Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis

Compendium on Continuing Education for the Practicing Veterinarian

Volumn 19, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 513-523

  Fenger, Clara K ^a,b  

^a Equine Internal Medicine Consulting   (United States)

^b AMER COLL OF VET INT MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DIDELPHIDAE; EQUIDAE; EQUUS CABALLUS; SARCOCYSTIS FALCATULA; SARCOCYSTIS NEURONA;

EID: 0000546137     PISSN: 01931903     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (75)

1. Bowman DD: Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis: History and recent developments. Equine Pract 13(8):28-33, 1991.
2. MacKay RJS, Davis SW, Dubey JP: Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Compend Contin Educ Pract Vet 14(10):1359-1366, 1992.
3. Dubey JP, Davis SW, Speer CA, et al: Sarcocystis neurona n. sp. (Protozoa:Apicomplexa), the etiologic agent of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. J Parasitol 77:212-218, 1991.
4. Bowman DD, Cummings JF, Davis SW, et al: Characterization of Sarcocystis neurona from a Thoroughbred with equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Cornell Vet 82:41-52, 1992.
5. Prickett ME: Equine spinal ataxia. Proc 14th Annu Conv AAEP: 147-158, 1968.
6. Rooney JR, Prickett ME, Delaney FM, Crowe MW: Focal myelitis-encephalitis in horses. Cornell Vet 50:494-501, 1970.
7. Beech J, Dodd DC: Toxoplasma-like encephalomyelitis in the horse. Vet Pathol 11:87-96, 1974.
8. Cusick PE, Sells DM, Hamilton DP, Hardenbrook HJ: Toxoplasmosis in two horses. JAVMA 164:77-80, 1974.
9. Dubey JP, Davis SW, Koestner A, Kiryu K: Equine encephalomyelitis due to a protozoan parasite resembling Toxoplasma gondii. JAVMA 165:249-255, 1974.
10. Simpson CF, Mayhew IG: Evidence for Sarcocystis as the etiologic agent of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. J Protozool 27:288-292, 1980.
11. Fenger CK, Granstrom DE, Langemeier JL, et al: Phylogenetic relationship of Sarcocystis neurona to other members of the family Sarcocystidae based on small subunit ribosomal RNA gene sequence. J Parasitol 80(6):966-975, 1994.
12. Fenger CK, Granstrom DE, Langemeier JL, et al: Identification of opossums (Didelphis virginiana) as the putative definitive host of Sarcocystis neurona. J Parasitoli 81:916-919, 1995.
13. Dame JB, MacKay RJ, Yowell CA, et al: Sarcocystis falcatula from passerine and psittacine birds: Synonymy with Sarcocystis neurona, agent of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. J Parasitol 81(6):930-935, 1995.
14. Fenger CK, Granstrom DE, Gajadhar AA, et al: Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis: Experimental infection of horses using Sarcocystis sp. sporocysts from the opossum (Didelphis virginiana). Vet Parasitol, accepted for publication.
15. Stiles CW: On the presence of sarcosporidia in birds. USDA BAI Bull 3:79-88, 1893.
16. Box ED, Duszynski DW: Sarcocystis of passerine birds: Sexual stages in the opossum (Didelphis his virginiana). J Wildl Dis 16:209-215, 1980.
17. Box ED, Duszynski DW: Experimental transmission of Sarcocystis from icterid birds to sparrows and canaries by sporocysts from the opossum. J Parasitol 64:682-688, 1978.
18. Box ED, Smith JH: The intermediate host spectrum in a Sarcocystis species of birds. J Parasitol 68:668-673, 1982.
19. Box ED, Meier JL, Smith JH: Description of Sarcocystis falcatula Stiles, 1893, a parasite of birds and opossums. J Protozool 31:521-524, 1984.
20. Payer R, Kocan RM: Prevalence of Sarcocystis in grackles in Maryland. J Protozool 18:547-548, 1971.
21. Dubey JP, Slife LN: Fatal encephalitis in a dog associated with an unidentified coccidian parasite. J Vet Diagn Invest 2:233-236, 1990.
22. Dubey JP, Speer CA, Hamir AN, et al: Development of a Sarcocystis-like Apicomplexan protozoan in the brain of a raccoon (Procyon lotor). J Helminthol Soc Wash 58:250-255, 1991.
23. Dubey JP, Speer CA, Fayer R: Sarcocystosis of Animals and Man. Boca Raton, FL, CRC Press, 1989.
24. Mackie JT, Rahaley RS, Nugent R: Suspected Sarcocystis encephalitis in a stillborn kid. Aust Vet J 69:114-115, 1992.
25. Klumpp SA, Anderson DC, McClure HM, Dubey JP: Encephalomyelitis due to a Sarcocystis neurana-like protozoan in a rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) infected with simian immunodeficiency virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 51:332-338, 1994.
26. Dubey JP, Hedstrom OR: Meningoencephalitis in mink associated with a Sarcocystis neurona-like organism. J Vet Diagn Invest 5:467-471, 1993.
27. Mutalib A, Keirs R, Maslin W, et al: Sarcocystis-associated encephalitis in chickens. Avian Dis 39:436-438, 1995.
28. Mayhew IG, Greiner EC: Protozoal diseases: Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2:439, 1986.
29. Turner TA: Hindlimb lameness or neurologic disease? Proc 11th Annu Vet Med Forum ACVIM:584-586, 1993.
30. Mayhew IG, de Lahunta A, Whitlock RH: History and clinical evaluation. Cornell Vet 68(Suppl 6):24-35, 1978.
31. Beech J: Equine protozoan encephalomyelitis. VM SAC 69:1562-1566, 1974.
32. de Lahunta A: Veterinary Neuroanatomy and Clinical Neurology. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1983.
33. Fayer R, Dubey JP: Comparative epidemiology of coccidia: Clues to the etiology of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Int J Parasitol 17:615-620, 1987.
34. Dunigan CE, Oglesbee MJ, Podell M, et al: Seizure activity associated with equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Pro Vet Neurol 6:50-54, 1995.
35. Mayhew IG, de Lahunta A: Spinal cord disease in the horse (neuropathology). Cornell Vet 68:106-147, 1978.
36. Boy MG, Galligan DT, Divers TJ: Protozoal encephalomyelitis in horses: 82 cases (1972-1986). JAVMA 196: 632-634, 1990.
37. Dubey JP, Miller S: Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis in a pony. JAVMA 188:1311-1312, 1986.
38. Davis SW, Speer CA, Dubey JP: In vitro cultivation of Sarcocystis neurona from the spinal cord of a horse with equine protozoal myelitis. J Parasitol 77:212-218, 1991.
39. Clark EG, Townsend HGG, McKenzie NT: Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis: A report of two cases from western Canada. Can Vet J 22:140-144, 1981.
40. Granstrom DE, Alvarez O, Dubey JP, et al: Equine protozoal myelitis in Panamanian horses and isolation of Sarcocystis neurona. J Parasitol 78:909-912, 1992.
41. Masri MD, Lopez de Aida J, Dubey JP: Sarcocystis neurona-associated ataxia in horses in Brazil. Vet Parasitol 44:311-314, 1992.
42. Barros de Lambardo CS, de Barros SS, dos Santos MN: Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis in southern Brazil. Vet Rec 119:283, 1986.
43. Bentz BG, Granstrom DE, Stamper S: Seroprevalence of antibody to Sarcocystis neurona in a county of southeastern Pennsylvania. JAVMA 210:517-518, 1997.
44. Saville WJ, Reed SM, Granstrom DE, et al: Prevalence of serum antibodies to Sarcocystis neurona in horses in Ohio. JAVMA 210:519-524, 1997.
45. Blythe L, Granstrom DE, Hansen DE, et al: Serological prevalence of antibodies to Sarcocystis neurona in Oregon horses. JAVMA 210:525-527, 1997.
46. Fenger CK, Granstrom DE, Langemeier JL, et al: An epizootic of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis on a farm. JAVMA, accepted for publication.
47. Fayer R, Mayhew IG, Baird JD, et al: Epidemiology of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis in North America based on histologically confirmed cases. J Vet Intern Med 4:54-57, 1990.
48. Mayhew IG, Tasker JB, Whitlock RH: Hematology, serum chemistry and cerebrospinal fluid studies. Cornell Vet 68(Suppl6):36-43, 1978.
49. Jackson C, de Lahunta A, Divers T, Ainsworth D: Diagnostic significance and variables affecting spinal fluid creatine kinase in the horse. Proc ACVIM 13:1023, 1995.
50. Granstrom DE: Diagnosis of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis: Western blot analysis. Proc 11th ACVIM Forum:587-590, 1993.
51. Tyor WR, Wesselingh S, Levine B, Griffin DE: Long-term intraparenchymal Ig secretion after acute viral encephalitis in mice. J Immunol 149:4016-4020, 1992.
52. Wurster U, Haas J: Passage of intravenous immunoglobulin and interaction with the central nervous system. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychol 57:21-25, 1994.
53. Andrews FM, Maddux JM, Faulk D: Total protein, albumin quotient, IgG and IgG index determinations for horse cerebrospinal fluid. Prog Vet Neurol 1:197-204, 1992.
54. Mayhew IG: Large Animal Neurobiology: A Handbook for Veterinary Clinicians. Philadelphia, Lea & Febiger, 1989.
55. Welsch BB: Treatment of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Compend Contin Educ Pract Vet 13(10):1599-1602, 1991.
56. Bushby SRM: Sulfonamide and trimethoprim combinations. JAVMA 176:1049-1053, 1980.
57. Sheffield HG, Melton ML: Effect of pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine on the fine structure and multiplication of Toxoplasma gondii in cell cultures. J Parasitol 61:704-712, 1975.
58. Lindsay DS, Butler JM, Rippey NS, Blagburn BL: Demonstration of synergistic effects of sulfonamides and dihydrofolate reductase/thymidylate synthase inhibitors against Neospora caninum tachyzoites in cultured cells and characterization of mutants resistant to pyrimethamine. Am J Vet Res 57(1):68-72, 1996.
59. Clarke CR, MacAllister CG, Burrows GE, et al: Pharmacokinetics, penetration into cerebrospinal fluid, and hematologic effects after multiple oral administrations of pyrimethamine to horses. Am J Vet Res 53:2296-2299, 1992.
60. Cavallito JC, Nichol WD, Brenckman WD, et al: Lipid-soluble inhibitors of dihydrofolate reductase. I. Kinetics, tissue distribution, extent of metabolism of pyrimethamine, metoprine, and etoprine in the rat, dog and man. Drug Metab Dispos 6(3):329-337, 1978.
61. Watkins WM, Mosobo M: Treatment of Plasmodium falciparium malaria with pyrimethamine and sulphadoxine: A selective pressure for resistance is a function of long elimination half-life. Trans Roy Soc Trop Med Hyg 87:75-79, 1993.
62. Heydorn VAO, Haralambidis S, Matuschka FR: Zur Chemoprophylaxe und Therapie der akuten Sarkosporidiose. Berl Munch Tierarztl Wochenschr 94:229-234, 1981.
63. Akinyanju O, Goddell JC, Ahmed I: Pyrimethamine poisoning. Br Med J 4:147-148, 1973.
64. Castles TR, Kintner LD, Lee CC: The effects of folic or folinic acid on the toxicity of pyrimethamine in dogs. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 20:447-459, 1971.
65. Laing SRS: Refractory anaemia, a problem in diagnosis and epidemiology in a tea garden in Assam. J Trop Med Hyg 60:131, 1957.
66. Zimmerman J, Selhub J, Rosenburg IH: Competitive inhibition of folate absorption by dihydrofolate reductase inhibitors, trimethoprim and pyrimethamine. Am J Clin Nutr 46:518-522, 1987.
67. Smithells RW, Sheppard S, Schorah CJ: Vitamin deficiencies and neural tube defects. Arch Dis Child 51:944-950, 1976.
68. Monie IW, Nelson MM, Evans HM: Abnormalities of the urinary system of rat embryos resulting from maternal pteroylglutamic acid deficiency. Anat Rec 120:119-136, 1954.
69. Perry KG, Morrison JC: Hematologic disorders in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 19:783-799, 1992.
70. Blocker DE, Ausman LM, Meadows CA, Thenen SW: Experimental maternal and neonatal folate status relationships in nonhuman primates. Am J Clin Nutr 50:120-128, 1989.
71. Grisham RSC: Central nervous system toxicity of pyrimethamine (Daraprim) in man. Am J Ophthalmol 54: 1119-1121, 1962.
72. Frenkel JK, Hitchings GH: Relative reversal by vitamins (p-aminobenzoic, folic and folinic acids) of the effects of sulfadiazine and pyrimethamine on Toxoplasma, mouse and man. Antibiot Chemother 7(12):630-638, 1957.
73. Naughton CA, Chandler CJ, Duplantier RP, Halsted CH: Folate absorption in alcoholic pigs: In vitro hydrolysis and transport at the intestinal brush border membrane. Am J Clin Nutr 50:1436-1441, 1989.
74. Baker H, Frank O, Feingold S, et al: The fate of orally and parenterally administered folates. Am J Clin Nut 17:88-95, 1965.
75. Bygbjerg IC, Lund JT, Hording M: Effect of folic and folinic acid on cytopenia occurring during co-trimoxazole treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Scand J Infect Dis 20:685-686, 1988.