Sourcing and reporting in news magazine programs: 60 minutes versus hard copy

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 76, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 293-311

  Grabe, Maria Elizabeth ^a   Zhou, Shuhua ^a   Barnett, Brooke ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0000932588     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769909907600208     Document Type: Article

References (116)

1. This project was funded by a grant from the School of Journalism at Indiana University. The authors would like to thank Janine Riding for her help with preparing this manuscript for publication.
2. News sources are defined as those individuals who appeared in voice or visually in the news. We acknowledge that journalists theoretically also rely on sources such as databases, documents, books, etc. Yet, it is noteworthy that Hansen reports that, despite the introduction of supposed revolutionary electronic information technologies, almost half of all newspaper stories don't make reference to written or electronic documents. Kathleen A. Hansen, Jean Ward, Joan L. Conners, and Mark Neuzil, "Local Breaking News: Sources, Technology, and News Routines," Journalism Quarterly 71 (autumn 1994): 561-72.
3. Michael Schudson, Discovering News: A Social History of American Newspapers (New York: Basic Books, 1978).
4. Dan Berkowitz, "TV News Sources and News Channels: A Study in Agenda-Building," Journalism Quarterly 64 (summer/autumn 1987): 508-513; Jane D. Brown, Carl, R. Bybee, Stanley, T. Wearden, and Dulcie M. Straughan, "Invisible Power: News Sources and the Limitations of Diversity," Journalism Quarterly 64 (spring 1987): 45-54; Mark Fishman, "Manufacturing the News," in The Manufacture of News, ed. Stanley Cohen and Jock Young (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (New York: Pantheon, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Leon V. Sigal, Reporters and Officials: The Organization and Politics of Newsmaking (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Co., 1973); Leon V. Sigal, "Sources Make the News" in Reading the News, ed. Robert Karl Manoff and Michael Shudson (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986), 9-37.
5. Dan Berkowitz, "TV News Sources and News Channels: A Study in Agenda-Building," Journalism Quarterly 64 (summer/autumn 1987): 508-513; Jane D. Brown, Carl, R. Bybee, Stanley, T. Wearden, and Dulcie M. Straughan, "Invisible Power: News Sources and the Limitations of Diversity," Journalism Quarterly 64 (spring 1987): 45-54; Mark Fishman, "Manufacturing the News," in The Manufacture of News, ed. Stanley Cohen and Jock Young (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (New York: Pantheon, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Leon V. Sigal, Reporters and Officials: The Organization and Politics of Newsmaking (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Co., 1973); Leon V. Sigal, "Sources Make the News" in Reading the News, ed. Robert Karl Manoff and Michael Shudson (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986), 9-37.
6. Dan Berkowitz, "TV News Sources and News Channels: A Study in Agenda-Building," Journalism Quarterly 64 (summer/autumn 1987): 508-513; Jane D. Brown, Carl, R. Bybee, Stanley, T. Wearden, and Dulcie M. Straughan, "Invisible Power: News Sources and the Limitations of Diversity," Journalism Quarterly 64 (spring 1987): 45-54; Mark Fishman, "Manufacturing the News," in The Manufacture of News, ed. Stanley Cohen and Jock Young (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (New York: Pantheon, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Leon V. Sigal, Reporters and Officials: The Organization and Politics of Newsmaking (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Co., 1973); Leon V. Sigal, "Sources Make the News" in Reading the News, ed. Robert Karl Manoff and Michael Shudson (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986), 9-37.
7. Dan Berkowitz, "TV News Sources and News Channels: A Study in Agenda-Building," Journalism Quarterly 64 (summer/autumn 1987): 508-513; Jane D. Brown, Carl, R. Bybee, Stanley, T. Wearden, and Dulcie M. Straughan, "Invisible Power: News Sources and the Limitations of Diversity," Journalism Quarterly 64 (spring 1987): 45-54; Mark Fishman, "Manufacturing the News," in The Manufacture of News, ed. Stanley Cohen and Jock Young (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (New York: Pantheon, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Leon V. Sigal, Reporters and Officials: The Organization and Politics of Newsmaking (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Co., 1973); Leon V. Sigal, "Sources Make the News" in Reading the News, ed. Robert Karl Manoff and Michael Shudson (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986), 9-37.
8. Dan Berkowitz, "TV News Sources and News Channels: A Study in Agenda-Building," Journalism Quarterly 64 (summer/autumn 1987): 508-513; Jane D. Brown, Carl, R. Bybee, Stanley, T. Wearden, and Dulcie M. Straughan, "Invisible Power: News Sources and the Limitations of Diversity," Journalism Quarterly 64 (spring 1987): 45-54; Mark Fishman, "Manufacturing the News," in The Manufacture of News, ed. Stanley Cohen and Jock Young (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (New York: Pantheon, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Leon V. Sigal, Reporters and Officials: The Organization and Politics of Newsmaking (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Co., 1973); Leon V. Sigal, "Sources Make the News" in Reading the News, ed. Robert Karl Manoff and Michael Shudson (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986), 9-37.
9. Dan Berkowitz, "TV News Sources and News Channels: A Study in Agenda-Building," Journalism Quarterly 64 (summer/autumn 1987): 508-513; Jane D. Brown, Carl, R. Bybee, Stanley, T. Wearden, and Dulcie M. Straughan, "Invisible Power: News Sources and the Limitations of Diversity," Journalism Quarterly 64 (spring 1987): 45-54; Mark Fishman, "Manufacturing the News," in The Manufacture of News, ed. Stanley Cohen and Jock Young (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (New York: Pantheon, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Leon V. Sigal, Reporters and Officials: The Organization and Politics of Newsmaking (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Co., 1973); Leon V. Sigal, "Sources Make the News" in Reading the News, ed. Robert Karl Manoff and Michael Shudson (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986), 9-37.
10. Dan Berkowitz, "TV News Sources and News Channels: A Study in Agenda-Building," Journalism Quarterly 64 (summer/autumn 1987): 508-513; Jane D. Brown, Carl, R. Bybee, Stanley, T. Wearden, and Dulcie M. Straughan, "Invisible Power: News Sources and the Limitations of Diversity," Journalism Quarterly 64 (spring 1987): 45-54; Mark Fishman, "Manufacturing the News," in The Manufacture of News, ed. Stanley Cohen and Jock Young (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (New York: Pantheon, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Leon V. Sigal, Reporters and Officials: The Organization and Politics of Newsmaking (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Co., 1973); Leon V. Sigal, "Sources Make the News" in Reading the News, ed. Robert Karl Manoff and Michael Shudson (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986), 9-37.
11. Herbert J. Altschull, From Milton to McLuhan:The Ideas Behind American Journalism (NY: Longman, 1990).
12. The National Enquirer's readership is almost 2.5 times that of the weekday New York Times readership.
13. S. Elizabeth Bird, For Inquiring Minds: A Cultural Study of Supermarket Tabloids (Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 1992); Matthew E. Ehrlich, The Journalism of Outrageousness: Tabloid Television News vs. Investigative News, Journalism & Mass Communication Monographs, no. 155 (Columbia, SC: AEJMC, 1996); Maria E. Grabe, "Tabloid and Traditional Television News Magazine Crime Stories: Crime Lessons and Reaffirmation of Social Class Distinctions," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (winter 1997): 926-46.
14. S. Elizabeth Bird, For Inquiring Minds: A Cultural Study of Supermarket Tabloids (Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 1992); Matthew E. Ehrlich, The Journalism of Outrageousness: Tabloid Television News vs. Investigative News, Journalism & Mass Communication Monographs, no. 155 (Columbia, SC: AEJMC, 1996); Maria E. Grabe, "Tabloid and Traditional Television News Magazine Crime Stories: Crime Lessons and Reaffirmation of Social Class Distinctions," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (winter 1997): 926-46.
15. S. Elizabeth Bird, For Inquiring Minds: A Cultural Study of Supermarket Tabloids (Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 1992); Matthew E. Ehrlich, The Journalism of Outrageousness: Tabloid Television News vs. Investigative News, Journalism & Mass Communication Monographs, no. 155 (Columbia, SC: AEJMC, 1996); Maria E. Grabe, "Tabloid and Traditional Television News Magazine Crime Stories: Crime Lessons and Reaffirmation of Social Class Distinctions," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (winter 1997): 926-46.
16. S. Elizabeth Bird, "Storytelling on the Far Side: Journalism and the Weekly Tabloid," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 7 (December): 377-89; Bird, For Inquiring Minds ; S. Elizabeth Bird and Robert W. Dardenne, "Myth, Chronicle, and Story: Exploring the Narrative Qualities of News," in Media, Myths, and Narratives, ed. James W. Carey (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1988), 67-87; Grabe, "Tabloid and Traditional Television News" ; Graham Knight, "Reality Effects: Tabloid Television News," Queen's Quarterly 96 (spring 1989): 94-108.
17. S. Elizabeth Bird, "Storytelling on the Far Side: Journalism and the Weekly Tabloid," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 7 (December): 377-89; Bird, For Inquiring Minds ; S. Elizabeth Bird and Robert W. Dardenne, "Myth, Chronicle, and Story: Exploring the Narrative Qualities of News," in Media, Myths, and Narratives, ed. James W. Carey (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1988), 67-87; Grabe, "Tabloid and Traditional Television News" ; Graham Knight, "Reality Effects: Tabloid Television News," Queen's Quarterly 96 (spring 1989): 94-108.
18. S. Elizabeth Bird, "Storytelling on the Far Side: Journalism and the Weekly Tabloid," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 7 (December): 377-89; Bird, For Inquiring Minds ; S. Elizabeth Bird and Robert W. Dardenne, "Myth, Chronicle, and Story: Exploring the Narrative Qualities of News," in Media, Myths, and Narratives, ed. James W. Carey (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1988), 67-87; Grabe, "Tabloid and Traditional Television News" ; Graham Knight, "Reality Effects: Tabloid Television News," Queen's Quarterly 96 (spring 1989): 94-108.
19. S. Elizabeth Bird, "Storytelling on the Far Side: Journalism and the Weekly Tabloid," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 7 (December): 377-89; Bird, For Inquiring Minds ; S. Elizabeth Bird and Robert W. Dardenne, "Myth, Chronicle, and Story: Exploring the Narrative Qualities of News," in Media, Myths, and Narratives, ed. James W. Carey (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1988), 67-87; Grabe, "Tabloid and Traditional Television News" ; Graham Knight, "Reality Effects: Tabloid Television News," Queen's Quarterly 96 (spring 1989): 94-108.
20. S. Elizabeth Bird, "Storytelling on the Far Side: Journalism and the Weekly Tabloid," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 7 (December): 377-89; Bird, For Inquiring Minds ; S. Elizabeth Bird and Robert W. Dardenne, "Myth, Chronicle, and Story: Exploring the Narrative Qualities of News," in Media, Myths, and Narratives, ed. James W. Carey (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1988), 67-87; Grabe, "Tabloid and Traditional Television News" ; Graham Knight, "Reality Effects: Tabloid Television News," Queen's Quarterly 96 (spring 1989): 94-108.
21. Berkowitz, "TV News Sources," 513.
22. See Brown et al., "Invisible Power"; Gans, Deciding What's News; Sigal, Reporters and Officials.
23. See Brown et al., "Invisible Power"; Gans, Deciding What's News; Sigal, Reporters and Officials.
24. See Brown et al., "Invisible Power"; Gans, Deciding What's News; Sigal, Reporters and Officials.
25. Berkowitz, "TV News Sources" and D. Charles Whitney, Marilyn Fritzler, Steven Jones, Sharon Mazzarella, and Lana Rakow, "Geographic And Source Biases In Network Television News 1981-1984," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 33 (spring 1989): 159-74.
26. Berkowitz, "TV News Sources" and D. Charles Whitney, Marilyn Fritzler, Steven Jones, Sharon Mazzarella, and Lana Rakow, "Geographic And Source Biases In Network Television News 1981-1984," Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 33 (spring 1989): 159-74.
27. Sigal, Reporters and Officials, and Brown et al., "Invisible Power."
28. Sigal, Reporters and Officials, and Brown et al., "Invisible Power."
29. Richard V. Ericson, Patricia M. Baranek, and Janet B. L. Chan, Negotiating Control, A Study Of News Sources (Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1989). See also Hansen et al. who found that the vast majority of statements of newspaper sources (78.3 percent) went unexamined. Only 16 percent of stories revealed journalists who attempt to question the statements of news sources. Hansen et al., "Local Breaking News."
30. Richard V. Ericson, Patricia M. Baranek, and Janet B. L. Chan, Negotiating Control, A Study Of News Sources (Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1989). See also Hansen et al. who found that the vast majority of statements of newspaper sources (78.3 percent) went unexamined. Only 16 percent of stories revealed journalists who attempt to question the statements of news sources. Hansen et al., "Local Breaking News."
31. Richard V. Ericson, Patricia M. Baranek, and Janet B. L. Chan, Negotiating Control, A Study Of News Sources (Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1989). See also Hansen et al. who found that the vast majority of statements of newspaper sources (78.3 percent) went unexamined. Only 16 percent of stories revealed journalists who attempt to question the statements of news sources. Hansen et al., "Local Breaking News."
32. John Soloski, "Sources And Channels Of Local News," Journalism Quarterly 66 (winter 1989): 864-70. See also Tom Koch, The News As Myth: Fact And Context In Journalism (New York: Greenwood, 1990); and Whitney et al., "Geographic And Source Biases."
33. John Soloski, "Sources And Channels Of Local News," Journalism Quarterly 66 (winter 1989): 864-70. See also Tom Koch, The News As Myth: Fact And Context In Journalism (New York: Greenwood, 1990); and Whitney et al., "Geographic And Source Biases."
34. John Soloski, "Sources And Channels Of Local News," Journalism Quarterly 66 (winter 1989): 864-70. See also Tom Koch, The News As Myth: Fact And Context In Journalism (New York: Greenwood, 1990); and Whitney et al., "Geographic And Source Biases."
35. Weaver and Wilhoit point out that a small group of journalists view their role as adversarial, directed at government (20 percent) or business (15 percent). David H. Weaver and G. Cleveland Wilhoit, The American Journalist: A Portrait Of U.S. News People And Their Work (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986).
36. Michael Parenti, Inventing Reality: The Politics Of The Mass Media (NY: St. Martin's Press, 1986), 10.
37. Gans, Deciding What's News.
38. Sigal, Reporters and Officials, and Sigal, "Sources Make the News."
39. Sigal, Reporters and Officials, and Sigal, "Sources Make the News."
40. Edward J. Epstein, News From Nowhere (NY: Vintage Books, 1974); Fishman, "Manufacturing the News" ; H. Oscar Gandy, Beyond Agenda Setting: Information Subsidies And Public Policy (New Jersey: Ablex, 1982); Gans, Deciding What's News; Gitlin, The Whole World; Gaye Tuchman, Making News: A Study In The Construction Of Reality (NY: Free Press, 1978).
41. Edward J. Epstein, News From Nowhere (NY: Vintage Books, 1974); Fishman, "Manufacturing the News" ; H. Oscar Gandy, Beyond Agenda Setting: Information Subsidies And Public Policy (New Jersey: Ablex, 1982); Gans, Deciding What's News; Gitlin, The Whole World; Gaye Tuchman, Making News: A Study In The Construction Of Reality (NY: Free Press, 1978).
42. Edward J. Epstein, News From Nowhere (NY: Vintage Books, 1974); Fishman, "Manufacturing the News" ; H. Oscar Gandy, Beyond Agenda Setting: Information Subsidies And Public Policy (New Jersey: Ablex, 1982); Gans, Deciding What's News; Gitlin, The Whole World; Gaye Tuchman, Making News: A Study In The Construction Of Reality (NY: Free Press, 1978).
43. Edward J. Epstein, News From Nowhere (NY: Vintage Books, 1974); Fishman, "Manufacturing the News" ; H. Oscar Gandy, Beyond Agenda Setting: Information Subsidies And Public Policy (New Jersey: Ablex, 1982); Gans, Deciding What's News; Gitlin, The Whole World; Gaye Tuchman, Making News: A Study In The Construction Of Reality (NY: Free Press, 1978).
44. Edward J. Epstein, News From Nowhere (NY: Vintage Books, 1974); Fishman, "Manufacturing the News" ; H. Oscar Gandy, Beyond Agenda Setting: Information Subsidies And Public Policy (New Jersey: Ablex, 1982); Gans, Deciding What's News; Gitlin, The Whole World; Gaye Tuchman, Making News: A Study In The Construction Of Reality (NY: Free Press, 1978).
45. Edward J. Epstein, News From Nowhere (NY: Vintage Books, 1974); Fishman, "Manufacturing the News" ; H. Oscar Gandy, Beyond Agenda Setting: Information Subsidies And Public Policy (New Jersey: Ablex, 1982); Gans, Deciding What's News; Gitlin, The Whole World; Gaye Tuchman, Making News: A Study In The Construction Of Reality (NY: Free Press, 1978).
46. Dominick found that half of television news came from Washington, D.C., and Whitney et al. found that the District of Columbia, with 0.3 percent of the U.S. population, accounted for 30 percent of network news sources. Joseph Dominick, "Geographic Bias in National TV News," Journal of Communication 27 (spring 1977): 94-99, and Whitney et al., "Geographic And Source Biases."
47. Dominick found that half of television news came from Washington, D.C., and Whitney et al. found that the District of Columbia, with 0.3 percent of the U.S. population, accounted for 30 percent of network news sources. Joseph Dominick, "Geographic Bias in National TV News," Journal of Communication 27 (spring 1977): 94-99, and Whitney et al., "Geographic And Source Biases."
48. Brown et al., "Invisible Power"; Gans, Deciding What's News; and Sigal, Reporters and Officials.
49. Brown et al., "Invisible Power"; Gans, Deciding What's News; and Sigal, Reporters and Officials.
50. Brown et al., "Invisible Power"; Gans, Deciding What's News; and Sigal, Reporters and Officials.
51. Whitney et al., "Geographic And Source Biases."
52. Gans, Deciding What's News.
53. Gans, Deciding What's News, 15.
54. Daniel C. Hallin, "Sound Bite Democracy," Wilson Quarterly (spring 1992): 34-37.
55. Daniel C. Hallin, "We Keep America on Top of the World," in Watching Television, ed. Todd Gitlin (NY: Pantheon Book, 1986), 9-41.
56. Brown et al., "Invisible power"; Marilyn Greenwald, "Gender Representation in Newspaper Business Sections," Newspaper Research Journal 11 (winter 1990): 68-74; P. Holland, "When a Woman Reads the News," in Boxed In: Women and Television, ed. Helen Baehr and Gillian Dyer (NY: Pandira Press, 1987), 133-50; Susan Kilgard and John E. Craft, "The Invisible Woman: Local Television News and the Woman as Newsmaker," Southwestern Mass Communication Journal 10 (summer 1995): 37-46; James W. Potter, "Gender Representation in Elite Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 62 (autumn 1985): 636-60; Marlene Sanders, "The Face of the News is Male," Television Quarterly 26 (spring 1992): 57-60.
57. Brown et al., "Invisible power"; Marilyn Greenwald, "Gender Representation in Newspaper Business Sections," Newspaper Research Journal 11 (winter 1990): 68-74; P. Holland, "When a Woman Reads the News," in Boxed In: Women and Television, ed. Helen Baehr and Gillian Dyer (NY: Pandira Press, 1987), 133-50; Susan Kilgard and John E. Craft, "The Invisible Woman: Local Television News and the Woman as Newsmaker," Southwestern Mass Communication Journal 10 (summer 1995): 37-46; James W. Potter, "Gender Representation in Elite Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 62 (autumn 1985): 636-60; Marlene Sanders, "The Face of the News is Male," Television Quarterly 26 (spring 1992): 57-60.
58. Brown et al., "Invisible power"; Marilyn Greenwald, "Gender Representation in Newspaper Business Sections," Newspaper Research Journal 11 (winter 1990): 68-74; P. Holland, "When a Woman Reads the News," in Boxed In: Women and Television, ed. Helen Baehr and Gillian Dyer (NY: Pandira Press, 1987), 133-50; Susan Kilgard and John E. Craft, "The Invisible Woman: Local Television News and the Woman as Newsmaker," Southwestern Mass Communication Journal 10 (summer 1995): 37-46; James W. Potter, "Gender Representation in Elite Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 62 (autumn 1985): 636-60; Marlene Sanders, "The Face of the News is Male," Television Quarterly 26 (spring 1992): 57-60.
59. Brown et al., "Invisible power"; Marilyn Greenwald, "Gender Representation in Newspaper Business Sections," Newspaper Research Journal 11 (winter 1990): 68-74; P. Holland, "When a Woman Reads the News," in Boxed In: Women and Television, ed. Helen Baehr and Gillian Dyer (NY: Pandira Press, 1987), 133-50; Susan Kilgard and John E. Craft, "The Invisible Woman: Local Television News and the Woman as Newsmaker," Southwestern Mass Communication Journal 10 (summer 1995): 37-46; James W. Potter, "Gender Representation in Elite Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 62 (autumn 1985): 636-60; Marlene Sanders, "The Face of the News is Male," Television Quarterly 26 (spring 1992): 57-60.
60. Brown et al., "Invisible power"; Marilyn Greenwald, "Gender Representation in Newspaper Business Sections," Newspaper Research Journal 11 (winter 1990): 68-74; P. Holland, "When a Woman Reads the News," in Boxed In: Women and Television, ed. Helen Baehr and Gillian Dyer (NY: Pandira Press, 1987), 133-50; Susan Kilgard and John E. Craft, "The Invisible Woman: Local Television News and the Woman as Newsmaker," Southwestern Mass Communication Journal 10 (summer 1995): 37-46; James W. Potter, "Gender Representation in Elite Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 62 (autumn 1985): 636-60; Marlene Sanders, "The Face of the News is Male," Television Quarterly 26 (spring 1992): 57-60.
61. Brown et al., "Invisible power"; Marilyn Greenwald, "Gender Representation in Newspaper Business Sections," Newspaper Research Journal 11 (winter 1990): 68-74; P. Holland, "When a Woman Reads the News," in Boxed In: Women and Television, ed. Helen Baehr and Gillian Dyer (NY: Pandira Press, 1987), 133-50; Susan Kilgard and John E. Craft, "The Invisible Woman: Local Television News and the Woman as Newsmaker," Southwestern Mass Communication Journal 10 (summer 1995): 37-46; James W. Potter, "Gender Representation in Elite Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 62 (autumn 1985): 636-60; Marlene Sanders, "The Face of the News is Male," Television Quarterly 26 (spring 1992): 57-60.
62. Hansen et al., "Local Breaking News."
63. Kilgard and Craft, "The Invisible Woman."
64. Sanders, "The Face of the News."
65. Robert M. Entman, "Blacks in the News: Television, Modern Racism, and Cultural Change," Journalism Quarterly 69 (summer 1992): 341-61; Ralph C. Gomes and Linda F. Williams, "Race and Crime: The Role of the Media in Perpetuating Racism and Classism in America," Urban League Review 14 (spring 1990): 57-69; Grabe, "Tabloid and Traditional Television News"; Doris A. Graber, Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide (New York: Longman, 1984); Doris A. Graber, "Is Crime Coverage Excessive?" Journal of Communication 29 (fall 1979): 81-92; Doris A. Graber, Crime News and the Public (NY: Preager, 1980);
66. Robert M. Entman, "Blacks in the News: Television, Modern Racism, and Cultural Change," Journalism Quarterly 69 (summer 1992): 341-61; Ralph C. Gomes and Linda F. Williams, "Race and Crime: The Role of the Media in Perpetuating Racism and Classism in America," Urban League Review 14 (spring 1990): 57-69; Grabe, "Tabloid and Traditional Television News"; Doris A. Graber, Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide (New York: Longman, 1984); Doris A. Graber, "Is Crime Coverage Excessive?" Journal of Communication 29 (fall 1979): 81-92; Doris A. Graber, Crime News and the Public (NY: Preager, 1980);
67. Robert M. Entman, "Blacks in the News: Television, Modern Racism, and Cultural Change," Journalism Quarterly 69 (summer 1992): 341-61; Ralph C. Gomes and Linda F. Williams, "Race and Crime: The Role of the Media in Perpetuating Racism and Classism in America," Urban League Review 14 (spring 1990): 57-69; Grabe, "Tabloid and Traditional Television News"; Doris A. Graber, Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide (New York: Longman, 1984); Doris A. Graber, "Is Crime Coverage Excessive?" Journal of Communication 29 (fall 1979): 81-92; Doris A. Graber, Crime News and the Public (NY: Preager, 1980);
68. Robert M. Entman, "Blacks in the News: Television, Modern Racism, and Cultural Change," Journalism Quarterly 69 (summer 1992): 341-61; Ralph C. Gomes and Linda F. Williams, "Race and Crime: The Role of the Media in Perpetuating Racism and Classism in America," Urban League Review 14 (spring 1990): 57-69; Grabe, "Tabloid and Traditional Television News"; Doris A. Graber, Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide (New York: Longman, 1984); Doris A. Graber, "Is Crime Coverage Excessive?" Journal of Communication 29 (fall 1979): 81-92; Doris A. Graber, Crime News and the Public (NY: Preager, 1980);
69. Robert M. Entman, "Blacks in the News: Television, Modern Racism, and Cultural Change," Journalism Quarterly 69 (summer 1992): 341-61; Ralph C. Gomes and Linda F. Williams, "Race and Crime: The Role of the Media in Perpetuating Racism and Classism in America," Urban League Review 14 (spring 1990): 57-69; Grabe, "Tabloid and Traditional Television News"; Doris A. Graber, Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide (New York: Longman, 1984); Doris A. Graber, "Is Crime Coverage Excessive?" Journal of Communication 29 (fall 1979): 81-92; Doris A. Graber, Crime News and the Public (NY: Preager, 1980);
70. Robert M. Entman, "Blacks in the News: Television, Modern Racism, and Cultural Change," Journalism Quarterly 69 (summer 1992): 341-61; Ralph C. Gomes and Linda F. Williams, "Race and Crime: The Role of the Media in Perpetuating Racism and Classism in America," Urban League Review 14 (spring 1990): 57-69; Grabe, "Tabloid and Traditional Television News"; Doris A. Graber, Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide (New York: Longman, 1984); Doris A. Graber, "Is Crime Coverage Excessive?" Journal of Communication 29 (fall 1979): 81-92; Doris A. Graber, Crime News and the Public (NY: Preager, 1980);
71. Otto Kerner, Report to the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (NY: Bantam Books, 1969);
72. Kilgard and Craft, "The Invisible Woman";
73. Joseph F. Sheley and Cindy D. Ashkins, "Crime, Crime News, and Crime Views," Public Opinion Quarterly 45 (winter 1981): 492-506.
74. In an experimental study, Weintrub and Dong found that news believability was based less on source reputation than on message content. Erica Weintrub and Qingwen Dong, "Source v. Content Effects of Judgments of News Believability," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 71 (winter 1995): 973-83.
75. Thomas E. Patterson, Out of Order (NY: Knopf, 1993).
76. Patterson, Out of Order, 35.
77. Hallin, "Sound Bite Democracy."
78. Hallin, "Sound Bite Democracy."
79. Sigal, Reporters and Officials.
80. William E. Smith, "The Shrinking Sound Bite: Two Decades of Stylistic Evolution in Television News" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Washington, DC, 1989) ; and Daniel C. Hallin, "Sound Bite News: Television Coverage of Elections, 1968-1988," Journal of Communication 42 (spring 1992): 5-24.
81. William E. Smith, "The Shrinking Sound Bite: Two Decades of Stylistic Evolution in Television News" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Washington, DC, 1989) ; and Daniel C. Hallin, "Sound Bite News: Television Coverage of Elections, 1968-1988," Journal of Communication 42 (spring 1992): 5-24.
82. Kevin G. Barnhurst and Catherine A. Steele, "Image-bite News: The Visual Coverage of Elections on U.S. Television, 1968-1992," Press/Politics 2 (spring 1997): 40-58 ; and Catherine A. Steele and Kevin G. Barnhurst, "The Journalism of Opinion: Network News Coverage of U. S. Presidential Campaigns, 1968-1988," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 13 (September 1996): 187-209.
83. Kevin G. Barnhurst and Catherine A. Steele, "Image-bite News: The Visual Coverage of Elections on U.S. Television, 1968-1992," Press/Politics 2 (spring 1997): 40-58 ; and Catherine A. Steele and Kevin G. Barnhurst, "The Journalism of Opinion: Network News Coverage of U. S. Presidential Campaigns, 1968-1988," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 13 (September 1996): 187-209.
84. Dennis T. Lowry and Jon A. Shidler, "The Biters and the Bitten: An Analysis of Network TV News Bias in Campaign '92," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 69 (summer 1995): 341-61.
85. David Weaver and G. Cleveland Wilhoit, "The American Journalist in the 1990s" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Washington, DC, 1993).
86. See also Liebler for a survey of newspaper journalists and Louie for survey findings on the gender and race composition of broadcast newsrooms: Carol Liebler, "How Race and Gender Affect Journalists' Autonomy," Newspaper Research Journal 15 (summer) 1994): 122-30; David Louie, "The Diversity Challenge," Television Quarterly 27 (fall 1995): 55-59.
87. See also Liebler for a survey of newspaper journalists and Louie for survey findings on the gender and race composition of broadcast newsrooms: Carol Liebler, "How Race and Gender Affect Journalists' Autonomy," Newspaper Research Journal 15 (summer) 1994): 122-30; David Louie, "The Diversity Challenge," Television Quarterly 27 (fall 1995): 55-59.
88. Rick Mendosa, "Conspicuous by our Absence," Hispanic Business, October 1996, 22-26.
89. Richard Campbell, "Don Hewitt's Durable Hour," Columbia Journalism Review, September/October 1993, 25-28.
90. Two tabloid shows are broadcast every weeknight (Monday to Friday). They are Inside Edition and Hard Copy. With the exception of
91. Saturday night, at least two traditional news magazine programs (Dateline NBC, 60 Minutes, 60 Minutes II, 48 Hours, and 20/20) are broadcast every evening on network channels. All traditional news magazine programs are broadcast during prime time on the networks. Tabloid news magazine programs are syndicated but often either precede early evening local newscasts or follow national network newscasts.
92. Lynn Hirschberg, "What's a Network to Do?" The New York Times Magazine, 20 September 1998, 59-63.
93. Diane Sawyer, "3,000 Minutes," The New York Times Magazine, 20 September 1998, 89-94.
94. The Pew Research Center, For the People & the Press, 1998.
95. Nielson Media Research Ratings, 1998.
96. Sawyer, "3,000 Minutes."
97. Bert Briller, "The Tao of Tabloid Television," Television Quarterly 26 (winter 1993): 51-61;
98. Howard Rosenberg, " Hard Copy-By Any Other Name It's Still Tabloid," Los Angeles Times, 27 September 1989, sec. 1, p. 5.
99. Campbell, "Don Hewitt's Durable Hour."
100. The social class and education of reporters can not be determined from their appearances in segments.
101. Separate categories included occupational roles such as Senator, Congress member, government official, political candidate, member of law enforcement or the military, corporate executive, working for large corporation, independent small businessperson, representing an interest group, academic, non-corporate/business professional, service worker, industrial worker, housewife, student, celebrity, journalist, social/labor position undefined.
102. This category included the following options: first-hand personal experience of topic, witness to topic, hearsay about topic, heard gossip about the topic, expert on topic, potentate, victim, accused, criminal, provide personal opinion, subject of a profile story, unknown, other.
103. The total percentage of program time taken up by sources was calculated by adding the percentage of program duration for news sources on Hard Copy and 60 Minutes together and dividing it by two. The total percentage of program time taken up by reporters was calculated by adding the percentage of program duration for reporter on camera appearances (stand-up, ask questions, reaction shots) for Hard Copy and 60 Minutes together and dividing it by two.
104. The mean duration for Hard Copy and 60 Minutes reporters were calculated using the mean duration of on-camera appearances (stand-up, ask questions, and reactions shots).
105. Campbell, "Don Hewitt's Durable Hour."
106. Categories of sources were collapsed to compute new variables called government sources, elite sources, and ordinary people. Government sources include Senators, House of Representatives members, politicians, and law enforcement officers. Elite sources are executives, employees of large corporations, business owners, academic experts, professionals, and celebrities. Ordinary people include service and industrial workers, as well as housewives.
107. Krista Bradford, "The Big Sleaze," Rolling Stone, 18 February 1993, 39-69.
108. Sanders, "The Face of the News."
109. Hallin, "Sound Bite Democracy"; and Smith, "The Shrinking Sound Bite."
110. Hallin, "Sound Bite Democracy"; and Smith, "The Shrinking Sound Bite."
111. Hallin, "Sound Bite Democracy."
112. See Campbell, "Don Hewitt's Durable Hour."
113. Gans, Deciding What's News.
114. Schudson, Discovering News.
115. John Fiske, "Popularity and the Politics of Information," in Journalism and Popular Culture, ed. Peter Dahlgren and Colin Sparks (London: Sage, 1992), 45-63.
116. Simmons Market Research Bureau, "Studies of Media and Markets," 1996.