are summarized in (13), pp. 168-172. Human skeletons from two sites [J. B Bird, M Bird, J. Hyslop, Travels and Archaeology in South Chile (Univ. of Iowa Press, Iowa City, IA, 1988)] gave collagen radiocarbon dates in the middle Holocene and appear to be intrusive [R. A Housley, Archaeometry 34, 337 (1992)].
41. Tagua Tagua and Quereo, which are ancient lake sites, contained possibly cut megafauna bones, bone tools, and mollusks, and had six radiocarbon datas between 11,600 and 10,925 yr B P. on plant remains Tagua Tagua also had several lithic flakes [L. Nunez, J Varela, R. Casamiquela, in Estud. Atacameños 8, 142 (1987)] Carbonates may have affected the dates, which at Quereo were the same over several meters of depth rather than in a sequence. Lower levels of La Moderna had rare flaked rocks, megafauna, one discordant date of 12,330 yr B.P , and several dates between 7000 and 6550 yr BP Levels with extinct fauna in Mylodon Cave gave 18 discordant dates between 13,500 and 5000 yr B.P. and no evidence for humans in pre-Clovis levels [G L. Mengoni Gonalons, in (11), pp. 271-279], Las Buitreras contained 16 flaked rocks with possibly butchered megafauna dated 7670 yr B P. [S E Caviglia, H. D. Yacobaccio, L A. Borrero, in (11), pp. 295-313]. Lower levels of a painted cave at Los Toldos had 48 flaked rocks, pigment, abundant guanaco, rare megafauna, and a single date of 12,600 yr B P Higher levels had several dates between ca. 11,000 and 7500 yr B.P., associated with subtriangular, stemmed bifacial points; other tools; and modern game [A Cardich, L A. Cardich, A. Hajduk, Relac Soc. Argent Antrop. N S. 7, 85 (1973); in (13), pp. 169-170]. Fishtail points and one date of 12,390 yr B P. came from Cueva del Medio, but seven others from the same hearth were 10,550 to 9595 yr B.P [C. Gnecco. Lithic Technology 19, 35, (1994)] Fishtail point sites are summarized in (13), pp. 168-172. Human skeletons from two sites [J. B Bird, M Bird, J. Hyslop, Travels and Archaeology in South Chile (Univ. of Iowa Press, Iowa City, IA, 1988)] gave collagen radiocarbon dates in the middle Holocene and appear to be intrusive [R. A Housley, Archaeometry 34, 337 (1992)].
42. Monte Verde is a habitation site in a stream, and Taima Taima is a kill site in a spring [T. Dillehay, Ed , Monte Verde: A Late Pleistocene Settlement in Chile (Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, 1989), pp. 1-22 and pp. 132-145; C. Ochsenius and R. Gruhn, Eds., Taima-Taima. A Late Pleistocene Paleoindian Kill Site in Northernmost South America - Final Reports of 1976 Excavations (CIPICS/South American Quaternary Documentation Program, Saarbrucken, Federal Republic of Germany, 1979)] Nineteen dates on soil, wood, and mastodon bone collagen from Taima Taima are ca. 14,440 to 11,860 yr B.P., with an outlier at 7590 yr B P Nine dates on mastodon bone, plants, and possibly worked wood from Monte Verde range from 13,565 to 11,790 yr B P. Potential carbon contaminants are bitumin, redeposited volcanic ash, and modern pollutants at Monte Verde and petroleum, Miocene limestone, and 41,000- to 36,000-year-old lignite at Taima Taima The two point fragments from Monte Verde were near but not in the dated site, which held no debris from point manufacture among the approximately 10 possible lithics Stones with the 33,000-year-old dates have not yet been shown to be artifacts.
43. Monte Verde is a habitation site in a stream, and Taima Taima is a kill site in a spring [T. Dillehay, Ed , Monte Verde: A Late Pleistocene Settlement in Chile (Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, 1989), pp. 1-22 and pp. 132-145; C. Ochsenius and R. Gruhn, Eds., Taima-Taima. A Late Pleistocene Paleoindian Kill Site in Northernmost South America - Final Reports of 1976 Excavations (CIPICS/South American Quaternary Documentation Program, Saarbrucken, Federal Republic of Germany, 1979)] Nineteen dates on soil, wood, and mastodon bone collagen from Taima Taima are ca. 14,440 to 11,860 yr B.P., with an outlier at 7590 yr B P Nine dates on mastodon bone, plants, and possibly worked wood from Monte Verde range from 13,565 to 11,790 yr B P. Potential carbon contaminants are bitumin, redeposited volcanic ash, and modern pollutants at Monte Verde and petroleum, Miocene limestone, and 41,000- to 36,000-year-old lignite at Taima Taima The two point fragments from Monte Verde were near but not in the dated site, which held no debris from point manufacture among the approximately 10 possible lithics Stones with the 33,000-year-old dates have not yet been shown to be artifacts.
44. Surface sites in the Ecuadorian highlands have points with 47 obsidian hydration dates between 27,000 and 3000 yr B.P , but all 23 radiocarbon dates (on soil) are Holocene, 9080 to 4000 yr B.P. [W. J. Mayer-Oakes, in (11), pp. 133-156] An unassociated skull 20,000 to 30,000 years old by TL and radiocarbon dates on limestone concretions and amino acid racemization of collagen was only 2000 yr B.P. by collagen radiocarbon dates [D. M Davies, in (10), p. 279].
45. W R. Hurt, T. van der Hammen, G. Correal Urrego, The El Abra Rockshelters, Sabana de Bogotà, Colombia, South America (Occasional Paper and Monograph No. 2, Indiana Univ Museum, Bloomington, IN, 1976); G Correal Urrego, Evidencias culturales y megafauna pleistocenica en Colombia (Publicacion 12, Fundacion de Investigaciones Arqueologicas Nacional, Banco de La Republica, Bogota, Colombia, 1981). Undated stemmed, fluted triangular bifacial points include "Restrepo" and "El Inga broad-stemmed" [C. Gnecco, Lithic Technol 19, 35 (1994)].
46. W R. Hurt, T. van der Hammen, G. Correal Urrego, The El Abra Rockshelters, Sabana de Bogotà, Colombia, South America (Occasional Paper and Monograph No. 2, Indiana Univ Museum, Bloomington, IN, 1976); G Correal Urrego, Evidencias culturales y megafauna pleistocenica en Colombia (Publicacion 12, Fundacion de Investigaciones Arqueologicas Nacional, Banco de La Republica, Bogota, Colombia, 1981). Undated stemmed, fluted triangular bifacial points include "Restrepo" and "El Inga broad-stemmed" [C. Gnecco, Lithic Technol 19, 35 (1994)].
47. W R. Hurt, T. van der Hammen, G. Correal Urrego, The El Abra Rockshelters, Sabana de Bogotà, Colombia, South America (Occasional Paper and Monograph No. 2, Indiana Univ Museum, Bloomington, IN, 1976); G Correal Urrego, Evidencias culturales y megafauna pleistocenica en Colombia (Publicacion 12, Fundacion de Investigaciones Arqueologicas Nacional, Banco de La Republica, Bogota, Colombia, 1981). Undated stemmed, fluted triangular bifacial points include "Restrepo" and "El Inga broad-stemmed" [C. Gnecco, Lithic Technol 19, 35 (1994)].
48. In highland Peru, Pikimachay, a carbonate-rich shelter with flaked rocks and megafauria under rockfall, had five consistent radiocarbon dates between ca. 20,000 and 14,000 yr B.P. on bone and small charcoal samples [R S MacNeish et al., Prehistory of the Ayacucho Basin, Peru, Vol II (Univ. of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI, 1981)], but the artifacts are questioned. Higher levels with triangular points, modern fauna, and bone tools had six radiocarbon dates between 11,000 and 7100 yr B.P Guiterrero cave had triangular points, leaf-shaped points, a single pre-Clovis charcoal date of 12,560, and numerous dates between 10,585 and 7575 yr B.P. [T. F Lynch, Ed., Guitarrero Cave (Academic Press, NY, 1980)], Early Holocene sites contain modern camelids and points like Guitarrero's [J. Rick, Prehistoric Hunters of the High Andes (Academic Press, NY, 1980)]. On the coast, surface sites with large, triangular, stemmed bifacial points and limaces of the Paijan culture contained charcoal and megafauna dated 12,795 and 12,360 yr B.P , but 21 other dates on human bone, charcoal, and modern fauna fell from 10,430 to 7740 yr B.P [P. Ossa and M. Moseley, Nawpa Pacha 9, 1 (1971) ; C Chauchat, Prehistoire de la Cote Mort du Perou: Le Paijanien de Cupisnique (Cahiers du Quaternaire No. 18, CNRS Editions, Pans, 1992)]. Surface flake scatters at Talara tar seeps had two discordant dates of 11,200 and 8125 yr B P. on marine shell [J Richardson in (10), pp. 274-289]
49. In highland Peru, Pikimachay, a carbonate-rich shelter with flaked rocks and megafauria under rockfall, had five consistent radiocarbon dates between ca. 20,000 and 14,000 yr B.P. on bone and small charcoal samples [R S MacNeish et al., Prehistory of the Ayacucho Basin, Peru, Vol II (Univ. of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI, 1981)], but the artifacts are questioned. Higher levels with triangular points, modern fauna, and bone tools had six radiocarbon dates between 11,000 and 7100 yr B.P Guiterrero cave had triangular points, leaf-shaped points, a single pre-Clovis charcoal date of 12,560, and numerous dates between 10,585 and 7575 yr B.P. [T. F Lynch, Ed., Guitarrero Cave (Academic Press, NY, 1980)], Early Holocene sites contain modern camelids and points like Guitarrero's [J. Rick, Prehistoric Hunters of the High Andes (Academic Press, NY, 1980)]. On the coast, surface sites with large, triangular, stemmed bifacial points and limaces of the Paijan culture contained charcoal and megafauna dated 12,795 and 12,360 yr B.P , but 21 other dates on human bone, charcoal, and modern fauna fell from 10,430 to 7740 yr B.P [P. Ossa and M. Moseley, Nawpa Pacha 9, 1 (1971) ; C Chauchat, Prehistoire de la Cote Mort du Perou: Le Paijanien de Cupisnique (Cahiers du Quaternaire No. 18, CNRS Editions, Pans, 1992)]. Surface flake scatters at Talara tar seeps had two discordant dates of 11,200 and 8125 yr B P. on marine shell [J Richardson in (10), pp. 274-289]
50. In highland Peru, Pikimachay, a carbonate-rich shelter with flaked rocks and megafauria under rockfall, had five consistent radiocarbon dates between ca. 20,000 and 14,000 yr B.P. on bone and small charcoal samples [R S MacNeish et al., Prehistory of the Ayacucho Basin, Peru, Vol II (Univ. of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI, 1981)], but the artifacts are questioned. Higher levels with triangular points, modern fauna, and bone tools had six radiocarbon dates between 11,000 and 7100 yr B.P Guiterrero cave had triangular points, leaf-shaped points, a single pre-Clovis charcoal date of 12,560, and numerous dates between 10,585 and 7575 yr B.P. [T. F Lynch, Ed., Guitarrero Cave (Academic Press, NY, 1980)], Early Holocene sites contain modern camelids and points like Guitarrero's [J. Rick, Prehistoric Hunters of the High Andes (Academic Press, NY, 1980)]. On the coast, surface sites with large, triangular, stemmed bifacial points and limaces of the Paijan culture contained charcoal and megafauna dated 12,795 and 12,360 yr B.P , but 21 other dates on human bone, charcoal, and modern fauna fell from 10,430 to 7740 yr B.P [P. Ossa and M. Moseley, Nawpa Pacha 9, 1 (1971) ; C Chauchat, Prehistoire de la Cote Mort du Perou: Le Paijanien de Cupisnique (Cahiers du Quaternaire No. 18, CNRS Editions, Pans, 1992)]. Surface flake scatters at Talara tar seeps had two discordant dates of 11,200 and 8125 yr B P. on marine shell [J Richardson in (10), pp. 274-289]
51. In highland Peru, Pikimachay, a carbonate-rich shelter with flaked rocks and megafauria under rockfall, had five consistent radiocarbon dates between ca. 20,000 and 14,000 yr B.P. on bone and small charcoal samples [R S MacNeish et al., Prehistory of the Ayacucho Basin, Peru, Vol II (Univ. of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI, 1981)], but the artifacts are questioned. Higher levels with triangular points, modern fauna, and bone tools had six radiocarbon dates between 11,000 and 7100 yr B.P Guiterrero cave had triangular points, leaf-shaped points, a single pre-Clovis charcoal date of 12,560, and numerous dates between 10,585 and 7575 yr B.P. [T. F Lynch, Ed., Guitarrero Cave (Academic Press, NY, 1980)], Early Holocene sites contain modern camelids and points like Guitarrero's [J. Rick, Prehistoric Hunters of the High Andes (Academic Press, NY, 1980)]. On the coast, surface sites with large, triangular, stemmed bifacial points and limaces of the Paijan culture contained charcoal and megafauna dated 12,795 and 12,360 yr B.P , but 21 other dates on human bone, charcoal, and modern fauna fell from 10,430 to 7740 yr B.P [P. Ossa and M. Moseley, Nawpa Pacha 9, 1 (1971) ; C Chauchat, Prehistoire de la Cote Mort du Perou: Le Paijanien de Cupisnique (Cahiers du Quaternaire No. 18, CNRS Editions, Pans, 1992)]. Surface flake scatters at Talara tar seeps had two discordant dates of 11,200 and 8125 yr B P. on marine shell [J Richardson in (10), pp. 274-289]
52. In highland Peru, Pikimachay, a carbonate-rich shelter with flaked rocks and megafauria under rockfall, had five consistent radiocarbon dates between ca. 20,000 and 14,000 yr B.P. on bone and small charcoal samples [R S MacNeish et al., Prehistory of the Ayacucho Basin, Peru, Vol II (Univ. of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI, 1981)], but the artifacts are questioned. Higher levels with triangular points, modern fauna, and bone tools had six radiocarbon dates between 11,000 and 7100 yr B.P Guiterrero cave had triangular points, leaf-shaped points, a single pre-Clovis charcoal date of 12,560, and numerous dates between 10,585 and 7575 yr B.P. [T. F Lynch, Ed., Guitarrero Cave (Academic Press, NY, 1980)], Early Holocene sites contain modern camelids and points like Guitarrero's [J. Rick, Prehistoric Hunters of the High Andes (Academic Press, NY, 1980)]. On the coast, surface sites with large, triangular, stemmed bifacial points and limaces of the Paijan culture contained charcoal and megafauna dated 12,795 and 12,360 yr B.P , but 21 other dates on human bone, charcoal, and modern fauna fell from 10,430 to 7740 yr B.P [P. Ossa and M. Moseley, Nawpa Pacha 9, 1 (1971) ; C Chauchat, Prehistoire de la Cote Mort du Perou: Le Paijanien de Cupisnique (Cahiers du Quaternaire No. 18, CNRS Editions, Pans, 1992)]. Surface flake scatters at Talara tar seeps had two discordant dates of 11,200 and 8125 yr B P. on marine shell [J Richardson in (10), pp. 274-289]
53. T. C Whitmore and G T. Prance, Eds , Biogeography and Quaternary History in Tropical America (Oxford Monographs on Biogeography No 3, Oxford Univ Press, Oxford, 1987)
54. B. J. Meggers, in Amazonia, G. T. Prance and T. C. Lovejoy, Eds. (Pergamon, Oxford, 1985), pp 307-327; D W Lathrap, in Origins of Agriculture, C. Reed, Ed. (Mouton, The Hague, 1977), pp. 713-751
55. B. J. Meggers, in Amazonia, G. T. Prance and T. C. Lovejoy, Eds. (Pergamon, Oxford, 1985), pp 307-327; D W Lathrap, in Origins of Agriculture, C. Reed, Ed. (Mouton, The Hague, 1977), pp. 713-751
56. A. Boomert, Niew West-Indische Gids 54, 94 (1980), Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi (Banco Safra, São Paulo, Brazil, 1986), pp 114-117; M. Simoes, Bol. Mus. Para. Emilio Goeldi 62, 1 (1976); private collections, Monte Alegre. The Lower Amazon points differ from undated Rio Negro basin bifacial points, which are large (up to 20 cm), triangular, elongated, chalcedony points with broad fluted stems (8), similar to Restrepo points (23)
57. A. Boomert, Niew West-Indische Gids 54, 94 (1980), Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi (Banco Safra, São Paulo, Brazil, 1986), pp 114-117; M. Simoes, Bol. Mus. Para. Emilio Goeldi 62, 1 (1976); private collections, Monte Alegre. The Lower Amazon points differ from undated Rio Negro basin bifacial points, which are large (up to 20 cm), triangular, elongated, chalcedony points with broad fluted stems (8), similar to Restrepo points (23)
58. A. Boomert, Niew West-Indische Gids 54, 94 (1980), Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi (Banco Safra, São Paulo, Brazil, 1986), pp 114-117; M. Simoes, Bol. Mus. Para. Emilio Goeldi 62, 1 (1976); private collections, Monte Alegre. The Lower Amazon points differ from undated Rio Negro basin bifacial points, which are large (up to 20 cm), triangular, elongated, chalcedony points with broad fluted stems (8), similar to Restrepo points (23)
59. A C. Roosevelt, R. A. Housley, M. Imazio da Silveira, S. Maranca, R Johnson, Science 254, 1621 (1991); M. Magalhães, Archaeology of Carajás: The PreHistoric Presence of Man in Amazonia (Companhia Vale do Rio Doce, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1994)
60. A C. Roosevelt, R. A. Housley, M. Imazio da Silveira, S. Maranca, R Johnson, Science 254, 1621 (1991); M. Magalhães, Archaeology of Carajás: The PreHistoric Presence of Man in Amazonia (Companhia Vale do Rio Doce, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1994)
61. I. Rouse and J. Cruxent, Venezuelan Archaeology (Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT, 1963); W. P. Barse, Science 250, 1388 (1990).
62. I. Rouse and J. Cruxent, Venezuelan Archaeology (Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT, 1963); W. P. Barse, Science 250, 1388 (1990).
63. M. Consens, Dedalo 1, 265 (1989).
64. C F Hartt, Am. Nat. 5, 139 (1871); E. Perreira, personal communication, 1991; A. R. Wallace, A Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Nagro (Ward, Lock; London, 1889), pp. 100-107. N. N. Sadeck led the research team to Caverna da Pedra Pintada Outside the cave, a tourist path had destroyed the deposit.
65. C F Hartt, Am. Nat. 5, 139 (1871); E. Perreira, personal communication, 1991; A. R. Wallace, A Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Nagro (Ward, Lock; London, 1889), pp. 100-107. N. N. Sadeck led the research team to Caverna da Pedra Pintada Outside the cave, a tourist path had destroyed the deposit.
66. L. T. Silveira, R V Lima Pinheiro, S. V. Lima Pinheiro, Roteiro Espeleologico das Serras do Ererê Paituna (Monte Alegre, Pará); Projeto Radambrazil: Mapa Geológico, 1976, Santarém, Folha SA 21, Min. das Minas, Departamento Nacional de Produção Mineral. The Am climate with ∼2000 mm of rain is the most widespread in Amazonia
67. A C Roosevelt, The Developmental Sequence at Santarém on the Lower Amazon, Brazil (Report to NEH, Washington, DC, 1990) and Moundbuilders of the Amazon: Geophysical Archaeology on Marajó Island, Brazil (Academic Press, San Diego, CA, 1991).
68. A C Roosevelt, The Developmental Sequence at Santarém on the Lower Amazon, Brazil (Report to NEH, Washington, DC, 1990) and Moundbuilders of the Amazon: Geophysical Archaeology on Marajó Island, Brazil (Academic Press, San Diego, CA, 1991).
69. Excavation was carried out with hand tools, following stratigraphy. Objects were piece-plotted. Soil was Munsell color-coded and screened through 1.5-mm mesh For each level, 8 to 32 liters of soil were floated through filters, 1-liter samples were collected for microfloral analysis, and 8-liter samples were collected for TL dosimetry.
70. B. E Luedtke, An Archaeologist's Guide to Chert and Flint (Archaeological Research Tools, vol. 7, Institute of Archaeology, Univ. of California, Los Angeles, 1992).
71. M.-L. Inizan, H. Roche, J. Tixier, Technology of Knapped Stone (Cercle de Recherche et d'Etudes Prehistoriques and CNRS, Meudon, France, 1992).
72. The samples were analyzed at the American Museum of Natural History by scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) to assess micromorphological features and identify major inorganic elemental components and secondary components. Semiquantitative EDS analysis was carried out for four principal elements (Al, Si, K, and Fe). The samples were also studied with optical petrography for mineral and organic components. At the University of Pará, five additional excavated pigment samples were analyzed by x-ray diffraction and two were thin-sectioned SEM-EDS samples were mounted on half-inch aluminum stubs directly on conductive carbon tape and coated with 100 Å of evaporated carbon to improve electron conductivity. SEM-EDS was carried out on a Zeiss DSM 950 scanning electron microscope with a Link Analytical AN 10000 energy-dispersive system under identical conditions for all samples (15 kV for 100 live seconds with an 18-mm working distance). For optical petrography, samples 1/2 and 1/4 were analyzed as grain mounts in refractive-index oils
73. H. Blatt, G. Middleton, R. Murray, Origin of Sedimentary Rocks (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, ed. 2, 1979), p 315.
74. Identifications were made by comparison of carbonized plants with project collections from the region and with MPEG and New York Botanical Garden (NYBG) herbarium specimens. Preliminary identifications were by M. L. Ribeiro, Monte Alegre. Information about tarum̃a was contributed by N. Smith and W. Balee. Brazil nut was identified by S. Mon, NYBG Jutaí was identified by L. Kaplan and J H. Langenheim.
75. Identification of mammals was done by J. Pokines and J. Flynn of the Field Museum (FM). Identification of birds was done by J Bates and D. Stotz, FM.
76. Samples were cleaned mechanically and treated with a succession of acid and basic baths to remove possible contaminants. To test for anachronistic carbon, the base-soluble carbon of 19 seeds and charcoal samples was extracted and dated separately from the solids by AMS, at the suggestion of G V Haynes Jr The soluble carbon dates were statistically equivalent to the solid carbon dates from the same specimens, eliminating the likelihood of contamination. In three of the palm seeds, the solids were too small to date after the intensive pretreatment. No ancient carbon contamination agents are known to occur in the cave sandstone and none were found. White nodules and clear crystals in the layers were shown by x-ray diffraction and petrography to be gypsum (calcium sulfate), not calcium carbonate. Stable isotope ratios for the dates fell in the ranges of closed-canopy tropical rainforest trees, except for one with a ratio characteristic of local CAM forest epiphytes and rock-dwelling succulents.
77. Luminescence dating is based on stored energy that accumulates in a sample over time through the effects of natural radioactivity from within the sample and its immediate environs This energy is released by heat or light to produce a luminescence signal proportional to the time since the last exposure to heat or light. The age is derived by determination of the paleodose or equivalent dose and the amount of radiation necessary to produce the natural luminescence signal, and dividing that by the annual dose, which is the amount of radiation received by the sample in 1 year [J. M. Aitken and H. Valladas, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser B 337, 139 (1992)] The lithics were dated to their last exposure to heat (at least 400°C); the sediments were dated to their last exposure to light before deposition The lithics were protected from heat and sun to prevent resetting but could not be kept in the dark. The chalcedony is protected from reserting by opacity but the quartz breccia is translucent Material for dating was taken from interiors to minimize resetting. Environmental dose rates were estimated from soil samples because dosimeters could not be placed. The OSL analysis was performed on 90- to 125-μm quartz grains prepared in a standard fashion [M. J. Aitken, Thermoluminescence Dating, Academic Press, Orlando, FL (1985)]. Luminescence in quartz is known to have a rapidly bleaching component and a slowly bleaching component when exposed to light [N. Spooner, J. R. Prescott, J. T. Hutton, Quat. Sci. Rev. 7, 325 (1988)] OSL measures only the rapidly bleaching component, which only takes a few minutes to drop to background levels, usually ensuring sufficient light exposure for resetting in antiquity. The OSL signal was stimulated by green light and the emission was collected through ultraviolet filters. The light was produced by a high-intensity quartztungsten halogen lamp, whose beam was collimated, passed through 550 20-nm interference filters, and directed to the sample via fiber optics. The paleodose was evaluated by combination of additive and regeneration growth curves, constructed from single aliquot analyses [G. A. T Duller, Nucl Tracks Radiat. Meas. 18, 371 (1991); J R. Prescott, D. J. Huntley, J. T. Hutton, Ancient TL 11, 1 (1993)]. The annual radioactivity was measured on the sediment samples by high-resolution gamma spectroscopy No disequilibrium was detected in the decay chains. These results agreed with the external doses obtained for the lithics at the Gif lab, CERNS-CEA The experimental procedure for TL sample preparation and dating for lithics has been described elsewhere [H. Valladas, Quat Sci. Rev. 11, 1 (1992)]. A fission-track study of spatial distribution of uranium in the lithic samples, used to estimate dose rates, revealed relatively homogeneous distribution of radioisotopes. Moreover, there was good agreement between the mean external dose rate computed from gamma spectrometric measurements on sediment samples, 32 6 ±22 μGy/y, and the one extrapolated from isochron analysis
78. Luminescence dating is based on stored energy that accumulates in a sample over time through the effects of natural radioactivity from within the sample and its immediate environs This energy is released by heat or light to produce a luminescence signal proportional to the time since the last exposure to heat or light. The age is derived by determination of the paleodose or equivalent dose and the amount of radiation necessary to produce the natural luminescence signal, and dividing that by the annual dose, which is the amount of radiation received by the sample in 1 year [J. M. Aitken and H. Valladas, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser B 337, 139 (1992)] The lithics were dated to their last exposure to heat (at least 400°C); the sediments were dated to their last exposure to light before deposition The lithics were protected from heat and sun to prevent resetting but could not be kept in the dark. The chalcedony is protected from reserting by opacity but the quartz breccia is translucent Material for dating was taken from interiors to minimize resetting. Environmental dose rates were estimated from soil samples because dosimeters could not be placed. The OSL analysis was performed on 90- to 125-μm quartz grains prepared in a standard fashion [M. J. Aitken, Thermoluminescence Dating, Academic Press, Orlando, FL (1985)]. Luminescence in quartz is known to have a rapidly bleaching component and a slowly bleaching component when exposed to light [N. Spooner, J. R. Prescott, J. T. Hutton, Quat. Sci. Rev. 7, 325 (1988)] OSL measures only the rapidly bleaching component, which only takes a few minutes to drop to background levels, usually ensuring sufficient light exposure for resetting in antiquity. The OSL signal was stimulated by green light and the emission was collected through ultraviolet filters. The light was produced by a high-intensity quartztungsten halogen lamp, whose beam was collimated, passed through 550 20-nm interference filters, and directed to the sample via fiber optics. The paleodose was evaluated by combination of additive and regeneration growth curves, constructed from single aliquot analyses [G. A. T Duller, Nucl Tracks Radiat. Meas. 18, 371 (1991); J R. Prescott, D. J. Huntley, J. T. Hutton, Ancient TL 11, 1 (1993)]. The annual radioactivity was measured on the sediment samples by high-resolution gamma spectroscopy No disequilibrium was detected in the decay chains. These results agreed with the external doses obtained for the lithics at the Gif lab, CERNS-CEA The experimental procedure for TL sample preparation and dating for lithics has been described elsewhere [H. Valladas, Quat Sci. Rev. 11, 1 (1992)]. A fission-track study of spatial distribution of uranium in the lithic samples, used to estimate dose rates, revealed relatively homogeneous distribution of radioisotopes. Moreover, there was good agreement between the mean external dose rate computed from gamma spectrometric measurements on sediment samples, 32 6 ±22 μGy/y, and the one extrapolated from isochron analysis
79. Luminescence dating is based on stored energy that accumulates in a sample over time through the effects of natural radioactivity from within the sample and its immediate environs This energy is released by heat or light to produce a luminescence signal proportional to the time since the last exposure to heat or light. The age is derived by determination of the paleodose or equivalent dose and the amount of radiation necessary to produce the natural luminescence signal, and dividing that by the annual dose, which is the amount of radiation received by the sample in 1 year [J. M. Aitken and H. Valladas, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser B 337, 139 (1992)] The lithics were dated to their last exposure to heat (at least 400°C); the sediments were dated to their last exposure to light before deposition The lithics were protected from heat and sun to prevent resetting but could not be kept in the dark. The chalcedony is protected from reserting by opacity but the quartz breccia is translucent Material for dating was taken from interiors to minimize resetting. Environmental dose rates were estimated from soil samples because dosimeters could not be placed. The OSL analysis was performed on 90- to 125-μm quartz grains prepared in a standard fashion [M. J. Aitken, Thermoluminescence Dating, Academic Press, Orlando, FL (1985)]. Luminescence in quartz is known to have a rapidly bleaching component and a slowly bleaching component when exposed to light [N. Spooner, J. R. Prescott, J. T. Hutton, Quat. Sci. Rev. 7, 325 (1988)] OSL measures only the rapidly bleaching component, which only takes a few minutes to drop to background levels, usually ensuring sufficient light exposure for resetting in antiquity. The OSL signal was stimulated by green light and the emission was collected through ultraviolet filters. The light was produced by a high-intensity quartztungsten halogen lamp, whose beam was collimated, passed through 550 20-nm interference filters, and directed to the sample via fiber optics. The paleodose was evaluated by combination of additive and regeneration growth curves, constructed from single aliquot analyses [G. A. T Duller, Nucl Tracks Radiat. Meas. 18, 371 (1991); J R. Prescott, D. J. Huntley, J. T. Hutton, Ancient TL 11, 1 (1993)]. The annual radioactivity was measured on the sediment samples by high-resolution gamma spectroscopy No disequilibrium was detected in the decay chains. These results agreed with the external doses obtained for the lithics at the Gif lab, CERNS-CEA The experimental procedure for TL sample preparation and dating for lithics has been described elsewhere [H. Valladas, Quat Sci. Rev. 11, 1 (1992)]. A fission-track study of spatial distribution of uranium in the lithic samples, used to estimate dose rates, revealed relatively homogeneous distribution of radioisotopes. Moreover, there was good agreement between the mean external dose rate computed from gamma spectrometric measurements on sediment samples, 32 6 ±22 μGy/y, and the one extrapolated from isochron analysis
80. Luminescence dating is based on stored energy that accumulates in a sample over time through the effects of natural radioactivity from within the sample and its immediate environs This energy is released by heat or light to produce a luminescence signal proportional to the time since the last exposure to heat or light. The age is derived by determination of the paleodose or equivalent dose and the amount of radiation necessary to produce the natural luminescence signal, and dividing that by the annual dose, which is the amount of radiation received by the sample in 1 year [J. M. Aitken and H. Valladas, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser B 337, 139 (1992)] The lithics were dated to their last exposure to heat (at least 400°C); the sediments were dated to their last exposure to light before deposition The lithics were protected from heat and sun to prevent resetting but could not be kept in the dark. The chalcedony is protected from reserting by opacity but the quartz breccia is translucent Material for dating was taken from interiors to minimize resetting. Environmental dose rates were estimated from soil samples because dosimeters could not be placed. The OSL analysis was performed on 90- to 125-μm quartz grains prepared in a standard fashion [M. J. Aitken, Thermoluminescence Dating, Academic Press, Orlando, FL (1985)]. Luminescence in quartz is known to have a rapidly bleaching component and a slowly bleaching component when exposed to light [N. Spooner, J. R. Prescott, J. T. Hutton, Quat. Sci. Rev. 7, 325 (1988)] OSL measures only the rapidly bleaching component, which only takes a few minutes to drop to background levels, usually ensuring sufficient light exposure for resetting in antiquity. The OSL signal was stimulated by green light and the emission was collected through ultraviolet filters. The light was produced by a high-intensity quartztungsten halogen lamp, whose beam was collimated, passed through 550 20-nm interference filters, and directed to the sample via fiber optics. The paleodose was evaluated by combination of additive and regeneration growth curves, constructed from single aliquot analyses [G. A. T Duller, Nucl Tracks Radiat. Meas. 18, 371 (1991); J R. Prescott, D. J. Huntley, J. T. Hutton, Ancient TL 11, 1 (1993)]. The annual radioactivity was measured on the sediment samples by high-resolution gamma spectroscopy No disequilibrium was detected in the decay chains. These results agreed with the external doses obtained for the lithics at the Gif lab, CERNS-CEA The experimental procedure for TL sample preparation and dating for lithics has been described elsewhere [H. Valladas, Quat Sci. Rev. 11, 1 (1992)]. A fission-track study of spatial distribution of uranium in the lithic samples, used to estimate dose rates, revealed relatively homogeneous distribution of radioisotopes. Moreover, there was good agreement between the mean external dose rate computed from gamma spectrometric measurements on sediment samples, 32 6 ±22 μGy/y, and the one extrapolated from isochron analysis
81. Luminescence dating is based on stored energy that accumulates in a sample over time through the effects of natural radioactivity from within the sample and its immediate environs This energy is released by heat or light to produce a luminescence signal proportional to the time since the last exposure to heat or light. The age is derived by determination of the paleodose or equivalent dose and the amount of radiation necessary to produce the natural luminescence signal, and dividing that by the annual dose, which is the amount of radiation received by the sample in 1 year [J. M. Aitken and H. Valladas, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser B 337, 139 (1992)] The lithics were dated to their last exposure to heat (at least 400°C); the sediments were dated to their last exposure to light before deposition The lithics were protected from heat and sun to prevent resetting but could not be kept in the dark. The chalcedony is protected from reserting by opacity but the quartz breccia is translucent Material for dating was taken from interiors to minimize resetting. Environmental dose rates were estimated from soil samples because dosimeters could not be placed. The OSL analysis was performed on 90- to 125-μm quartz grains prepared in a standard fashion [M. J. Aitken, Thermoluminescence Dating, Academic Press, Orlando, FL (1985)]. Luminescence in quartz is known to have a rapidly bleaching component and a slowly bleaching component when exposed to light [N. Spooner, J. R. Prescott, J. T. Hutton, Quat. Sci. Rev. 7, 325 (1988)] OSL measures only the rapidly bleaching component, which only takes a few minutes to drop to background levels, usually ensuring sufficient light exposure for resetting in antiquity. The OSL signal was stimulated by green light and the emission was collected through ultraviolet filters. The light was produced by a high-intensity quartztungsten halogen lamp, whose beam was collimated, passed through 550 20-nm interference filters, and directed to the sample via fiber optics. The paleodose was evaluated by combination of additive and regeneration growth curves, constructed from single aliquot analyses [G. A. T Duller, Nucl Tracks Radiat. Meas. 18, 371 (1991); J R. Prescott, D. J. Huntley, J. T. Hutton, Ancient TL 11, 1 (1993)]. The annual radioactivity was measured on the sediment samples by high-resolution gamma spectroscopy No disequilibrium was detected in the decay chains. These results agreed with the external doses obtained for the lithics at the Gif lab, CERNS-CEA The experimental procedure for TL sample preparation and dating for lithics has been described elsewhere [H. Valladas, Quat Sci. Rev. 11, 1 (1992)]. A fission-track study of spatial distribution of uranium in the lithic samples, used to estimate dose rates, revealed relatively homogeneous distribution of radioisotopes. Moreover, there was good agreement between the mean external dose rate computed from gamma spectrometric measurements on sediment samples, 32 6 ±22 μGy/y, and the one extrapolated from isochron analysis
82. Luminescence dating is based on stored energy that accumulates in a sample over time through the effects of natural radioactivity from within the sample and its immediate environs This energy is released by heat or light to produce a luminescence signal proportional to the time since the last exposure to heat or light. The age is derived by determination of the paleodose or equivalent dose and the amount of radiation necessary to produce the natural luminescence signal, and dividing that by the annual dose, which is the amount of radiation received by the sample in 1 year [J. M. Aitken and H. Valladas, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser B 337, 139 (1992)] The lithics were dated to their last exposure to heat (at least 400°C); the sediments were dated to their last exposure to light before deposition The lithics were protected from heat and sun to prevent resetting but could not be kept in the dark. The chalcedony is protected from reserting by opacity but the quartz breccia is translucent Material for dating was taken from interiors to minimize resetting. Environmental dose rates were estimated from soil samples because dosimeters could not be placed. The OSL analysis was performed on 90- to 125-μm quartz grains prepared in a standard fashion [M. J. Aitken, Thermoluminescence Dating, Academic Press, Orlando, FL (1985)]. Luminescence in quartz is known to have a rapidly bleaching component and a slowly bleaching component when exposed to light [N. Spooner, J. R. Prescott, J. T. Hutton, Quat. Sci. Rev. 7, 325 (1988)] OSL measures only the rapidly bleaching component, which only takes a few minutes to drop to background levels, usually ensuring sufficient light exposure for resetting in antiquity. The OSL signal was stimulated by green light and the emission was collected through ultraviolet filters. The light was produced by a high-intensity quartztungsten halogen lamp, whose beam was collimated, passed through 550 20-nm interference filters, and directed to the sample via fiber optics. The paleodose was evaluated by combination of additive and regeneration growth curves, constructed from single aliquot analyses [G. A. T Duller, Nucl Tracks Radiat. Meas. 18, 371 (1991); J R. Prescott, D. J. Huntley, J. T. Hutton, Ancient TL 11, 1 (1993)]. The annual radioactivity was measured on the sediment samples by high-resolution gamma spectroscopy No disequilibrium was detected in the decay chains. These results agreed with the external doses obtained for the lithics at the Gif lab, CERNS-CEA The experimental procedure for TL sample preparation and dating for lithics has been described elsewhere [H. Valladas, Quat Sci. Rev. 11, 1 (1992)]. A fission-track study of spatial distribution of uranium in the lithic samples, used to estimate dose rates, revealed relatively homogeneous distribution of radioisotopes. Moreover, there was good agreement between the mean external dose rate computed from gamma spectrometric
83. 14G and uranium-thorium dates and comparison of radiocarbon and TL dates for the French Magdelenian suggest that radiocarbon years before the present range from 500 to 3000 years younger than calendar years [B. Becker, B. Kromer, P. Trimborn, Nature 353, 647 (1991); E. Bard, B Hamelin, R. G Fairbanks, A. Zindler, ibid. 354, 405 (1990); F. Audouze, in The Pleistocene Old World, O. Soffer, Ed. (Plenum, New York, 1987), p 185; K. Tankersley, personal communication]
84. 14G and uranium-thorium dates and comparison of radiocarbon and TL dates for the French Magdelenian suggest that radiocarbon years before the present range from 500 to 3000 years younger than calendar years [B. Becker, B. Kromer, P. Trimborn, Nature 353, 647 (1991); E. Bard, B Hamelin, R. G Fairbanks, A. Zindler, ibid. 354, 405 (1990); F. Audouze, in The Pleistocene Old World, O. Soffer, Ed. (Plenum, New York, 1987), p 185; K. Tankersley, personal communication]
85. 14G and uranium-thorium dates and comparison of radiocarbon and TL dates for the French Magdelenian suggest that radiocarbon years before the present range from 500 to 3000 years younger than calendar years [B. Becker, B. Kromer, P. Trimborn, Nature 353, 647 (1991); E. Bard, B Hamelin, R. G Fairbanks, A. Zindler, ibid. 354, 405 (1990); F. Audouze, in The Pleistocene Old World, O. Soffer, Ed. (Plenum, New York, 1987), p 185; K. Tankersley, personal communication]
86. 14G and uranium-thorium dates and comparison of radiocarbon and TL dates for the French Magdelenian suggest that radiocarbon years before the present range from 500 to 3000 years younger than calendar years [B. Becker, B. Kromer, P. Trimborn, Nature 353, 647 (1991); E. Bard, B Hamelin, R. G Fairbanks, A. Zindler, ibid. 354, 405 (1990); F. Audouze, in The Pleistocene Old World, O. Soffer, Ed. (Plenum, New York, 1987), p 185; K. Tankersley, personal communication]
87. The dates were run at Oxford University and Geochron Laboratories See table 1 in A C. Roosevelt, in The Emergence of Pottery, J. Hoopes and W Barnett, Eds. (Smithsonian Press, Washington, DC, 1995), pp. 115-132.
88. D. W. Lathrap, The Upper Amazon (Praeger, New York, 1970); A. C Roosevelt, Parmana: Prehistoric Maize and Manioc Subsistence along the Amazon and Orinoco (Academic Press, New York, 1980).
89. D. W. Lathrap, The Upper Amazon (Praeger, New York, 1970); A. C Roosevelt, Parmana: Prehistoric Maize and Manioc Subsistence along the Amazon and Orinoco (Academic Press, New York, 1980).
90. Corn was identified by W. Galinat and L Kaplan.
91. P. B. Cavalcante, Frutas Comestíveis da Amazônia (MPEG and Editora CEJUP, Belém, Brazil, 1991), pp. 68-71 and pp 158-163
92. A. C. Roosevelt, L'Homme 33, 255 (1993)
93. D. Meltzer, Evol. Anthropol. 2, 157, D. G. Steele and J. F. Powell, ibid , p. 138.
94. D. Meltzer, Evol. Anthropol. 2, 157, D. G. Steele and J. F. Powell, ibid , p. 138.
95. A C Roosevelt, Ed , Amazonian Indians from Prehistory to the Present: Anthropological Approaches (Univ. of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ, 1994).
96. K Hill and A M, Hurtado, Am. Sci. 77, 437 (1989).
97. A Roosevelt and S Beckerman, organizers, Hunter-Gatherers of Lowland South America (taped symposium, AAAS, Washington, DC, 1991), pp 176-177.
98. T. D. Price and J. A. Brown, Eds., Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers: The Emergence of Cultural Complexity (Academic Press, Orlando, FL, 1985).
99. T. C. Van Der Hammen, in Bol. IG-USP, Publ. Esp 8, 1 (1991).
100. M Bush and P Colinvaux, Vegetatio 76, 141 (1988); N Smith, in Ann. Am. Assoc Geog. 70, 553.
101. M Bush and P Colinvaux, Vegetatio 76, 141 (1988); N Smith, in Ann. Am. Assoc Geog. 70, 553.
102. D. Campbell, in Large-Scale Ecology and Conservation Biology, P. J. Edwards. R. M. May, N R. Webb, Eds. (Blackwell, Oxford, UK, 1994), pp. 179-197; W. Balee, in Resource Management in Amazonia: Indigenous and Folk Strategies D. A. Posey and W. Balee, Eds. (NYBG, New York, 1989), pp 1-21; A. Anderson, Ed., Alternatives to Deforestation (Columbia Univ Press, New York, 1990).
103. D. Campbell, in Large-Scale Ecology and Conservation Biology, P. J. Edwards. R. M. May, N R. Webb, Eds. (Blackwell, Oxford, UK, 1994), pp. 179-197; W. Balee, in Resource Management in Amazonia: Indigenous and Folk Strategies D. A. Posey and W. Balee, Eds. (NYBG, New York, 1989), pp 1-21; A. Anderson, Ed., Alternatives to Deforestation (Columbia Univ Press, New York, 1990).
104. D. Campbell, in Large-Scale Ecology and Conservation Biology, P. J. Edwards. R. M. May, N R. Webb, Eds. (Blackwell, Oxford, UK, 1994), pp. 179-197; W. Balee, in Resource Management in Amazonia: Indigenous and Folk Strategies D. A. Posey and W. Balee, Eds. (NYBG, New York, 1989), pp 1-21; A. Anderson, Ed., Alternatives to Deforestation (Columbia Univ Press, New York, 1990).
105. B. Chayla, H. Jaffrezic, J -L Joron, C. R. Acad. Sci Paris 227, 273 (1973).
106. Y. Liritzis and M. Kokkoris, Nucl. Geophys. 6, 423 (1992).
107. J. Huxtable and R. M. Jacobi, Archaeometry 24, 164 (1982).
108. J. R. Prescott and J. T. Hutton, Radiat Meas 23, 497
109. The Lower Amazon Project research was funded by NEH (Santarém, grants RO21464 and RO22319), NSF (Marajó, grants INT8306494, BNS8509846, and BNS8712180), and a MacArthur fellowship prize (1988 through 1993). We thank our counterpart A Duran Coirolo (Arqueologia, MPEG); N N. Sadeck (Monte Alegre), H. Amaral (Santarém), M Eck, B Sommer. J. Dunlap, J. McCarron, D. Schaepe, N Taintor, M. L and O Ribeiro, H. and F. H. Brito de Assuncão, J and O da Silva Ribeiro, M. J. and S Neves Ribeiro, D Valente da Silva, A O'Bnen, L. Brown, J. Douglas, and D. Goldberg for field assistance; L C Batista Lobato and C. Rosário (MPEG) for identifications, G. De La Penha (Ministeno de Espacio), R Coeli and M. Tadeu (Instituto Brasileiro do Patrimônio Cultural), A. Rodrigues de Oliveira (Director, MPEG), and P Friaes (GEDEBAM) for logistical support, J Jones and H O'Bnen for cartography, J. VanStone, E. Steinberg, K. Weiner, P. Tiscione, S Barut, R. White, W. Hurt, K. Tankersley, J Morrow, R Rick, and M. Consens for consultation, J Foerster, P. Kremer, and E O'Donnell for administrative services, L. Dorman for printing" D A White and H. Lundberg for photos; E. Quinn, M. Cosentino, R Mazurek, M. Charleton, and J. Jimenez for research assistance; and J. Sliva, G Powell, and Z. Jastrzebski for art.