An overview of election studies in Africa

Journal of Modern African Studies

Volumn 35, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 717-744

  Cowen, Michael ^a   Laakso, Liisa ^b  

^a Institute of Development Studies

^b UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI   (Finland)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0000699463     PISSN: 0022278X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0022278X97002607     Document Type: Review

References (43)

1. Earlier waves of democratisation were those beginning during the first half of the nineteenth century, and those after World War II. According to Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: democratization in the late twentieth century Oklahoma, 1991;, the third 'wave' began with the mid-1970s crisis of the Southern European dictatorships and continued during the 19805, most prominently in Latin America.
2. For an approach which reinforced this kind of analysis, see Adam Przeworski, Capitalism and Democracy (Cambridge, 1985), and 'Democracy as a Contingent Outcome of Conflict', in Jon Elster and Rune Slagstad (eds.), Constitutionalism and Democracy (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 59-80.
3. For an approach which reinforced this kind of analysis, see Adam Przeworski, Capitalism and Democracy (Cambridge, 1985), and 'Democracy as a Contingent Outcome of Conflict', in Jon Elster and Rune Slagstad (eds.), Constitutionalism and Democracy (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 59-80.
4. See, for example, Martin Wight, The Gold Coast Legislative Council (London, 1946).
5. Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: contemporary Africa and the legacy of late colonialism (Princeton, 1996), p. 80, referring to Sir Donald Cameron.
6. See, for example, David Kimble, A Political History of Ghana, Vol. 1, The Rise of Gold Coast Nationalism, 1850-1928 (Oxford, 1963).
7. See, for example, James S. Coleman, Nigeria: background to nationalism (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1958).
8. See David Kimble, The Machinery of Self-Government (Harmondsworth, 1953), and Colin Titmus and Tom Steele, Adult Education for Independence: the introduction of university extra-mural work into British Tropical Africa (Leeds, 1995), ch. 5.
9. See David Kimble, The Machinery of Self-Government (Harmondsworth, 1953), and Colin Titmus and Tom Steele, Adult Education for Independence: the introduction of university extra-mural work into British Tropical Africa (Leeds, 1995), ch. 5.
10. See Jack Parson, 'A Note on the 1974 General Election in Botswana and the UBLS Election Study', in Botswana Notes and Records (Gaborone), 7, 1975, pp. 73-80. Also, Dennis L. Cohen, 'The Botswana Political Elite: evidence from the 1974 general election', in Journal of Southern African Studies (Oxford), 4, 1979, pp. 347-70.
11. See Jack Parson, 'A Note on the 1974 General Election in Botswana and the UBLS Election Study', in Botswana Notes and Records (Gaborone), 7, 1975, pp. 73-80. Also, Dennis L. Cohen, 'The Botswana Political Elite: evidence from the 1974 general election', in Journal of Southern African Studies (Oxford), 4, 1979, pp. 347-70.
12. David Apter, 'Some Reflections on the Role of Political Opposition in New Nations', 1962, in William John Hanna (ed.), Independent Black Africa: the politics of freedom (Chicago, 1964), pp. 470-1, emphasis in original.
13. See Talcott Parsons, The Social System (New York, 1951), and Societies: evolutionary and comparative perspectives (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1966).
14. See Talcott Parsons, The Social System (New York, 1951), and Societies: evolutionary and comparative perspectives (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1966).
15. For instance, Seymour Martin Lipset, 'Some Social Requisites of Democracy: economic development and political legitimacy', in American Political Science Review (Washington, DC), 53, 1959, pp. 69-105, compares European and Latin American states. Indeed, over 30 years later, another American scholar qualified Lipset's basic argument by using the UNDP Human Development Index and showing that economic development promotes democracy to the extent that it leads to higher levels of 'human well-being'. See Larry Diamond, 'Economic Development and Democracy Reconsidered', in Gary Marks and Diamond (eds.), Reexamining Democracy: essays in honour of Seymour Martin Lipset (Newbury Park, 1992), pp. 93-139.
16. For instance, Seymour Martin Lipset, 'Some Social Requisites of Democracy: economic development and political legitimacy', in American Political Science Review (Washington, DC), 53, 1959, pp. 69-105, compares European and Latin American states. Indeed, over 30 years later, another American scholar qualified Lipset's basic argument by using the UNDP Human Development Index and showing that economic development promotes democracy to the extent that it leads to higher levels of 'human well-being'. See Larry Diamond, 'Economic Development and Democracy Reconsidered', in Gary Marks and Diamond (eds.), Reexamining Democracy: essays in honour of Seymour Martin Lipset (Newbury Park, 1992), pp. 93-139.
17. See Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens, and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Cambridge, 1992).
18. For more on intentional development and decay, see M. P. Cowen and R. W. Shenton, Doctrines of Development (London, 1996). It is also instructive to note that Samuel Huntington dubbed the failure to distinguish between intent to develop and the 'actual tendency' of changes as 'Webbism', a particular British Fabian inclination to be optimistic and sympathetic as regards the Stalinist experience of Soviet development, especially from the late 1920s. He claimed, in loc. cit. 1965, p. 391, that Webbism was 'the tendency to ascribe to a political system qualities which are assumed to be its ultimate goals rather than qualities which actually characterize its processes and functions'.
19. For more on intentional development and decay, see M. P. Cowen and R. W. Shenton, Doctrines of Development (London, 1996). It is also instructive to note that Samuel Huntington dubbed the failure to distinguish between intent to develop and the 'actual tendency' of changes as 'Webbism', a particular British Fabian inclination to be optimistic and sympathetic as regards the Stalinist experience of Soviet development, especially from the late 1920s. He claimed, in loc. cit. 1965, p. 391, that Webbism was 'the tendency to ascribe to a political system qualities which are assumed to be its ultimate goals rather than qualities which actually characterize its processes and functions'.
20. Colin Leys (ed.), 'Introduction', in Politics and Change in Developing Countries: studies in the theory and practice of development (Cambridge, 1969), p. 5, referring to David Apter, Some Conceptual Approaches to the Study of Modernization (Englewood Cliffs, 1968).
21. Colin Leys (ed.), 'Introduction', in Politics and Change in Developing Countries: studies in the theory and practice of development (Cambridge, 1969), p. 5, referring to David Apter, Some Conceptual Approaches to the Study of Modernization (Englewood Cliffs, 1968).
22. See Colin Leys, Underdevelopment in Kenya: the political economy of neo-colonialism, 1964-1971 (London, 1975).
23. See, for example, Patrick Chabal (ed.), Political Domination in Africa: reflections on the limits of power (Cambridge, 1986).
24. Przeworski, loc. cit. 1988, p. 64. Also quoted by Adrian Leftwich, 'Governance, Democracy and Development in the Third World', in Third World Quarterly, 14, 3, 1993, pp. 615-16, who reinforced this point. The question of what constitutes a 'political force' and the 'interests' of a group, especially in the form of a political party, is highly problematic. There may well be a difference between theorising about social and liberal democracy in relation to voter choice, but the uncertainty of outcomes, as already mentioned, is at the core of liberal democratic dilemmas about politics.
25. Przeworski, loc. cit. 1988, p. 64. Also quoted by Adrian Leftwich, 'Governance, Democracy and Development in the Third World', in Third World Quarterly, 14, 3, 1993, pp. 615-16, who reinforced this point. The question of what constitutes a 'political force' and the 'interests' of a group, especially in the form of a political party, is highly problematic. There may well be a difference between theorising about social and liberal democracy in relation to voter choice, but the uncertainty of outcomes, as already mentioned, is at the core of liberal democratic dilemmas about politics.
26. For more details, see Michael Cowen and Mutahi Ngunyi, 'Preludes to the 1992 and 1997 Elections in Kenya', University of Helsinki Institute of Development Studies Working Paper, No. 10 of 1997.
27. See Peter Anyang' Nyongo, 'Africa: the failure of one-party rule', in Journal of Democracy (Baltimore), 2, 4, 1991, p. 2, and as quoted by Gisela Geisler, 'Fair? What Has Fairness Got To Do With It? Vagaries of Election Observations and Democratic Standards', in The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge), 31, 4, December 1993, p. 630. Her article addresses this general point.
28. See Peter Anyang' Nyongo, 'Africa: the failure of one-party rule', in Journal of Democracy (Baltimore), 2, 4, 1991, p. 2, and as quoted by Gisela Geisler, 'Fair? What Has Fairness Got To Do With It? Vagaries of Election Observations and Democratic Standards', in The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge), 31, 4, December 1993, p. 630. Her article addresses this general point.
29. Rueschemeyer et al. op. cit. 1992, p. vii.
30. Larry Diamond, 'Three Paradoxes of Democracy', in Diamond and Marc F. Plattner (eds.), The Global Resurgence of Democracy (Baltimore, 1993), pp. 95-107, quoted and criticised by Balefi Tsie, 'Constitutionalism and Citizenship in Botswana', Conference on 'Constitutionalism and Citizenship in Contemporary Africa', organised by the Nordic Africa Institute and the University of Nairobi, Naivasha, Kenya, 13-15 December 1996.
31. Larry Diamond, 'Three Paradoxes of Democracy', in Diamond and Marc F. Plattner (eds.), The Global Resurgence of Democracy (Baltimore, 1993), pp. 95-107, quoted and criticised by Balefi Tsie, 'Constitutionalism and Citizenship in Botswana', Conference on 'Constitutionalism and Citizenship in Contemporary Africa', organised by the Nordic Africa Institute and the University of Nairobi, Naivasha, Kenya, 13-15 December 1996.
32. Bernand Berelson, Paul Lazarsfeld, and William McPhee, Voting: a study of opinion formation in a presidential campaign (Chicago, 1954), pp. 313-14.
33. Huntington was obviously greatly influenced by William Kornhauser, The Politics of Mass Society (New York, 1959).
34. For an instructive case, see Michael Cowen and Scott MacWilliam, Indigenous Capital in Kenya: the 'Indian' dimension of debate (Helsinki, 1996).
35. See, for example, Leftwich, loc. cit. 1993; David Williams and Tom Young, 'Governance, the World Bank and Liberal Theory', in Political Studies (Guildford, Surrey), 42, 1994, pp. 84-100; and David Moore, 'Reading Americans on Democracy in Africa: from the CIA to "Good Governance"', in European Journal of Development Research (London), 8, 1, 1996, pp. 123-45.
36. See, for example, Leftwich, loc. cit. 1993; David Williams and Tom Young, 'Governance, the World Bank and Liberal Theory', in Political Studies (Guildford, Surrey), 42, 1994, pp. 84-100; and David Moore, 'Reading Americans on Democracy in Africa: from the CIA to "Good Governance"', in European Journal of Development Research (London), 8, 1, 1996, pp. 123-45.
37. See, for example, Leftwich, loc. cit. 1993; David Williams and Tom Young, 'Governance, the World Bank and Liberal Theory', in Political Studies (Guildford, Surrey), 42, 1994, pp. 84-100; and David Moore, 'Reading Americans on Democracy in Africa: from the CIA to "Good Governance"', in European Journal of Development Research (London), 8, 1, 1996, pp. 123-45.
38. World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa: from crisis to sustainable growth. A Long-Term Perspective Study (Washington, DC, 1989), p. 60.
39. Williams and Young, loc. cit. p. 97. According to Pierre Landell-Mills, 'Governance, Civil Society and Empowerment in Sub-Saharan Africa', Annual Conference of the Society for the Advancement of Socio-Economics, Irvine, CA, 1992: 'the benefits of a participatory approach is not simply the immediate advantage of a project better tailored to the clients' needs, but also the impulse it gives to the long term process of changing mentalities'. See also, his 'Governance, Cultural Change, and Empowerment', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 30, 4, December 1992, pp. 543-67.
40. Williams and Young, loc. cit. p. 97. According to Pierre Landell-Mills, 'Governance, Civil Society and Empowerment in Sub-Saharan Africa', Annual Conference of the Society for the Advancement of Socio-Economics, Irvine, CA, 1992: 'the benefits of a participatory approach is not simply the immediate advantage of a project better tailored to the clients' needs, but also the impulse it gives to the long term process of changing mentalities'. See also, his 'Governance, Cultural Change, and Empowerment', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 30, 4, December 1992, pp. 543-67.
41. Williams and Young, loc. cit. p. 97. According to Pierre Landell-Mills, 'Governance, Civil Society and Empowerment in Sub-Saharan Africa', Annual Conference of the Society for the Advancement of Socio-Economics, Irvine, CA, 1992: 'the benefits of a participatory approach is not simply the immediate advantage of a project better tailored to the clients' needs, but also the impulse it gives to the long term process of changing mentalities'. See also, his 'Governance, Cultural Change, and Empowerment', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 30, 4, December 1992, pp. 543-67.
42. Leftwich, loc. cit. 1993, p. 619-20.
43. For social, colonial, and post-colonial trusteeship, see Cowen and Shenton, op. cit. 1996.