Corporate newspaper structure, editorial page vigor, and social change

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 73, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 857-877

  Demers, David ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0000839643     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769909607300407     Document Type: Article

References (122)

1. For a theoretical and empirical discussion of this transition, see David Pearce Demers, Structural Pluralism, Intermedia Competition and the Growth of the Corporate Newspaper in the United States, Journalism Monographs, no. 145 (Columbia, SC: AEJMC, 1994), 1-43.
2. 2. See, e.g., Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 2d ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987); Ben H. Bagdikian, "The U.S. Media: Supermarket or Assembly Line?" Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 97-109; Commission on Freedom of the Press, A Free and Responsible Press (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947); Ted L. Glasser, Dave S. Allen, and Sue Elizabeth Blanks, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on News Play: A Case Study," Journalism Quarterly 66 (autumn 1989): 607-614; Richard Harwood, "Do Editor-Managers Kill a Paper's Soul?" (Minneapolis) Star Tribune, 6 October 1993, sec. A, p. 14; Edward S. Herman, "Diversity of News: 'Marginalizing' the Opposition," Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 135-46; Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); Jonathan Kwitney, "The High Cost of High Profits," Washington Journalism Review 12 (June 1990): 19-29; John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "For a Political Economy of Mass Communications," The Socialist Register (1973): 205-234; Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, Communication and Class Relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran, Michael Gurevitch, and Janet Woollacott (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1977), 12-43; James D. Squires,Read All About It: The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1993); W. Powell, "The Blockbuster Decade: The Media as Big Business," Working Papers for a New Society 7 (July/August 1979): 26-36; John Soloski, "Economics and Management: The Real Influence of Newspaper Groups," Newspaper Research Journal 1 (spring 1979): 19-28; Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1993); Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Press Today: The Chain Daily," The Nation, 21 May 1930, 597-598. This general argument also applies to other media, especially television. See, e.g., Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Dennis W. Mazzocco, Networks of Power: Corporate TV's Threat to Democracy (Boston: South End Press, 1994).
3. See, e.g., Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 2d ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987); Ben H. Bagdikian, "The U.S. Media: Supermarket or Assembly Line?" Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 97-109; Commission on Freedom of the Press, A Free and Responsible Press (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947); Ted L. Glasser, Dave S. Allen, and Sue Elizabeth Blanks, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on News Play: A Case Study," Journalism Quarterly 66 (autumn 1989): 607-614; Richard Harwood, "Do Editor-Managers Kill a Paper's Soul?" (Minneapolis) Star Tribune, 6 October 1993, sec. A, p. 14; Edward S. Herman, "Diversity of News: 'Marginalizing' the Opposition," Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 135-46; Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); Jonathan Kwitney, "The High Cost of High Profits," Washington Journalism Review 12 (June 1990): 19-29; John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "For a Political Economy of Mass Communications," The Socialist Register (1973): 205-234; Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, Communication and Class Relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran, Michael Gurevitch, and Janet Woollacott (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1977), 12-43; James D. Squires,Read All About It: The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1993); W. Powell, "The Blockbuster Decade: The Media as Big Business," Working Papers for a New Society 7 (July/August 1979): 26-36; John Soloski, "Economics and Management: The Real Influence of Newspaper Groups," Newspaper Research Journal 1 (spring 1979): 19-28; Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1993); Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Press Today: The Chain Daily," The Nation, 21 May 1930, 597-598. This general argument also applies to other media, especially television. See, e.g., Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Dennis W. Mazzocco, Networks of Power: Corporate TV's Threat to Democracy (Boston: South End Press, 1994).
4. See, e.g., Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 2d ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987); Ben H. Bagdikian, "The U.S. Media: Supermarket or Assembly Line?" Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 97-109; Commission on Freedom of the Press, A Free and Responsible Press (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947); Ted L. Glasser, Dave S. Allen, and Sue Elizabeth Blanks, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on News Play: A Case Study," Journalism Quarterly 66 (autumn 1989): 607-614; Richard Harwood, "Do Editor-Managers Kill a Paper's Soul?" (Minneapolis) Star Tribune, 6 October 1993, sec. A, p. 14; Edward S. Herman, "Diversity of News: 'Marginalizing' the Opposition," Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 135-46; Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); Jonathan Kwitney, "The High Cost of High Profits," Washington Journalism Review 12 (June 1990): 19-29; John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "For a Political Economy of Mass Communications," The Socialist Register (1973): 205-234; Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, Communication and Class Relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran, Michael Gurevitch, and Janet Woollacott (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1977), 12-43; James D. Squires,Read All About It: The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1993); W. Powell, "The Blockbuster Decade: The Media as Big Business," Working Papers for a New Society 7 (July/August 1979): 26-36; John Soloski, "Economics and Management: The Real Influence of Newspaper Groups," Newspaper Research Journal 1 (spring 1979): 19-28; Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1993); Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Press Today: The Chain Daily," The Nation, 21 May 1930, 597-598. This general argument also applies to other media, especially television. See, e.g., Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Dennis W. Mazzocco, Networks of Power: Corporate TV's Threat to Democracy (Boston: South End Press, 1994).
5. See, e.g., Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 2d ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987); Ben H. Bagdikian, "The U.S. Media: Supermarket or Assembly Line?" Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 97-109; Commission on Freedom of the Press, A Free and Responsible Press (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947); Ted L. Glasser, Dave S. Allen, and Sue Elizabeth Blanks, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on News Play: A Case Study," Journalism Quarterly 66 (autumn 1989): 607-614; Richard Harwood, "Do Editor-Managers Kill a Paper's Soul?" (Minneapolis) Star Tribune, 6 October 1993, sec. A, p. 14; Edward S. Herman, "Diversity of News: 'Marginalizing' the Opposition," Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 135-46; Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); Jonathan Kwitney, "The High Cost of High Profits," Washington Journalism Review 12 (June 1990): 19-29; John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "For a Political Economy of Mass Communications," The Socialist Register (1973): 205-234; Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, Communication and Class Relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran, Michael Gurevitch, and Janet Woollacott (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1977), 12-43; James D. Squires,Read All About It: The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1993); W. Powell, "The Blockbuster Decade: The Media as Big Business," Working Papers for a New Society 7 (July/August 1979): 26-36; John Soloski, "Economics and Management: The Real Influence of Newspaper Groups," Newspaper Research Journal 1 (spring 1979): 19-28; Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1993); Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Press Today: The Chain Daily," The Nation, 21 May 1930, 597-598. This general argument also applies to other media, especially television. See, e.g., Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Dennis W. Mazzocco, Networks of Power: Corporate TV's Threat to Democracy (Boston: South End Press, 1994).
6. See, e.g., Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 2d ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987); Ben H. Bagdikian, "The U.S. Media: Supermarket or Assembly Line?" Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 97-109; Commission on Freedom of the Press, A Free and Responsible Press (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947); Ted L. Glasser, Dave S. Allen, and Sue Elizabeth Blanks, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on News Play: A Case Study," Journalism Quarterly 66 (autumn 1989): 607-614; Richard Harwood, "Do Editor-Managers Kill a Paper's Soul?" (Minneapolis) Star Tribune, 6 October 1993, sec. A, p. 14; Edward S. Herman, "Diversity of News: 'Marginalizing' the Opposition," Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 135-46; Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); Jonathan Kwitney, "The High Cost of High Profits," Washington Journalism Review 12 (June 1990): 19-29; John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "For a Political Economy of Mass Communications," The Socialist Register (1973): 205-234; Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, Communication and Class Relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran, Michael Gurevitch, and Janet Woollacott (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1977), 12-43; James D. Squires,Read All About It: The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1993); W. Powell, "The Blockbuster Decade: The Media as Big Business," Working Papers for a New Society 7 (July/August 1979): 26-36; John Soloski, "Economics and Management: The Real Influence of Newspaper Groups," Newspaper Research Journal 1 (spring 1979): 19-28; Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1993); Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Press Today: The Chain Daily," The Nation, 21 May 1930, 597-598. This general argument also applies to other media, especially television. See, e.g., Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Dennis W. Mazzocco, Networks of Power: Corporate TV's Threat to Democracy (Boston: South End Press, 1994).
7. See, e.g., Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 2d ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987); Ben H. Bagdikian, "The U.S. Media: Supermarket or Assembly Line?" Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 97-109; Commission on Freedom of the Press, A Free and Responsible Press (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947); Ted L. Glasser, Dave S. Allen, and Sue Elizabeth Blanks, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on News Play: A Case Study," Journalism Quarterly 66 (autumn 1989): 607-614; Richard Harwood, "Do Editor-Managers Kill a Paper's Soul?" (Minneapolis) Star Tribune, 6 October 1993, sec. A, p. 14; Edward S. Herman, "Diversity of News: 'Marginalizing' the Opposition," Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 135-46; Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); Jonathan Kwitney, "The High Cost of High Profits," Washington Journalism Review 12 (June 1990): 19-29; John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "For a Political Economy of Mass Communications," The Socialist Register (1973): 205-234; Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, Communication and Class Relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran, Michael Gurevitch, and Janet Woollacott (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1977), 12-43; James D. Squires,Read All About It: The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1993); W. Powell, "The Blockbuster Decade: The Media as Big Business," Working Papers for a New Society 7 (July/August 1979): 26-36; John Soloski, "Economics and Management: The Real Influence of Newspaper Groups," Newspaper Research Journal 1 (spring 1979): 19-28; Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1993); Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Press Today: The Chain Daily," The Nation, 21 May 1930, 597-598. This general argument also applies to other media, especially television. See, e.g., Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Dennis W. Mazzocco, Networks of Power: Corporate TV's Threat to Democracy (Boston: South End Press, 1994).
8. See, e.g., Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 2d ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987); Ben H. Bagdikian, "The U.S. Media: Supermarket or Assembly Line?" Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 97-109; Commission on Freedom of the Press, A Free and Responsible Press (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947); Ted L. Glasser, Dave S. Allen, and Sue Elizabeth Blanks, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on News Play: A Case Study," Journalism Quarterly 66 (autumn 1989): 607-614; Richard Harwood, "Do Editor-Managers Kill a Paper's Soul?" (Minneapolis) Star Tribune, 6 October 1993, sec. A, p. 14; Edward S. Herman, "Diversity of News: 'Marginalizing' the Opposition," Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 135-46; Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); Jonathan Kwitney, "The High Cost of High Profits," Washington Journalism Review 12 (June 1990): 19-29; John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "For a Political Economy of Mass Communications," The Socialist Register (1973): 205-234; Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, Communication and Class Relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran, Michael Gurevitch, and Janet Woollacott (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1977), 12-43; James D. Squires,Read All About It: The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1993); W. Powell, "The Blockbuster Decade: The Media as Big Business," Working Papers for a New Society 7 (July/August 1979): 26-36; John Soloski, "Economics and Management: The Real Influence of Newspaper Groups," Newspaper Research Journal 1 (spring 1979): 19-28; Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1993); Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Press Today: The Chain Daily," The Nation, 21 May 1930, 597-598. This general argument also applies to other media, especially television. See, e.g., Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Dennis W. Mazzocco, Networks of Power: Corporate TV's Threat to Democracy (Boston: South End Press, 1994).
9. See, e.g., Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 2d ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987); Ben H. Bagdikian, "The U.S. Media: Supermarket or Assembly Line?" Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 97-109; Commission on Freedom of the Press, A Free and Responsible Press (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947); Ted L. Glasser, Dave S. Allen, and Sue Elizabeth Blanks, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on News Play: A Case Study," Journalism Quarterly 66 (autumn 1989): 607-614; Richard Harwood, "Do Editor-Managers Kill a Paper's Soul?" (Minneapolis) Star Tribune, 6 October 1993, sec. A, p. 14; Edward S. Herman, "Diversity of News: 'Marginalizing' the Opposition," Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 135-46; Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); Jonathan Kwitney, "The High Cost of High Profits," Washington Journalism Review 12 (June 1990): 19-29; John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "For a Political Economy of Mass Communications," The Socialist Register (1973): 205-234; Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, Communication and Class Relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran, Michael Gurevitch, and Janet Woollacott (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1977), 12-43; James D. Squires,Read All About It: The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1993); W. Powell, "The Blockbuster Decade: The Media as Big Business," Working Papers for a New Society 7 (July/August 1979): 26-36; John Soloski, "Economics and Management: The Real Influence of Newspaper Groups," Newspaper Research Journal 1 (spring 1979): 19-28; Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1993); Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Press Today: The Chain Daily," The Nation, 21 May 1930, 597-598. This general argument also applies to other media, especially television. See, e.g., Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Dennis W. Mazzocco, Networks of Power: Corporate TV's Threat to Democracy (Boston: South End Press, 1994).
10. See, e.g., Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 2d ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987); Ben H. Bagdikian, "The U.S. Media: Supermarket or Assembly Line?" Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 97-109; Commission on Freedom of the Press, A Free and Responsible Press (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947); Ted L. Glasser, Dave S. Allen, and Sue Elizabeth Blanks, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on News Play: A Case Study," Journalism Quarterly 66 (autumn 1989): 607-614; Richard Harwood, "Do Editor-Managers Kill a Paper's Soul?" (Minneapolis) Star Tribune, 6 October 1993, sec. A, p. 14; Edward S. Herman, "Diversity of News: 'Marginalizing' the Opposition," Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 135-46; Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); Jonathan Kwitney, "The High Cost of High Profits," Washington Journalism Review 12 (June 1990): 19-29; John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "For a Political Economy of Mass Communications," The Socialist Register (1973): 205-234; Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, Communication and Class Relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran, Michael Gurevitch, and Janet Woollacott (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1977), 12-43; James D. Squires,Read All About It: The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1993); W. Powell, "The Blockbuster Decade: The Media as Big Business," Working Papers for a New Society 7 (July/August 1979): 26-36; John Soloski, "Economics and Management: The Real Influence of Newspaper Groups," Newspaper Research Journal 1 (spring 1979): 19-28; Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1993); Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Press Today: The Chain Daily," The Nation, 21 May 1930, 597-598. This general argument also applies to other media, especially television. See, e.g., Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Dennis W. Mazzocco, Networks of Power: Corporate TV's Threat to Democracy (Boston: South End Press, 1994).
11. See, e.g., Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 2d ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987); Ben H. Bagdikian, "The U.S. Media: Supermarket or Assembly Line?" Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 97-109; Commission on Freedom of the Press, A Free and Responsible Press (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947); Ted L. Glasser, Dave S. Allen, and Sue Elizabeth Blanks, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on News Play: A Case Study," Journalism Quarterly 66 (autumn 1989): 607-614; Richard Harwood, "Do Editor-Managers Kill a Paper's Soul?" (Minneapolis) Star Tribune, 6 October 1993, sec. A, p. 14; Edward S. Herman, "Diversity of News: 'Marginalizing' the Opposition," Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 135-46; Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); Jonathan Kwitney, "The High Cost of High Profits," Washington Journalism Review 12 (June 1990): 19-29; John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "For a Political Economy of Mass Communications," The Socialist Register (1973): 205-234; Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, Communication and Class Relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran, Michael Gurevitch, and Janet Woollacott (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1977), 12-43; James D. Squires,Read All About It: The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1993); W. Powell, "The Blockbuster Decade: The Media as Big Business," Working Papers for a New Society 7 (July/August 1979): 26-36; John Soloski, "Economics and Management: The Real Influence of Newspaper Groups," Newspaper Research Journal 1 (spring 1979): 19-28; Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1993); Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Press Today: The Chain Daily," The Nation, 21 May 1930, 597-598. This general argument also applies to other media, especially television. See, e.g., Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Dennis W. Mazzocco, Networks of Power: Corporate TV's Threat to Democracy (Boston: South End Press, 1994).
12. See, e.g., Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 2d ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987); Ben H. Bagdikian, "The U.S. Media: Supermarket or Assembly Line?" Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 97-109; Commission on Freedom of the Press, A Free and Responsible Press (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947); Ted L. Glasser, Dave S. Allen, and Sue Elizabeth Blanks, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on News Play: A Case Study," Journalism Quarterly 66 (autumn 1989): 607-614; Richard Harwood, "Do Editor-Managers Kill a Paper's Soul?" (Minneapolis) Star Tribune, 6 October 1993, sec. A, p. 14; Edward S. Herman, "Diversity of News: 'Marginalizing' the Opposition," Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 135-46; Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); Jonathan Kwitney, "The High Cost of High Profits," Washington Journalism Review 12 (June 1990): 19-29; John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "For a Political Economy of Mass Communications," The Socialist Register (1973): 205-234; Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, Communication and Class Relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran, Michael Gurevitch, and Janet Woollacott (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1977), 12-43; James D. Squires,Read All About It: The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1993); W. Powell, "The Blockbuster Decade: The Media as Big Business," Working Papers for a New Society 7 (July/August 1979): 26-36; John Soloski, "Economics and Management: The Real Influence of Newspaper Groups," Newspaper Research Journal 1 (spring 1979): 19-28; Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1993); Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Press Today: The Chain Daily," The Nation, 21 May 1930, 597-598. This general argument also applies to other media, especially television. See, e.g., Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Dennis W. Mazzocco, Networks of Power: Corporate TV's Threat to Democracy (Boston: South End Press, 1994).
13. See, e.g., Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 2d ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987); Ben H. Bagdikian, "The U.S. Media: Supermarket or Assembly Line?" Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 97-109; Commission on Freedom of the Press, A Free and Responsible Press (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947); Ted L. Glasser, Dave S. Allen, and Sue Elizabeth Blanks, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on News Play: A Case Study," Journalism Quarterly 66 (autumn 1989): 607-614; Richard Harwood, "Do Editor-Managers Kill a Paper's Soul?" (Minneapolis) Star Tribune, 6 October 1993, sec. A, p. 14; Edward S. Herman, "Diversity of News: 'Marginalizing' the Opposition," Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 135-46; Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); Jonathan Kwitney, "The High Cost of High Profits," Washington Journalism Review 12 (June 1990): 19-29; John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "For a Political Economy of Mass Communications," The Socialist Register (1973): 205-234; Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, Communication and Class Relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran, Michael Gurevitch, and Janet Woollacott (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1977), 12-43; James D. Squires,Read All About It: The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1993); W. Powell, "The Blockbuster Decade: The Media as Big Business," Working Papers for a New Society 7 (July/August 1979): 26-36; John Soloski, "Economics and Management: The Real Influence of Newspaper Groups," Newspaper Research Journal 1 (spring 1979): 19-28; Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1993); Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Press Today: The Chain Daily," The Nation, 21 May 1930, 597-598. This general argument also applies to other media, especially television. See, e.g., Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Dennis W. Mazzocco, Networks of Power: Corporate TV's Threat to Democracy (Boston: South End Press, 1994).
14. See, e.g., Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 2d ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987); Ben H. Bagdikian, "The U.S. Media: Supermarket or Assembly Line?" Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 97-109; Commission on Freedom of the Press, A Free and Responsible Press (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947); Ted L. Glasser, Dave S. Allen, and Sue Elizabeth Blanks, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on News Play: A Case Study," Journalism Quarterly 66 (autumn 1989): 607-614; Richard Harwood, "Do Editor-Managers Kill a Paper's Soul?" (Minneapolis) Star Tribune, 6 October 1993, sec. A, p. 14; Edward S. Herman, "Diversity of News: 'Marginalizing' the Opposition," Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 135-46; Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); Jonathan Kwitney, "The High Cost of High Profits," Washington Journalism Review 12 (June 1990): 19-29; John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "For a Political Economy of Mass Communications," The Socialist Register (1973): 205-234; Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, Communication and Class Relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran, Michael Gurevitch, and Janet Woollacott (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1977), 12-43; James D. Squires,Read All About It: The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1993); W. Powell, "The Blockbuster Decade: The Media as Big Business," Working Papers for a New Society 7 (July/August 1979): 26-36; John Soloski, "Economics and Management: The Real Influence of Newspaper Groups," Newspaper Research Journal 1 (spring 1979): 19-28; Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1993); Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Press Today: The Chain Daily," The Nation, 21 May 1930, 597-598. This general argument also applies to other media, especially television. See, e.g., Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Dennis W. Mazzocco, Networks of Power: Corporate TV's Threat to Democracy (Boston: South End Press, 1994).
15. See, e.g., Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 2d ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987); Ben H. Bagdikian, "The U.S. Media: Supermarket or Assembly Line?" Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 97-109; Commission on Freedom of the Press, A Free and Responsible Press (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947); Ted L. Glasser, Dave S. Allen, and Sue Elizabeth Blanks, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on News Play: A Case Study," Journalism Quarterly 66 (autumn 1989): 607-614; Richard Harwood, "Do Editor-Managers Kill a Paper's Soul?" (Minneapolis) Star Tribune, 6 October 1993, sec. A, p. 14; Edward S. Herman, "Diversity of News: 'Marginalizing' the Opposition," Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 135-46; Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); Jonathan Kwitney, "The High Cost of High Profits," Washington Journalism Review 12 (June 1990): 19-29; John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "For a Political Economy of Mass Communications," The Socialist Register (1973): 205-234; Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, Communication and Class Relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran, Michael Gurevitch, and Janet Woollacott (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1977), 12-43; James D. Squires,Read All About It: The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1993); W. Powell, "The Blockbuster Decade: The Media as Big Business," Working Papers for a New Society 7 (July/August 1979): 26-36; John Soloski, "Economics and Management: The Real Influence of Newspaper Groups," Newspaper Research Journal 1 (spring 1979): 19-28; Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1993); Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Press Today: The Chain Daily," The Nation, 21 May 1930, 597-598. This general argument also applies to other media, especially television. See, e.g., Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Dennis W. Mazzocco, Networks of Power: Corporate TV's Threat to Democracy (Boston: South End Press, 1994).
16. See, e.g., Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 2d ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987); Ben H. Bagdikian, "The U.S. Media: Supermarket or Assembly Line?" Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 97-109; Commission on Freedom of the Press, A Free and Responsible Press (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947); Ted L. Glasser, Dave S. Allen, and Sue Elizabeth Blanks, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on News Play: A Case Study," Journalism Quarterly 66 (autumn 1989): 607-614; Richard Harwood, "Do Editor-Managers Kill a Paper's Soul?" (Minneapolis) Star Tribune, 6 October 1993, sec. A, p. 14; Edward S. Herman, "Diversity of News: 'Marginalizing' the Opposition," Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 135-46; Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); Jonathan Kwitney, "The High Cost of High Profits," Washington Journalism Review 12 (June 1990): 19-29; John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "For a Political Economy of Mass Communications," The Socialist Register (1973): 205-234; Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, Communication and Class Relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran, Michael Gurevitch, and Janet Woollacott (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1977), 12-43; James D. Squires,Read All About It: The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1993); W. Powell, "The Blockbuster Decade: The Media as Big Business," Working Papers for a New Society 7 (July/August 1979): 26-36; John Soloski, "Economics and Management: The Real Influence of Newspaper Groups," Newspaper Research Journal 1 (spring 1979): 19-28; Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1993); Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Press Today: The Chain Daily," The Nation, 21 May 1930, 597-598. This general argument also applies to other media, especially television. See, e.g., Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Dennis W. Mazzocco, Networks of Power: Corporate TV's Threat to Democracy (Boston: South End Press, 1994).
17. See, e.g., Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 2d ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987); Ben H. Bagdikian, "The U.S. Media: Supermarket or Assembly Line?" Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 97-109; Commission on Freedom of the Press, A Free and Responsible Press (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947); Ted L. Glasser, Dave S. Allen, and Sue Elizabeth Blanks, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on News Play: A Case Study," Journalism Quarterly 66 (autumn 1989): 607-614; Richard Harwood, "Do Editor-Managers Kill a Paper's Soul?" (Minneapolis) Star Tribune, 6 October 1993, sec. A, p. 14; Edward S. Herman, "Diversity of News: 'Marginalizing' the Opposition," Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 135-46; Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); Jonathan Kwitney, "The High Cost of High Profits," Washington Journalism Review 12 (June 1990): 19-29; John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "For a Political Economy of Mass Communications," The Socialist Register (1973): 205-234; Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, Communication and Class Relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran, Michael Gurevitch, and Janet Woollacott (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1977), 12-43; James D. Squires,Read All About It: The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1993); W. Powell, "The Blockbuster Decade: The Media as Big Business," Working Papers for a New Society 7 (July/August 1979): 26-36; John Soloski, "Economics and Management: The Real Influence of Newspaper Groups," Newspaper Research Journal 1 (spring 1979): 19-28; Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1993); Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Press Today: The Chain Daily," The Nation, 21 May 1930, 597-598. This general argument also applies to other media, especially television. See, e.g., Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Dennis W. Mazzocco, Networks of Power: Corporate TV's Threat to Democracy (Boston: South End Press, 1994).
18. See, e.g., Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 2d ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987); Ben H. Bagdikian, "The U.S. Media: Supermarket or Assembly Line?" Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 97-109; Commission on Freedom of the Press, A Free and Responsible Press (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947); Ted L. Glasser, Dave S. Allen, and Sue Elizabeth Blanks, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on News Play: A Case Study," Journalism Quarterly 66 (autumn 1989): 607-614; Richard Harwood, "Do Editor-Managers Kill a Paper's Soul?" (Minneapolis) Star Tribune, 6 October 1993, sec. A, p. 14; Edward S. Herman, "Diversity of News: 'Marginalizing' the Opposition," Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 135-46; Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); Jonathan Kwitney, "The High Cost of High Profits," Washington Journalism Review 12 (June 1990): 19-29; John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "For a Political Economy of Mass Communications," The Socialist Register (1973): 205-234; Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, Communication and Class Relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran, Michael Gurevitch, and Janet Woollacott (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1977), 12-43; James D. Squires,Read All About It: The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1993); W. Powell, "The Blockbuster Decade: The Media as Big Business," Working Papers for a New Society 7 (July/August 1979): 26-36; John Soloski, "Economics and Management: The Real Influence of Newspaper Groups," Newspaper Research Journal 1 (spring 1979): 19-28; Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1993); Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Press Today: The Chain Daily," The Nation, 21 May 1930, 597-598. This general argument also applies to other media, especially television. See, e.g., Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Dennis W. Mazzocco, Networks of Power: Corporate TV's Threat to Democracy (Boston: South End Press, 1994).
19. See, e.g., Ben H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly, 2d ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987); Ben H. Bagdikian, "The U.S. Media: Supermarket or Assembly Line?" Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 97-109; Commission on Freedom of the Press, A Free and Responsible Press (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947); Ted L. Glasser, Dave S. Allen, and Sue Elizabeth Blanks, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on News Play: A Case Study," Journalism Quarterly 66 (autumn 1989): 607-614; Richard Harwood, "Do Editor-Managers Kill a Paper's Soul?" (Minneapolis) Star Tribune, 6 October 1993, sec. A, p. 14; Edward S. Herman, "Diversity of News: 'Marginalizing' the Opposition," Journal of Communication 35 (summer 1985): 135-46; Andrew Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper (Old Saybrook, CT: Peregrine Press, 1987); Jonathan Kwitney, "The High Cost of High Profits," Washington Journalism Review 12 (June 1990): 19-29; John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware? (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "For a Political Economy of Mass Communications," The Socialist Register (1973): 205-234; Graham Murdock and Peter Golding, "Capitalism, Communication and Class Relations," in Mass Communication and Society, ed. James Curran, Michael Gurevitch, and Janet Woollacott (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1977), 12-43; James D. Squires,Read All About It: The Corporate Takeover of America's Newspapers (NY: Times Books, 1993); W. Powell, "The Blockbuster Decade: The Media as Big Business," Working Papers for a New Society 7 (July/August 1979): 26-36; John Soloski, "Economics and Management: The Real Influence of Newspaper Groups," Newspaper Research Journal 1 (spring 1979): 19-28; Doug Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom: How the Marketers and Managers Are Reshaping Today's Media (NY: Columbia University Press, 1993); Oswald Garrison Villard, "The Press Today: The Chain Daily," The Nation, 21 May 1930, 597-598. This general argument also applies to other media, especially television. See, e.g., Douglas Kellner, Television and the Crisis of Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Dennis W. Mazzocco, Networks of Power: Corporate TV's Threat to Democracy (Boston: South End Press, 1994).
20. A chain is usually defined as two or more newspapers in separate cities under the same ownership.
21. 4. See, e.g., Clarice N. Olien, Phillip J. Tichenor, and George A. Donohue, "Media Coverage and Social Movements," in Information Campaigns: Balancing Social Values and Social Change, ed. Charles T. Salmon (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 139-63; Sandra J. Ball-Rokeach and Muriel G. Cantor, Media, Audience and Social Structure (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1986); and Elihu Katz and Tamás Szecskö, Mass Media and Social Change (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1981). The first six items in this list are adapted from Peter M. Blau and Marshall W. Meyer, Bureaucracy in Modern Society, 3d ed. (NY: Random House, 1987), 19-22; Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (NY: The Free Press, 1964); and H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds. From Max Weber (NY: Oxford University Press, 1946). The seventh is taken from David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Organizational Goals" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Atlanta, 1994).
22. See, e.g., Clarice N. Olien, Phillip J. Tichenor, and George A. Donohue, "Media Coverage and Social Movements," in Information Campaigns: Balancing Social Values and Social Change, ed. Charles T. Salmon (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 139-63; Sandra J. Ball-Rokeach and Muriel G. Cantor, Media, Audience and Social Structure (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1986); and Elihu Katz and Tamás Szecskö, Mass Media and Social Change (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1981). The first six items in this list are adapted from Peter M. Blau and Marshall W. Meyer, Bureaucracy in Modern Society, 3d ed. (NY: Random House, 1987), 19-22; Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (NY: The Free Press, 1964); and H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds. From Max Weber (NY: Oxford University Press, 1946). The seventh is taken from David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Organizational Goals" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Atlanta, 1994).
23. See, e.g., Clarice N. Olien, Phillip J. Tichenor, and George A. Donohue, "Media Coverage and Social Movements," in Information Campaigns: Balancing Social Values and Social Change, ed. Charles T. Salmon (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 139-63; Sandra J. Ball-Rokeach and Muriel G. Cantor, Media, Audience and Social Structure (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1986); and Elihu Katz and Tamás Szecskö, Mass Media and Social Change (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1981). The first six items in this list are adapted from Peter M. Blau and Marshall W. Meyer, Bureaucracy in Modern Society, 3d ed. (NY: Random House, 1987), 19-22; Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (NY: The Free Press, 1964); and H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds. From Max Weber (NY: Oxford University Press, 1946). The seventh is taken from David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Organizational Goals" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Atlanta, 1994).
24. See, e.g., Clarice N. Olien, Phillip J. Tichenor, and George A. Donohue, "Media Coverage and Social Movements," in Information Campaigns: Balancing Social Values and Social Change, ed. Charles T. Salmon (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 139-63; Sandra J. Ball-Rokeach and Muriel G. Cantor, Media, Audience and Social Structure (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1986); and Elihu Katz and Tamás Szecskö, Mass Media and Social Change (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1981). 5. The first six items in this list are adapted from Peter M. Blau and Marshall W. Meyer, Bureaucracy in Modern Society, 3d ed. (NY: Random House, 1987), 19-22; Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (NY: The Free Press, 1964); and H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds. From Max Weber (NY: Oxford University Press, 1946). The seventh is taken from David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Organizational Goals" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Atlanta, 1994).
25. See, e.g., Clarice N. Olien, Phillip J. Tichenor, and George A. Donohue, "Media Coverage and Social Movements," in Information Campaigns: Balancing Social Values and Social Change, ed. Charles T. Salmon (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 139-63; Sandra J. Ball-Rokeach and Muriel G. Cantor, Media, Audience and Social Structure (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1986); and Elihu Katz and Tamás Szecskö, Mass Media and Social Change (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1981). The first six items in this list are adapted from Peter M. Blau and Marshall W. Meyer, Bureaucracy in Modern Society, 3d ed. (NY: Random House, 1987), 19-22; Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (NY: The Free Press, 1964); and H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds. From Max Weber (NY: Oxford University Press, 1946). The seventh is taken from David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Organizational Goals" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Atlanta, 1994).
26. See, e.g., Clarice N. Olien, Phillip J. Tichenor, and George A. Donohue, "Media Coverage and Social Movements," in Information Campaigns: Balancing Social Values and Social Change, ed. Charles T. Salmon (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 139-63; Sandra J. Ball-Rokeach and Muriel G. Cantor, Media, Audience and Social Structure (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1986); and Elihu Katz and Tamás Szecskö, Mass Media and Social Change (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1981). The first six items in this list are adapted from Peter M. Blau and Marshall W. Meyer, Bureaucracy in Modern Society, 3d ed. (NY: Random House, 1987), 19-22; Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (NY: The Free Press, 1964); and H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds. From Max Weber (NY: Oxford University Press, 1946). The seventh is taken from David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Organizational Goals" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Atlanta, 1994).
27. See, e.g., Clarice N. Olien, Phillip J. Tichenor, and George A. Donohue, "Media Coverage and Social Movements," in Information Campaigns: Balancing Social Values and Social Change, ed. Charles T. Salmon (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 139-63; Sandra J. Ball-Rokeach and Muriel G. Cantor, Media, Audience and Social Structure (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1986); and Elihu Katz and Tamás Szecskö, Mass Media and Social Change (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1981). The first six items in this list are adapted from Peter M. Blau and Marshall W. Meyer, Bureaucracy in Modern Society, 3d ed. (NY: Random House, 1987), 19-22; Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (NY: The Free Press, 1964); and H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds. From Max Weber (NY: Oxford University Press, 1946). The seventh is taken from David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Organizational Goals" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Atlanta, 1994).
28. Some studies use more than two newspapers as a cut-off criteria, while others use size of chain.
29. Gerald H. Borstel, "Ownership, Competition and Comment," Journalism Quarterly 33 (spring 1956): 220-22.
30. Gerald L. Grotta, "Consolidation of Newspapers: What Happens to the Consumer," Journalism Quarterly 48 (summer 1971): 245-50.
31. Ronald H. Wagenberg and Walter C. Soderlund, "The Influence of Chain Ownership on Editorial Comment in Canada," Journalism Quarterly 52 (spring 1975): 93-98.
32. Daniel B. Wackman, Donald M. Gillmor, Cecilie Gaziano, and Everette E. Dennis, "Chain Newspaper Autonomy as Reflected in Presidential Campaign Endorsements," Journalism Quarterly 52 (autumn 1975): 411-20.
33. Wackman et al., "Chain Newspaper Autonomy," 419-20.
34. Ralph Thrift Jr., "How Chain Ownership Affects Editorial Vigor of Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 54 (summer 1977): 327-31.
35. Thrift, "How Chain Ownership Affects Editorial Vigor of Newspapers," 331.
36. American Society of Newspaper Editors, "News and Editorial Independence: A Survey of Group and Independent Editors," special report, April 1980.
37. Mark Lee Goodman, "Newspaper Ownership and the Weekly Editorial in Illinois" (M.A. thesis, South Dakota State University, 1982).
38. David Bruce Daugherty, "Group-Owned Newspapers vs. Independently Owned Newspapers: An Analysis of the Difference and Similarities" (Ph.D. diss., University of Texas, 1983).
39. Loren Ghiglione, The Buying and Selling of America's Newspapers (Indianapolis, IN: R. J. Berg, 1984).
40. Byron St. Dizier, "Editorial Page Editors and Endorsements: Chain-Owned vs. Independent Newspapers," Newspaper Research Journal 8 (fall 1986): 63-68. The finding that chain newspapers are more likely to support Republicans is interpreted as providing support for the argument that corporate newspapers are less likely than entrepreneurial newspapers to promote social change, since Republicans, historically, have been more likely than Democrats to resist change and support traditional ways and value systems.
41. Kenneth Rystrom, "The Impact of Newspaper Endorsements," Newspaper Research Journal 4 (winter 1986): 19-28.
42. F. Dennis Hale, "Editorial Diversity and Concentration," in Press Concentration and Monopoly, ed. Robert G. Picard, Maxwell E. McCombs, James P. Winter, and Stephen Lacy (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1988), 161-76.
43. Hale, "Editorial Diversity and Concentration," 172.
44. Walter I. Romanow and Walter C. Soderlund," Thomson Newspapers' Acquisition of 'The Globe and Mail': A Case Study of Content Change," Gazette 41 (1988): 5-17.
45. Cecilie Gaziano, "Chain Newspaper Homogeneity and Presidential Endorsements, 1972-1980," Journalism Quarterly 66 (winter 1989): 844-45.
46. John C. Busterna and Kathleen A. Hansen, "Presidential Endorsement Patterns by Chain-Owned Papers, 1976-84," Journalism Quarterly 67 (summer 1990): 286-94.
47. Roya Akhavan-Majid, Anita Rife, and Sheila Gopinath, "Chain Ownership and Editorial Independence: A Case Study of Gannett Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring/summer 1991): 59-66.
48. Roya Akhavan-Majid and Timothy Boudreau, "Chain Ownership, Organizational Prominence, and Editorial Role Perceptions" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Atlanta, 1994).
49. G. Cleveland Wilhoit and Dan G. Drew, Editorial Writers on American Daily Newspapers: A 20-year Portrait, Journalism Monographs, no. 129 (Columbia, SC: AEJMC, 1991), 31.
50. 28. Here's a summary: (1) Studies which find that corporate newspapers are less vigorous - Wackman et al., 1975; Thrift, 1977; and St. Dizier, 1986; (2) studies which find few differences or have mixed findings - Borstel, 1956; Grotta, 1971; Wagenberg and Soderlund, 1975; Ghiglione, 1984; Gaziano, 1984; Busterna and Hanson, 1990; and Hale, 1988; and (3) studies which find corporate newspapers are more vigorous - ASNE, 1979; Goodman, 1982; Daugherty, 1983; Akhavan-Majid, Rife, and Gopinath, 1991; Wilhoit and Drew, 1991; Akhavan-Majid and Boudreau, 1994; and Rystrom, 1986.
51. Demers, "Structural Pluralism, Intermedia Competition, and the Growth of the Corporate Newspaper in the United States," argues that chain ownership is no longer a good measure of corporate complexity in cross-sectional studies at the organizational level because it is so widely diffused in the industry. However, chain ownership appears to be a good measure in longitudinal studies at the system level (i.e., where chain ownership is measured as percent of total newspapers owned by groups).
52. Measures of organizational size (e.g., number of employees and departments) appear to be much better indicators of corporate structure. See Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Organizational Goals"
53. and Demers, "Does the Effect of Corporate Structure on Autonomy and Job Satisfaction Vary by Job Title?" (unpublished manuscript, University of Wisconsin-River Falls, 1994).
54. Demers, "Structural Pluralism, Intermedia Competition, and the Growth of the Corporate Newspaper in the United States."
55. Demers, "Corporate Newspapers Structure and Organizational Goals."
56. 33. For reviews of the literature, see David Pearce Demers and Daniel B. Wackman, "Effect of Chain Ownership on Newspaper Management Goals," Newspaper Research Journal 9 (winter 1988): 59-68, and David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Structure and Emphasis on Profits and Product Quality at U.S. Daily Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring/summer 1991): 15-26.
57. For reviews of the literature, see David Pearce Demers and Daniel B. Wackman, "Effect of Chain Ownership on Newspaper Management Goals," Newspaper Research Journal 9 (winter 1988): 59-68, and David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Structure and Emphasis on Profits and Product Quality at U.S. Daily Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 68 (spring/summer 1991): 15-26.
58. David Pearce Demers, "Structural Pluralism, Intermedia Competition, and the Growth of the Corporate Newspaper in the United States"; Demers, "Corporate Structure and Emphasis on Profits and Product Quality at U.S. Daily Newspapers," and Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Organizational Goals." The theoretical rationale behind these findings is that increasing role specialization and rationality in decision-making (i.e., emphasis on efficiency) - two characteristics of the corporate form of organization - removes or limits the authority of publishers and other nonnews managers over the news production process, giving journalists at corporate
59. David Pearce Demers, "Structural Pluralism, Intermedia Competition, and the Growth of the Corporate Newspaper in the United States"; Demers, "Corporate Structure and Emphasis on Profits and Product Quality at U.S. Daily Newspapers," and Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Organizational Goals." The theoretical rationale behind these findings is that increasing role specialization and rationality in decision-making (i.e., emphasis on efficiency) - two characteristics of the corporate form of organization - removes or limits the authority of publishers and other nonnews managers over the news production process, giving journalists at corporate newspapers more autonomy. Also see David Pearce Demers, "Effect of Corporate Structure on Autonomy of Top Editors at U.S. Dailies," Journalism Quarterly 70 (fall 1993): 499-508; and David Pearce Demers, "Effect of Organizational Size on Job Satisfaction of Top Editors at U.S. Dailies," Journalism Quarterly 71 (winter 1994): 914-25.
60. David Pearce Demers, "Structural Pluralism, Intermedia Competition, and the Growth of the Corporate Newspaper in the United States"; Demers, "Corporate Structure and Emphasis on Profits and Product Quality at U.S. Daily Newspapers," and Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Organizational Goals." The theoretical rationale behind these findings is that increasing role specialization and rationality in decision-making (i.e., emphasis on efficiency) - two characteristics of the corporate form of organization - removes or limits the authority of publishers and other nonnews managers over the news production process, giving journalists at corporate newspapers more autonomy. Also see David Pearce Demers, "Effect of Corporate Structure on Autonomy of Top Editors at U.S. Dailies," Journalism Quarterly 70 (fall 1993): 499-508; and David Pearce Demers, "Effect of Organizational Size on Job Satisfaction of Top Editors at U.S. Dailies," Journalism Quarterly 71 (winter 1994): 914-25.
61. David Pearce Demers, "Structural Pluralism, Intermedia Competition, and the Growth of the Corporate Newspaper in the United States"; Demers, "Corporate Structure and Emphasis on Profits and Product Quality at U.S. Daily Newspapers," and Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Organizational Goals." The theoretical rationale behind these findings is that increasing role specialization and rationality in decision-making (i.e., emphasis on efficiency) - two characteristics of the corporate form of organization -removes or limits the authority of publishers and other nonnews managers over the news production process, giving journalists at corporate newspapers more autonomy. Also see David Pearce Demers, "Effect of Corporate Structure on Autonomy of Top Editors at U.S. Dailies," Journalism Quarterly 70 (fall 1993): 499-508; and David Pearce Demers, "Effect of Organizational Size on Job Satisfaction of Top Editors at U.S. Dailies," Journalism Quarterly 71 (winter 1994): 914-25.
62. David Pearce Demers, "Structural Pluralism, Intermedia Competition, and the Growth of the Corporate Newspaper in the United States"; Demers, "Corporate Structure and Emphasis on Profits and Product Quality at U.S. Daily Newspapers," and Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Organizational Goals." The theoretical rationale behind these findings is that increasing role specialization and rationality in decision-making (i.e., emphasis on efficiency) - two characteristics of the corporate form of organization - removes or limits the authority of publishers and other nonnews managers over the news production process, giving journalists at corporate newspapers more autonomy. Also see David Pearce Demers, "Effect of Corporate Structure on Autonomy of Top Editors at U.S. Dailies," Journalism Quarterly 70 (fall 1993): 499-508; and David Pearce Demers, "Effect of Organizational Size on Job Satisfaction of Top Editors at U.S. Dailies," Journalism Quarterly 71 (winter 1994): 914-25.
63. 35. William B. Blankenburg, "Newspaper Scale and Newspaper Expenditures," Newspaper Research Journal 10 (winter 1989): 97-103; Marty Tharp and Linda R. Stanley, "A Time Series Analysis of Newspaper Profitability by Circulation Size," The Journal of Media Economics 5 (spring 1992): 3-12; Marty Tharp and Linda R. Stanley, "Trends in Profitability of Daily U.S. Newspapers by Circulation Size, 1978-1988" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Minneapolis, 1990); and Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Organizational Goals." These studies also suggest that even though corporate newspapers place less emphasis on profits, they are more profitable.
64. William B. Blankenburg, "Newspaper Scale and Newspaper Expenditures," Newspaper Research Journal 10 (winter 1989): 97-103; Marty Tharp and Linda R. Stanley, "A Time Series Analysis of Newspaper Profitability by Circulation Size," The Journal of Media Economics 5 (spring 1992): 3-12; Marty Tharp and Linda R. Stanley, "Trends in Profitability of Daily U.S. Newspapers by Circulation Size, 1978-1988" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Minneapolis, 1990); and Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Organizational Goals." These studies also suggest that even though corporate newspapers place less emphasis on profits, they are more profitable.
65. William B. Blankenburg, "Newspaper Scale and Newspaper Expenditures," Newspaper Research Journal 10 (winter 1989): 97-103; Marty Tharp and Linda R. Stanley, "A Time Series Analysis of Newspaper Profitability by Circulation Size," The Journal of Media Economics 5 (spring 1992): 3-12; Marty Tharp and Linda R. Stanley, "Trends in Profitability of Daily U.S. Newspapers by Circulation Size, 1978-1988" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Minneapolis, 1990); and Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Organizational Goals." These studies also suggest that even though corporate newspapers place less emphasis on profits, they are more profitable.
66. William B. Blankenburg, "Newspaper Scale and Newspaper Expenditures," Newspaper Research Journal 10 (winter 1989): 97-103; Marty Tharp and Linda R. Stanley, "A Time Series Analysis of Newspaper Profitability by Circulation Size," The Journal of Media Economics 5 (spring 1992): 3-12; Marty Tharp and Linda R. Stanley, "Trends in Profitability of Daily U.S. Newspapers by Circulation Size, 1978-1988" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Minneapolis, 1990); and Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Organizational Goals." These studies also suggest that even though corporate newspapers place less emphasis on profits, they are more profitable.
67. Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Organizational Goals."
68. 37. Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper, Squires, Read All About It; Soloski, "Economics and Management: The Real Influence of Newspaper Groups"; Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom.
69. Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper, Squires, Read All About It; Soloski, "Economics and Management: The Real Influence of Newspaper Groups"; Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom.
70. Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper, Squires, Read All About It; Soloski, "Economics and Management: The Real Influence of Newspaper Groups"; Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom.
71. Kreig, Spiked: How Chain Management Corrupted America's Oldest Newspaper, Squires, Read All About It; Soloski, "Economics and Management: The Real Influence of Newspaper Groups"; Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom.
72. Structural pluralism may be defined as the number and variety of groups and organizations in a social system. See Phillip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice N. Olien, Community Conflict and the Press (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1980), 16.
73. 39. Warren Breed, "Mass Communication and Sociocultural Integration," Social Forces 37 (December 1958): 109-116; George A. Donohue, Clarice N. Olien, and Phillip J. Tichenor, "Reporting Conflict by Pluralism, Newspaper Type and Ownership," Journalism Quarterly 62 (autumn 1985): 489-99, 507; Morris Janowitz, The Community Press in an Urban Setting (NY: Free Press, 1952); and Arthur J. Vidich and Joseph Bensman, Small Town in Mass Society (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1968).
74. Warren Breed, "Mass Communication and Sociocultural Integration," Social Forces 37 (December 1958): 109-116; George A. Donohue, Clarice N. Olien, and Phillip J. Tichenor, "Reporting Conflict by Pluralism, Newspaper Type and Ownership," Journalism Quarterly 62 (autumn 1985): 489-99, 507; Morris Janowitz, The Community Press in an Urban Setting (NY: Free Press, 1952); and Arthur J. Vidich and Joseph Bensman, Small Town in Mass Society (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1968).
75. Warren Breed, "Mass Communication and Sociocultural Integration," Social Forces 37 (December 1958): 109-116; George A. Donohue, Clarice N. Olien, and Phillip J. Tichenor, "Reporting Conflict by Pluralism, Newspaper Type and Ownership," Journalism Quarterly 62 (autumn 1985): 489-99, 507; Morris Janowitz, The Community Press in an Urban Setting (NY: Free Press, 1952); and Arthur J. Vidich and Joseph Bensman, Small Town in Mass Society (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1968).
76. Warren Breed, "Mass Communication and Sociocultural Integration," Social Forces 37 (December 1958): 109-116; George A. Donohue, Clarice N. Olien, and Phillip J. Tichenor, "Reporting Conflict by Pluralism, Newspaper Type and Ownership," Journalism Quarterly 62 (autumn 1985): 489-99, 507; Morris Janowitz, The Community Press in an Urban Setting (NY: Free Press, 1952); and Arthur J. Vidich and Joseph Bensman, Small Town in Mass Society (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1968).
77. Wilson has shown that as population increases, heterogeneity increases, partly because the probability that there will be enough people (i.e., critical mass) to form a group that exhibits alternative views increases. Thomas C. Wilson, "Community Population Size and Social Heterogeneity: An Empirical Test," American Journal of Sociology 91 (March 1986): 1154-1169.
78. One exception is when conflict erupts between the local community and an outside source of power (e.g., state or federal government), in which case local media coverage tends to support local norms and interprets the conflict through the perspective of local elites. See, e.g., C. N. Olien, G. A. Donohue, and P. J. Tichenor, Media and Stages of Social Conflict, Journalism Monographs, no. 90 (Columbia, SC: AEJMC, 1984).
79. Clarice N. Olien, George A. Donohue, and Phillip J. Tichenor, "The Community Editor's Power and the Reporting of Conflict," Journalism Quarterly 45 (summer 1968): 243-52.
80. See, e.g., Wilson, "Community Population Size and Social Heterogeneity: An Empirical Test."
81. As Donohue, Tichenor, and Olien point out: "Conflict control may include the generation of conflict situations as well as the direct dissipation of tension. This principle is widely recognized in the political realm. . . . Media reporting of a clash between scientific opinion on supersonic transports and governmental policies regarding such technology represents a generating of conflict. From a systems perspective, such reporting is functional for maintenance of the total system. . . . See George A. Donohue, Phillip J. Tichenor, and Clarice N. Olien, "Mass Media Functions, Knowledge and Social Control," Journalism Quarterly 50 (winter 1973): 653-54.
82. Also see Lewis Coser, The Functions of Social Conflict (NY: Free Press, 1956) for a discussion of how conflict may contribute to social stability.
83. 45. Blankenburg, "Newspaper Scale and Newspaper Expenditures"; Tharp and Stanley, "A Time Series Analysis of Newspaper Profitability by Circulation Size"; and Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Organizational Goals."
84. Blankenburg, "Newspaper Scale and Newspaper Expenditures"; Tharp and Stanley, "A Time Series Analysis of Newspaper Profitability by Circulation Size"; and Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Organizational Goals."
85. Blankenburg, "Newspaper Scale and Newspaper Expenditures"; Tharp and Stanley, "A Time Series Analysis of Newspaper Profitability by Circulation Size"; and Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Organizational Goals."
86. Patrick Parsons, John Finnegan Jr., and William Benham, "Editors and Their Roles," in Press Concentration and Monopoly, ed. Robert G. Picard, Maxwell E. McCombs, James P. Winter, and Stephen Lacy (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1988), 91-104.
87. Roland J. Pellegrin and Charles H. Coates, "Absentee-Owned Corporations and Community Power Structure," American Journal of Sociology 61 (March 1956): 413-19.
88. The American Society of Newspaper Editors' code of ethics contains the following dictum: "The American press was made free not just to inform or just to serve as a forum for debate but also to bring an independent scrutiny to bear on the forces of power in the society, including the conduct of official power at all levels of government." Quoted in Philip Meyer, Ethical Journalism (NY: Longman, 1987), 21.
89. Empirical support for this conclusion can be found in George Albert Gladney, "How Editors and Readers Rank and Rate the Importance of 18 Traditional Standards of Newspaper Excellence" (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Atlanta, 1994). Gladney's study shows that editors at larger newspapers (size being one measure of complexity) are much more likely to say newspapers should be aggressive in their reporting and willing to hire top, professional staffers.
90. 50. See J. Kenneth Benson, "The Analysis of Bureaucratic-Professional Conflict: Functional Versus Dialectical Approaches," The Sociological Quarterly 14 (1973): 378-79, and Demers, "Effect of Corporate Structure on Autonomy of Top Editors at U.S. Dailies."
91. See J. Kenneth Benson, "The Analysis of Bureaucratic-Professional Conflict: Functional Versus Dialectical Approaches," The Sociological Quarterly 14 (1973): 378-79, and Demers, "Effect of Corporate Structure on Autonomy of Top Editors at U.S. Dailies."
92. Douglas Anderson, "How Managing Editors View and Deal With Ethical Issues," Journalism Quarterly 64 (summer/autumn 1987): 341-45.
93. For example, journalists could obtain a great deal more information from sources if they were allowed to use false identities in most situations, but this is deemed to be a violation of professional norms of conduct.
94. Meyer, Ethical Journalism, 28-29, provides empirical support for this. He reports the results of a national ASNE survey which shows that journalists at large newspapers are much less likely than those at smaller newspapers to be restrained when reporting on controversial topics.
95. Theodore L. Glasser, "Professionalism and the Derision of Diversity: The Case of the Education of Journalists," Journal of Communication 42 (spring 1992): 134. Glasser's main argument is that higher education journalism programs reify professional standards and fail to teach their students how professionalism promotes social order, a point with which I wholeheartedly agree.
96. 55. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (NY: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (NY: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (NY: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Morris Janowitz, The Community Press in an Urban Setting (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1952); David L. Paletz and Robert M. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: The Free Press, 1981); Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien, Community Conflict and the Press; Gaye Tuchman, Making News (NY: Free Press, 1978); Gaye Tuchman, "Mass Media Institutions," in Handbook of Sociology, ed. Neil Smelser (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988).
97. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (NY: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (NY: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (NY: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Morris Janowitz, The Community Press in an Urban Setting (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1952); David L. Paletz and Robert M. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: The Free Press, 1981); Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien, Community Conflict and the Press; Gaye Tuchman, Making News (NY: Free Press, 1978); Gaye Tuchman, "Mass Media Institutions," in Handbook of Sociology, ed. Neil Smelser (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988).
98. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (NY: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (NY: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (NY: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Morris Janowitz, The Community Press in an Urban Setting (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1952); David L. Paletz and Robert M. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: The Free Press, 1981); Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien, Community Conflict and the Press; Gaye Tuchman, Making News (NY: Free Press, 1978); Gaye Tuchman, "Mass Media Institutions," in Handbook of Sociology, ed. Neil Smelser (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988).
99. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (NY: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (NY: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (NY: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Morris Janowitz, The Community Press in an Urban Setting (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1952); David L. Paletz and Robert M. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: The Free Press, 1981); Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien, Community Conflict and the Press; Gaye Tuchman, Making News (NY: Free Press, 1978); Gaye Tuchman, "Mass Media Institutions," in Handbook of Sociology, ed. Neil Smelser (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988).
100. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (NY: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (NY: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (NY: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Morris Janowitz, The Community Press in an Urban Setting (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1952); David L. Paletz and Robert M. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: The Free Press, 1981); Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien, Community Conflict and the Press; Gaye Tuchman, Making News (NY: Free Press, 1978); Gaye Tuchman, "Mass Media Institutions," in Handbook of Sociology, ed. Neil Smelser (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988).
101. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (NY: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (NY: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (NY: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Morris Janowitz, The Community Press in an Urban Setting (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1952); David L. Paletz and Robert M. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: The Free Press, 1981); Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien, Community Conflict and the Press; Gaye Tuchman, Making News (NY: Free Press, 1978); Gaye Tuchman, "Mass Media Institutions," in Handbook of Sociology, ed. Neil Smelser (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988).
102. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (NY: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (NY: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (NY: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Morris Janowitz, The Community Press in an Urban Setting (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1952); David L. Paletz and Robert M. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: The Free Press, 1981); Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien, Community Conflict and the Press; Gaye Tuchman, Making News (NY: Free Press, 1978); Gaye Tuchman, "Mass Media Institutions," in Handbook of Sociology, ed. Neil Smelser (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988).
103. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (NY: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (NY: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (NY: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Morris Janowitz, The Community Press in an Urban Setting (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1952); David L. Paletz and Robert M. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: The Free Press, 1981); Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien, Community Conflict and the Press; Gaye Tuchman, Making News (NY: Free Press, 1978); Gaye Tuchman, "Mass Media Institutions," in Handbook of Sociology, ed. Neil Smelser (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988).
104. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (NY: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (NY: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (NY: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Morris Janowitz, The Community Press in an Urban Setting (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1952); David L. Paletz and Robert M. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: The Free Press, 1981); Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien, Community Conflict and the Press; Gaye Tuchman, Making News (NY: Free Press, 1978); Gaye Tuchman, "Mass Media Institutions," in Handbook of Sociology, ed. Neil Smelser (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988).
105. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (NY: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (NY: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (NY: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Morris Janowitz, The Community Press in an Urban Setting (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1952); David L. Paletz and Robert M. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: The Free Press, 1981); Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien, Community Conflict and the Press; Gaye Tuchman, Making News (NY: Free Press, 1978); Gaye Tuchman, "Mass Media Institutions," in Handbook of Sociology, ed. Neil Smelser (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988).
106. See, e.g., J. Herbert Altschull, Agents of Power: The Role of the News Media in Human Affairs (NY: Longman, 1984); W. Lance Bennett, News: The Politics of Illusion, 2d ed. (NY: Longman, 1988); Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (NY: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (NY: Vintage, 1979); Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Morris Janowitz, The Community Press in an Urban Setting (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1952); David L. Paletz and Robert M. Entman, Media Power Politics (NY: The Free Press, 1981); Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien, Community Conflict and the Press; Gaye Tuchman, Making News (NY: Free Press, 1978); Gaye Tuchman, "Mass Media Institutions," in Handbook of Sociology, ed. Neil Smelser (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988).
107. One reviewer suggested that the theory section in this paper should drop references to hard news content and to reporters because the hypotheses and data only test the impact of corporate structure on editorials and letters to the editor. I disagree. The hypotheses deal only with editorials and letters to the editor because I had limited research funds and because it is much more difficult empirically to code news stories for critical content. Playing the role of devil's advocate, the reviewer also noted that "giving space to letter writers" could give "the appearance of system openness while allowing a 'safety valve' that vents steam and reduces the pressure by doing so." From a social system theory perspective, the publication of letters to editor should, indeed, often "reduce the pressure" (i.e., "cool out" the letter writer and others with similar views). This is a widely recognized mechanism of social control. However, the fact remains that in some cases the "lid" (i.e., institutionalized power) is moved by such pressure (i.e., policy or social structures are altered), and once in a while it is blown off (i.e., m ore significant social change).
108. Police reporters typically occupy the lowest-status position in reporting. At only two newspapers did one person hold both the highest ranking manager and editor role. In these two cases, the editor survey was mailed to the next highest ranking editor.
109. One was a post card reminder, mailed about a week later. After about a month, a second follow-up that included a questionnaire was mailed to those who did not respond.
110. The author of this paper thought the response rate for the police reporter group would have been the lowest because the mailings were not personally addressed. This was not the case.
111. A respondent's position in the organizational hierarchy may have a substantial effect on perceptions of organizational goals, etc. Had there been a correlation between role and circulation, it would have been necessary to control for role when examining the effects of corporate structure.
112. In some cases, the newspapers would send tear sheets only after payment of a small charge.
113. For dichotomous measures, the proportion is just a special case of the mean when the values are zero and one.
114. Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, and Gerth and Mills, From Max Weber.
115. Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, and Gerth and Mills, From Max Weber.
116. For more detailed information about the factor analysis, see David Pearce Demers, "Corporate Newspaper Structure and Organizational Goals."
117. "In which of the followingbeats or areas does your newspaper employ at least one full-time reporter? (Please check all that apply): business, sports, book reviews, arts, real estate, health, national, state, food, home, science, technology, metro, international, lifestyles, travel, fashion, and education."
118. "For a general assignment reporter to become the top editor of the newspaper, how many promotions typically would he or she have to receive? (For example, if a newspaper employs assistant city editors, a city editor, and an editor-in-chief, the total number of promotions needed to become the top editor is three.)"
119. Respondents were asked to rate 22 items in terms of the amount of importance top management places on them. Responses were recorded on a 7-point scale ranging from "not very important" to "extremely important."
120. Ole R. Holsti, Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley), 140.
121. One reviewer of this paper responded to this sentence with the statement: "Presumably this also includes proposals about what government should do, as well as actual activities. In what sense would criticism of proposed or actual actions constitute institutional criticism? For example, couldn't one dispute whether the cuts to the Environmental Protection Agency budget are a good idea, while not challenging the right of Congress to try to do it? Absent such a challenge, I would not regard such criticism as an institutional one. The author throws in terms like 'pressure on existing institutions to change' and criticism of institutions here quite loosely." My study does not make a distinction between what the reviewer calls institutional and noninstitutional criticism. I would argue, however, that content representing both types of criticism increases as a newspaper acquires the characteristics of the corporate form of organization. Perhaps the best example of institutional criticism is investigative reporting, which often draws attention to shortcomings in the social structure and is strongly related to corporate structure.
122. One reviewer asked whether there was "any other change in the criteria used to define what 'critical' and 'noncritical' meant? For example, if an editorial prominently termed a proposal 'controversial,' would that automatically constitute a 'critical' code?" The answer to the first question is "no"; the answer to the second is "not necessarily." According to my operationalization, an editorial topic could address a controversial topic but not be critical of established authorities or institutions.