The traffic in heads: Bodies, borders and the articulation of regional histories

Journal of Southern African Studies

Volumn 23, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 325-338

  White, Luise ^a  

^a Smithsonian Institute

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0000541368     PISSN: 03057070     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03057079708708540     Document Type: Review

References (111)

1. Bernard Magubane, 'A Critical Look at the Indices Used in the Study of Social Change in Central Africa', Current Anthropology 12, 4-5 (1971), pp. 419-431. Critiques of Mitchell are alive and well, see Albert B. K. Matongo, 'Popular Culture in a Colonial Society: Another Look at Mbeni and Kalela Dances on the Copperbelt, 1930-64', in Samuel N. Chipungu (ed), Guardians in their Time: Experiences of Zambians under Colonial Rule (London, 1992), pp. 180-217.
2. Bernard Magubane, 'A Critical Look at the Indices Used in the Study of Social Change in Central Africa', Current Anthropology 12, 4-5 (1971), pp. 419-431. Critiques of Mitchell are alive and well, see Albert B. K. Matongo, 'Popular Culture in a Colonial Society: Another Look at Mbeni and Kalela Dances on the Copperbelt, 1930-64', in Samuel N. Chipungu (ed), Guardians in their Time: Experiences of Zambians under Colonial Rule (London, 1992), pp. 180-217.
3. T. O. Ranger, Dance and Society in Eastern Africa (Berkeley, 1975), p. 4.
4. T. O. Ranger, 'Towards a Useable African Past', in Christopher Fyfe (ed), African Studies Since 1945: Essays in Honour of Basil Davidson's Sixtieth Birthday (London, 1976), pp. 17-30. Emphasis in original.
5. Stephen William Foster, The Past is Another Country: Representation, Historical Consciousness, and Resistance in the Blue Ridge (Berkeley, 1988); and L. White, Tsetse Visions: Narratives of Blood and Bugs in Colonial Northern Rhodesia, 1931-9', Journal African History, 36 (1995), pp. 219-245. This happens in academic circles as well, see Martin Hall, 'Heads and Tales', Representations, 54 (1996), pp. 104-123.
6. Stephen William Foster, The Past is Another Country: Representation, Historical Consciousness, and Resistance in the Blue Ridge (Berkeley, 1988); and L. White, Tsetse Visions: Narratives of Blood and Bugs in Colonial Northern Rhodesia, 1931-9', Journal African History, 36 (1995), pp. 219-245. This happens in academic circles as well, see Martin Hall, 'Heads and Tales', Representations, 54 (1996), pp. 104-123.
7. Stephen William Foster, The Past is Another Country: Representation, Historical Consciousness, and Resistance in the Blue Ridge (Berkeley, 1988); and L. White, Tsetse Visions: Narratives of Blood and Bugs in Colonial Northern Rhodesia, 1931-9', Journal African History, 36 (1995), pp. 219-245. This happens in academic circles as well, see Martin Hall, 'Heads and Tales', Representations, 54 (1996), pp. 104-123.
8. John Lonsdale, 'States and Social Processes in Africa: A Historiographical Survey', African Studies Review, 24, 2-3 (1981), p. 143.
9. Bogumil Jewsiewicki, 'African Historical Studies: Academic Knowledge as "Useable Past" and Radical Scholarship', African Studies Review, 32, 3 (1989), pp. 1-76; Frederick Cooper, Decolonization and African Society: the Labour Question in French and British Africa (Cambridge, 1996).
10. Bogumil Jewsiewicki, 'African Historical Studies: Academic Knowledge as "Useable Past" and Radical Scholarship', African Studies Review, 32, 3 (1989), pp. 1-76; Frederick Cooper, Decolonization and African Society: the Labour Question in French and British Africa (Cambridge, 1996).
11. This point does not come from African History, but Indian. See Ranajit Guha, "The Prose of Counter-Insurgency', in Ranjit Guha and Gayatri Chakrovarty Spivak (eds), Selected Subaltern Studies (Oxford, 1988), pp. 45-86; and Shahid Amin, Event, Metaphor Memory: Chauri Chaura, 1922-92 (Berkeley, 1995).
12. This point does not come from African History, but Indian. See Ranajit Guha, "The Prose of Counter-Insurgency', in Ranjit Guha and Gayatri Chakrovarty Spivak (eds), Selected Subaltern Studies (Oxford, 1988), pp. 45-86; and Shahid Amin, Event, Metaphor Memory: Chauri Chaura, 1922-92 (Berkeley, 1995).
13. Jan Vansina, 'Some Perceptions on the Writing of African History', Itinerario, 16, 1 (1991), pp. 77-91. But Ranger notes that many young Africans saw the African history written for Africans as 'contributing exclusively to cultural nationalism'; see Ranger, 'Useable Past', pp. 21-24.
14. Jan Vansina, 'Some Perceptions on the Writing of African History', Itinerario, 16, 1 (1991), pp. 77-91. But Ranger notes that many young Africans saw the African history written for Africans as 'contributing exclusively to cultural nationalism'; see Ranger, 'Useable Past', pp. 21-24.
15. J. B. Peires, 'Suicide or Genocide? Xhosa Perceptions of the Nongqawuse Catastrophe', Radical History Review, 46-7 (1990), pp. 55-56.
16. Ranger, 'Useable Pasl', p. 24.
17. Karin Barber, 'Popular Arts in Africa', African Studies Review, 30, 3 (1987), pp. 1-78. esp. pp. 9-12, 34-40.
18. I am hardly the first to note the ways that postcolonial states make violence ordinary: see Richard Werbner, Tears of the Dead: The Social Biography of an African Family (Edinburgh, 1991); Liisa H. Malkki, Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory, and National Cosmology among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania (Chicago, 1995). However others disagree. Achille Mbembe in 'Provisional Notes on the Postcolony', Africa, 62, 1 (1992), pp. 3-37, argues that not only is postcolonial violence grotesque, but so is postcolonial gentleness. For a useful summary of debates about the postcolony see Richard Werbner, 'Multiple Identities, Plural Arenas', in Richard Werbner and Terence Ranger (eds), Postcolonial Identities in Africa (London, 1996), pp. 1-25.
19. I am hardly the first to note the ways that postcolonial states make violence ordinary: see Richard Werbner, Tears of the Dead: The Social Biography of an African Family (Edinburgh, 1991); Liisa H. Malkki, Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory, and National Cosmology among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania (Chicago, 1995). However others disagree. Achille Mbembe in 'Provisional Notes on the Postcolony', Africa, 62, 1 (1992), pp. 3-37, argues that not only is postcolonial violence grotesque, but so is postcolonial gentleness. For a useful summary of debates about the postcolony see Richard Werbner, 'Multiple Identities, Plural Arenas', in Richard Werbner and Terence Ranger (eds), Postcolonial Identities in Africa (London, 1996), pp. 1-25.
20. I am hardly the first to note the ways that postcolonial states make violence ordinary: see Richard Werbner, Tears of the Dead: The Social Biography of an African Family (Edinburgh, 1991); Liisa H. Malkki, Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory, and National Cosmology among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania (Chicago, 1995). However others disagree. Achille Mbembe in 'Provisional Notes on the Postcolony', Africa, 62, 1 (1992), pp. 3-37, argues that not only is postcolonial violence grotesque, but so is postcolonial gentleness. For a useful summary of debates about the postcolony see Richard Werbner, 'Multiple Identities, Plural Arenas', in Richard Werbner and Terence Ranger (eds), Postcolonial Identities in Africa (London, 1996), pp. 1-25.
21. I am hardly the first to note the ways that postcolonial states make violence ordinary: see Richard Werbner, Tears of the Dead: The Social Biography of an African Family (Edinburgh, 1991); Liisa H. Malkki, Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory, and National Cosmology among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania (Chicago, 1995). However others disagree. Achille Mbembe in 'Provisional Notes on the Postcolony', Africa, 62, 1 (1992), pp. 3-37, argues that not only is postcolonial violence grotesque, but so is postcolonial gentleness. For a useful summary of debates about the postcolony see Richard Werbner, 'Multiple Identities, Plural Arenas', in Richard Werbner and Terence Ranger (eds), Postcolonial Identities in Africa (London, 1996), pp. 1-25.
22. What follows is a regional rather than a local history: this is not a study of idioms, metaphors or genres in their local context and performance, but rather a regional history researched with assistants and written without knowledge of either Shona or Sindebele. In fact, I was beginning research on another topic when my assistants and I first heard these stories.
23. The point here is that these histories or stories are being told in, or through, or with heads (rather than the histories being about heads).
24. Peter Fry, Spirits of Protest: Spirit Mediums and the Articulation of Consensus among the Zezeru of Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) (Cambridge, 1976), pp. 23-25.
25. Mr Edward Mashingaidze, 7 July 1995; Mrs Rudo Gondo, 11 July 1995. All interviews were conducted by myself, Simba Handiseni and Joseph Seda.
26. Mr Edward Mashingaidze.
27. Mrs Alma Chibisa-Bira, 16 July 1995.
28. My thinking here has been influenced by Richard Werbner, 'Creative Dividualism: Reflections on Mwana ndi Mai', Faculty Opposition, University of Uppsala, 24 May 1996.
29. Two examples should suffice: John Thompson, Crime Scientist, Men of Our Time, vol. 5 (Bulawayo, 1980) especially pp. 23-43, and 'N'anga Confesses Horror: Thirty Children Killed for Ritual Purposes', Parade, July 1994, pp. 11, 47.
30. Two examples should suffice: John Thompson, Crime Scientist, Men of Our Time, vol. 5 (Bulawayo, 1980) especially pp. 23-43, and 'N'anga Confesses Horror: Thirty Children Killed for Ritual Purposes', Parade, July 1994, pp. 11, 47.
31. Mr Luke Mupasa, 6 July 1995.
32. 'Riot Rocks Livingstone: Human Heart Find Sparks Looting, Running Battles', Times of Zambia, 28, October 1995, p. 1; 'Livingstone Riots Rage', Times of Zambia, 30 October 1995, p. 1; 'Victims Exhumed', Times of Zambia, 5 November 1995, p. 1. I am grateful to Bryan Callahan for these clippings.
33. 'Riot Rocks Livingstone: Human Heart Find Sparks Looting, Running Battles', Times of Zambia, 28, October 1995, p. 1; 'Livingstone Riots Rage', Times of Zambia, 30 October 1995, p. 1; 'Victims Exhumed', Times of Zambia, 5 November 1995, p. 1. I am grateful to Bryan Callahan for these clippings.
34. 'Riot Rocks Livingstone: Human Heart Find Sparks Looting, Running Battles', Times of Zambia, 28, October 1995, p. 1; 'Livingstone Riots Rage', Times of Zambia, 30 October 1995, p. 1; 'Victims Exhumed', Times of Zambia, 5 November 1995, p. 1. I am grateful to Bryan Callahan for these clippings.
35. Mrs Jane Katsande, 18 July 1995; see also Mrs Gertrude Govera, 16 July 1995.
36. Mr Simon Zichawo, 4 July 1995. Africans were not alone in imagining dreadful happenings during autopsy. In 1960, Parirenyatwa, the first African physician and the man for whom the teaching hospital is named, was carrying out an autopsy when a white man burst in and tried to stop him saying: 'No black bastard is going to cut up my mother'. Richard Werbner, personal communication, 5 August 1996.
37. Mrs Gertrude Govera.
38. Mr Edward Mashingaidze.
39. Mrs Rowai Saka, 27 July 1995.
40. Mrs Gertrude Govera. Indeed, Africans' use of body parts for money and Europeans' use of African body parts for the rituals and benefits of imperial projects are and have been widespread in many parts of Africa, but are outside the regional scope of this essay. See for example Rik Ceyssens, 'Mutumbula: Mythe de l'Opprimé', Cultures et Development, 7 (1975), pp. 483-536; Karin Barber, 'Popular Reactions to the Petro-Niara', Journal of Modern African Studies, 20, 3 (1982), pp. 431-450; Lucy A. Jarosz, 'Agents of Power, Landscapes of Fear: the Vampires and Heart Thieves of Madagascar', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 12 (1994), pp. 421-436; and Misty L. Bastian, ' "My Head Was Too Strong!": Body Parts and Money Magic in Nigerian Popular Discourse', unpublished essay, 1995.
41. Mrs Gertrude Govera. Indeed, Africans' use of body parts for money and Europeans' use of African body parts for the rituals and benefits of imperial projects are and have been widespread in many parts of Africa, but are outside the regional scope of this essay. See for example Rik Ceyssens, 'Mutumbula: Mythe de l'Opprimé', Cultures et Development, 7 (1975), pp. 483-536; Karin Barber, 'Popular Reactions to the Petro-Niara', Journal of Modern African Studies, 20, 3 (1982), pp. 431-450; Lucy A. Jarosz, 'Agents of Power, Landscapes of Fear: the Vampires and Heart Thieves of Madagascar', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 12 (1994), pp. 421-436; and Misty L. Bastian, ' "My Head Was Too Strong!": Body Parts and Money Magic in Nigerian Popular Discourse', unpublished essay, 1995.
42. Mrs Gertrude Govera. Indeed, Africans' use of body parts for money and Europeans' use of African body parts for the rituals and benefits of imperial projects are and have been widespread in many parts of Africa, but are outside the regional scope of this essay. See for example Rik Ceyssens, 'Mutumbula: Mythe de l'Opprimé', Cultures et Development, 7 (1975), pp. 483-536; Karin Barber, 'Popular Reactions to the Petro-Niara', Journal of Modern African Studies, 20, 3 (1982), pp. 431-450; Lucy A. Jarosz, 'Agents of Power, Landscapes of Fear: the Vampires and Heart Thieves of Madagascar', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 12 (1994), pp. 421-436; and Misty L. Bastian, ' "My Head Was Too Strong!": Body Parts and Money Magic in Nigerian Popular Discourse', unpublished essay, 1995.
43. Mrs Gertrude Govera. Indeed, Africans' use of body parts for money and Europeans' use of African body parts for the rituals and benefits of imperial projects are and have been widespread in many parts of Africa, but are outside the regional scope of this essay. See for example Rik Ceyssens, 'Mutumbula: Mythe de l'Opprimé', Cultures et Development, 7 (1975), pp. 483-536; Karin Barber, 'Popular Reactions to the Petro-Niara', Journal of Modern African Studies, 20, 3 (1982), pp. 431-450; Lucy A. Jarosz, 'Agents of Power, Landscapes of Fear: the Vampires and Heart Thieves of Madagascar', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 12 (1994), pp. 421-436; and Misty L. Bastian, ' "My Head Was Too Strong!": Body Parts and Money Magic in Nigerian Popular Discourse', unpublished essay, 1995.
44. Mrs Chibisa-Bira.
45. See for example 'Harare Hospital: Grimy, Unsanitary and Crowded', Parade, May 1991, p. 17; 'Corpse Vanishes: hospital staff threatens grieved mother', People's Voice, 11-17 September 1994, pp. 1,2, and 'Corpse Puzzle Deepens: "Where is my baby buried?" ' People's Voice, 2-8 October 1994, p. 1, 2,; 'Hospital Nurses Harass Patients', Parade, May 1995, p. 37; 'Parliament Probes Records of "Death Doctors" ', Horizon, June 1995, pp. 11-13. Author's fieldnotes, 14 and 21 July 1995.
46. See for example 'Harare Hospital: Grimy, Unsanitary and Crowded', Parade, May 1991, p. 17; 'Corpse Vanishes: hospital staff threatens grieved mother', People's Voice, 11-17 September 1994, pp. 1,2, and 'Corpse Puzzle Deepens: "Where is my baby buried?" ' People's Voice, 2-8 October 1994, p. 1, 2,; 'Hospital Nurses Harass Patients', Parade, May 1995, p. 37; 'Parliament Probes Records of "Death Doctors" ', Horizon, June 1995, pp. 11-13. Author's fieldnotes, 14 and 21 July 1995.
47. See for example 'Harare Hospital: Grimy, Unsanitary and Crowded', Parade, May 1991, p. 17; 'Corpse Vanishes: hospital staff threatens grieved mother', People's Voice, 11-17 September 1994, pp. 1,2, and 'Corpse Puzzle Deepens: "Where is my baby buried?" ' People's Voice, 2-8 October 1994, p. 1, 2,; 'Hospital Nurses Harass Patients', Parade, May 1995, p. 37; 'Parliament Probes Records of "Death Doctors" ', Horizon, June 1995, pp. 11-13. Author's fieldnotes, 14 and 21 July 1995.
48. See for example 'Harare Hospital: Grimy, Unsanitary and Crowded', Parade, May 1991, p. 17; 'Corpse Vanishes: hospital staff threatens grieved mother', People's Voice, 11-17 September 1994, pp. 1,2, and 'Corpse Puzzle Deepens: "Where is my baby buried?" ' People's Voice, 2-8 October 1994, p. 1, 2,; 'Hospital Nurses Harass Patients', Parade, May 1995, p. 37; 'Parliament Probes Records of "Death Doctors" ', Horizon, June 1995, pp. 11-13. Author's fieldnotes, 14 and 21 July 1995.
49. See for example 'Harare Hospital: Grimy, Unsanitary and Crowded', Parade, May 1991, p. 17; 'Corpse Vanishes: hospital staff threatens grieved mother', People's Voice, 11-17 September 1994, pp. 1,2, and 'Corpse Puzzle Deepens: "Where is my baby buried?" ' People's Voice, 2-8 October 1994, p. 1, 2,; 'Hospital Nurses Harass Patients', Parade, May 1995, p. 37; 'Parliament Probes Records of "Death Doctors" ', Horizon, June 1995, pp. 11-13. Author's fieldnotes, 14 and 21 July 1995.
50. Mr Luke Mupasa.
51. Mr and Mrs Arthur Kwaramba, 20 July 1995.
52. Mrs Rowai Saka.
53. Mrs Chibisa-Bira. Some people said the precious stones were pearls, others said gold.
54. Mrs Sarah Rubvukwa, 21 July 1995.
55. Mr and Mrs Katsande, 18 July 1995.
56. Mr Charles Nyamandara, 1 August 1995.
57. For two accounts of children's abduction and body part theft in Latin America that show this, in very different ways, see Michael Taussig, The Devil and Commodity Fetishism in Latin America (Chapel Hill, 1980) and Nathan Wachtel, Gods and Vampires: Return to Chipaya, translated by Carol Volk (Chicago, 1994), pp. 80-81. See also Nancy Scheper-Hughes, Death Without Weeping: Everyday Violence in Brazil (Berkeley, 1992), Chap. 6, pp. 216-267.
58. For two accounts of children's abduction and body part theft in Latin America that show this, in very different ways, see Michael Taussig, The Devil and Commodity Fetishism in Latin America (Chapel Hill, 1980) and Nathan Wachtel, Gods and Vampires: Return to Chipaya, translated by Carol Volk (Chicago, 1994), pp. 80-81. See also Nancy Scheper-Hughes, Death Without Weeping: Everyday Violence in Brazil (Berkeley, 1992), Chap. 6, pp. 216-267.
59. For two accounts of children's abduction and body part theft in Latin America that show this, in very different ways, see Michael Taussig, The Devil and Commodity Fetishism in Latin America (Chapel Hill, 1980) and Nathan Wachtel, Gods and Vampires: Return to Chipaya, translated by Carol Volk (Chicago, 1994), pp. 80-81. See also Nancy Scheper-Hughes, Death Without Weeping: Everyday Violence in Brazil (Berkeley, 1992), Chap. 6, pp. 216-267.
60. Caroline Walker Bynum, 'Material Continuity, Personal Survival and the Resurrection of the Body: A Scholastic Discussion in its Medieval and Modern Contexts', in Fragmentation and Redemption: Essays on Gender and the Human Body in Medieval Religion (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 239-297.
61. Michael Gelfand, Shona Religion With Special Reference to the Makorekore (Cape Town, 1962), pp. 65-109; Michael Gelfand, An African Religion: The Spirit of Nyajena, Case History of a Karanga People (Cape Town, 1966), pp. 70-72, 91-106; Fry, Spirits of Protest, passim; David Lan, Guns and Ram: Guerrillas and Spirit Mediums in Zimbabwe (London, 1985), passim; Pamela Reynolds, Traditional Healers and Childhood in Zimbabwe (Athens, Ohio, 1996), pp. 41-68.
62. Michael Gelfand, Shona Religion With Special Reference to the Makorekore (Cape Town, 1962), pp. 65-109; Michael Gelfand, An African Religion: The Spirit of Nyajena, Case History of a Karanga People (Cape Town, 1966), pp. 70-72, 91-106; Fry, Spirits of Protest, passim; David Lan, Guns and Ram: Guerrillas and Spirit Mediums in Zimbabwe (London, 1985), passim; Pamela Reynolds, Traditional Healers and Childhood in Zimbabwe (Athens, Ohio, 1996), pp. 41-68.
63. Michael Gelfand, Shona Religion With Special Reference to the Makorekore (Cape Town, 1962), pp. 65-109; Michael Gelfand, An African Religion: The Spirit of Nyajena, Case History of a Karanga People (Cape Town, 1966), pp. 70-72, 91-106; Fry, Spirits of Protest, passim; David Lan, Guns and Ram: Guerrillas and Spirit Mediums in Zimbabwe (London, 1985), passim; Pamela Reynolds, Traditional Healers and Childhood in Zimbabwe (Athens, Ohio, 1996), pp. 41-68.
64. Michael Gelfand, Shona Religion With Special Reference to the Makorekore (Cape Town, 1962), pp. 65-109; Michael Gelfand, An African Religion: The Spirit of Nyajena, Case History of a Karanga People (Cape Town, 1966), pp. 70-72, 91-106; Fry, Spirits of Protest, passim; David Lan, Guns and Ram: Guerrillas and Spirit Mediums in Zimbabwe (London, 1985), passim; Pamela Reynolds, Traditional Healers and Childhood in Zimbabwe (Athens, Ohio, 1996), pp. 41-68.
65. Michael Gelfand, Shona Religion With Special Reference to the Makorekore (Cape Town, 1962), pp. 65-109; Michael Gelfand, An African Religion: The Spirit of Nyajena, Case History of a Karanga People (Cape Town, 1966), pp. 70-72, 91-106; Fry, Spirits of Protest, passim; David Lan, Guns and Ram: Guerrillas and Spirit Mediums in Zimbabwe (London, 1985), passim; Pamela Reynolds, Traditional Healers and Childhood in Zimbabwe (Athens, Ohio, 1996), pp. 41-68.
66. Mrs Alice Gondo, 11 July 1995.
67. Mrs Chibisa-Bira.
68. Mr Edward Mashingaidze.
69. Mrs Rowai Saka.
70. Johannes Fabian, Remembering the Present: Popular Painting and the History of Zaire (Berkeley, 1996, pp. 40-43); 'Bushmen's Heads Found in the British Museum', Mail and Guardian, 2-8 February, 1996, pp. 4-5.
71. Johannes Fabian, Remembering the Present: Popular Painting and the History of Zaire (Berkeley, 1996, pp. 40-43); 'Bushmen's Heads Found in the British Museum', Mail and Guardian, 2-8 February, 1996, pp. 4-5.
72. Robert J. Gordon, 'Vernacular Law and the Future of Human Rights in Namibia', Acta Juridica (1991), p. 86.
73. Fabian, Remembering.
74. 'A Headhunter to Banish the Devil', The Independent, 8 February 1996, sect. 2, p. 2-4.
75. 'Xhosa Chief Loses Head but Finds the Spirits Willing', The Guardian, 11 February 1996, p. 8.
76. 'Lost and Found: African King in Scotland?' New York Times, 8 March 1996, p. A4.
77. 'A Headhunter to Banish the Devil', p. 2.
78. 'Skull is not African King's, After All', New York Times, 25 August 1996, p. 11.
79. See Nicholas Thomas, Entangled Objects: Exchange, Material Culture, and Colonialism in the Pacific (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 175-181.
80. D. W. Cohen and E. S. Atieno Odhiambo, Burying SM: The Politics of Knowledge and the Sociology of Power in Africa (Portsmouth, 1992); 'Who Owns the Dead? Science or the Descendants?' Mail and Guardian, 2-8 February 1996, pp. 4-5.
81. D. W. Cohen and E. S. Atieno Odhiambo, Burying SM: The Politics of Knowledge and the Sociology of Power in Africa (Portsmouth, 1992); 'Who Owns the Dead? Science or the Descendants?' Mail and Guardian, 2-8 February 1996, pp. 4-5.
82. Mafuranhunzi Gumbo, Guerrilla Snuff (Harare, 1995), pp. 3-45.
83. Stephan Miescher, personal communication, 17 May 1996.
84. Adu A. Boahen, Ghana: Evolution and Change in the 19th and 20th Centuries (London, Longman, 1975), pp. 224-226.
85. J. B. Peires, 'Suicide or Genocide?', p. 54.
86. Human Rights Watch, Conspicuous Destruction: War, Famine, and the Reform Process in Mozambique (New York, 1992), pp. 44-48; K. B. Wilson, 'Cults of Violence and Counter-Violence in Mozambique', Journal of Southern African Studies, 18, 3 (1992), p. 535.
87. Human Rights Watch, Conspicuous Destruction: War, Famine, and the Reform Process in Mozambique (New York, 1992), pp. 44-48; K. B. Wilson, 'Cults of Violence and Counter-Violence in Mozambique', Journal of Southern African Studies, 18, 3 (1992), p. 535.
88. The works that have popularised Saartjie Baartman's career are Stephen Jay Gould, The Flamingo's Smile: Reflections on Natural History (New York, 1985), pp. 291-305, and Sander Gilman, Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race and Madness (Ithaca, NY, 1985), pp. 83-88; Londa Schiebinger, Nature's Body. Gender in the Making of Modern Science (Boston, 1993), pp. 160-172. Baartman was dissected in Paris not simply because she died there; French naturalists were able to assess race in anatomy in ways their British counterparts could not do, as only convicted murderers were legally available for dissection in Britain. Cuvier's Scottish contemporary, Robert Knox, had dissected bodies purchased from Burke and Hare, which caused him more notoriety than his racial theories. Robert J. C. Young, Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture, and Race (London, 1995), pp. 121-122.
89. The works that have popularised Saartjie Baartman's career are Stephen Jay Gould, The Flamingo's Smile: Reflections on Natural History (New York, 1985), pp. 291-305, and Sander Gilman, Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race and Madness (Ithaca, NY, 1985), pp. 83-88; Londa Schiebinger, Nature's Body. Gender in the Making of Modern Science (Boston, 1993), pp. 160-172. Baartman was dissected in Paris not simply because she died there; French naturalists were able to assess race in anatomy in ways their British counterparts could not do, as only convicted murderers were legally available for dissection in Britain. Cuvier's Scottish contemporary, Robert Knox, had dissected bodies purchased from Burke and Hare, which caused him more notoriety than his racial theories. Robert J. C. Young, Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture, and Race (London, 1995), pp. 121-122.
90. The works that have popularised Saartjie Baartman's career are Stephen Jay Gould, The Flamingo's Smile: Reflections on Natural History (New York, 1985), pp. 291-305, and Sander Gilman, Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race and Madness (Ithaca, NY, 1985), pp. 83-88; Londa Schiebinger, Nature's Body. Gender in the Making of Modern Science (Boston, 1993), pp. 160-172. Baartman was dissected in Paris not simply because she died there; French naturalists were able to assess race in anatomy in ways their British counterparts could not do, as only convicted murderers were legally available for dissection in Britain. Cuvier's Scottish contemporary, Robert Knox, had dissected bodies purchased from Burke and Hare, which caused him more notoriety than his racial theories. Robert J. C. Young, Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture, and Race (London, 1995), pp. 121-122.
91. The works that have popularised Saartjie Baartman's career are Stephen Jay Gould, The Flamingo's Smile: Reflections on Natural History (New York, 1985), pp. 291-305, and Sander Gilman, Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race and Madness (Ithaca, NY, 1985), pp. 83-88; Londa Schiebinger, Nature's Body. Gender in the Making of Modern Science (Boston, 1993), pp. 160-172. Baartman was dissected in Paris not simply because she died there; French naturalists were able to assess race in anatomy in ways their British counterparts could not do, as only convicted murderers were legally available for dissection in Britain. Cuvier's Scottish contemporary, Robert Knox, had dissected bodies purchased from Burke and Hare, which caused him more notoriety than his racial theories. Robert J. C. Young, Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture, and Race (London, 1995), pp. 121-122.
92. 'Concern Over "Hottentot Venus" of 1810: Griquas want to bury the remains of Khoi woman displayed in France as a freak', The Star [Johannesburg], 13 December 1995, p. 11.
93. Press release by Dr Ben Ngubane, High Level Discussions to Retrieve Saartjie Baartman's Remains from France, ANC information . 2 February 1996.
94. For tensions between consciousness, see Terence Ranger, 'Taking Hold of the Land: Holy Places and Pilgrimages in Twentieth-Century Zimbabwe', Past and Present, 117 (1987), pp. 158-194.
95. For Zimbabwe and its neighbours, this point is made variously in T. O. Ranger, Revolt in Southern Rhodesia, 1896-7: a Study in African Resistance (London, Heinemann, 1967); Allen Isaacman and Barbara Isaacman, The Tradition of Resistance in Mozambique: Anti-Colonial Activity in the Zambezi Valley (London, 1976) and D. N. Beach, Mapondera: Heroism and History in Northern Zimbabwe 1840-1904 (Gweru, 1989); Wilson, 'Cults of Violence', pp. 543ff. For a healthy revision of these arguments see Steven Feierman, 'Healing as Social Criticism in the Time of Colonial Conquest', African Studies, 54, 1 (1995), pp. 73-88.
96. For Zimbabwe and its neighbours, this point is made variously in T. O. Ranger, Revolt in Southern Rhodesia, 1896-7: a Study in African Resistance (London, Heinemann, 1967); Allen Isaacman and Barbara Isaacman, The Tradition of Resistance in Mozambique: Anti-Colonial Activity in the Zambezi Valley (London, 1976) and D. N. Beach, Mapondera: Heroism and History in Northern Zimbabwe 1840-1904 (Gweru, 1989); Wilson, 'Cults of Violence', pp. 543ff. For a healthy revision of these arguments see Steven Feierman, 'Healing as Social Criticism in the Time of Colonial Conquest', African Studies, 54, 1 (1995), pp. 73-88.
97. For Zimbabwe and its neighbours, this point is made variously in T. O. Ranger, Revolt in Southern Rhodesia, 1896-7: a Study in African Resistance (London, Heinemann, 1967); Allen Isaacman and Barbara Isaacman, The Tradition of Resistance in Mozambique: Anti-Colonial Activity in the Zambezi Valley (London, 1976) and D. N. Beach, Mapondera: Heroism and History in Northern Zimbabwe 1840-1904 (Gweru, 1989); Wilson, 'Cults of Violence', pp. 543ff. For a healthy revision of these arguments see Steven Feierman, 'Healing as Social Criticism in the Time of Colonial Conquest', African Studies, 54, 1 (1995), pp. 73-88.
98. For Zimbabwe and its neighbours, this point is made variously in T. O. Ranger, Revolt in Southern Rhodesia, 1896-7: a Study in African Resistance (London, Heinemann, 1967); Allen Isaacman and Barbara Isaacman, The Tradition of Resistance in Mozambique: Anti-Colonial Activity in the Zambezi Valley (London, 1976) and D. N. Beach, Mapondera: Heroism and History in Northern Zimbabwe 1840-1904 (Gweru, 1989); Wilson, 'Cults of Violence', pp. 543ff. For a healthy revision of these arguments see Steven Feierman, 'Healing as Social Criticism in the Time of Colonial Conquest', African Studies, 54, 1 (1995), pp. 73-88.
99. For Zimbabwe and its neighbours, this point is made variously in T. O. Ranger, Revolt in Southern Rhodesia, 1896-7: a Study in African Resistance (London, Heinemann, 1967); Allen Isaacman and Barbara Isaacman, The Tradition of Resistance in Mozambique: Anti-Colonial Activity in the Zambezi Valley (London, 1976) and D. N. Beach, Mapondera: Heroism and History in Northern Zimbabwe 1840-1904 (Gweru, 1989); Wilson, 'Cults of Violence', pp. 543ff. For a healthy revision of these arguments see Steven Feierman, 'Healing as Social Criticism in the Time of Colonial Conquest', African Studies, 54, 1 (1995), pp. 73-88.
100. Muti was a widespread practice in Zimbabwe's liberation struggle, the legitimacy of which had to do with whether or not it was used in wartime. In late 1981 a spirit medium was tried for murders committed shortly after the war's end. Several men she had vaccinated with the 'leaf of life' testified against her. 'Spirit medium "told murderer he was bullet-proof" ', The Herald, 8 December 1981, p. 1.
101. Y. T. Museveni, 'Fanon's Theory on Violence and its Verification in Liberated Mozambique', in N. Shamuyarira (ed), Essays on the Liberation of Southern Africa (Dar es Salaam, 1972), pp. 1-24, quoted in Wilson, 'Cults of Violence', p. 550.
102. Y. T. Museveni, 'Fanon's Theory on Violence and its Verification in Liberated Mozambique', in N. Shamuyarira (ed), Essays on the Liberation of Southern Africa (Dar es Salaam, 1972), pp. 1-24, quoted in Wilson, 'Cults of Violence', p. 550.
103. Wilson, 'Cults of Violence', pp. 550-551.
104. Terence Ranger, Peasant Consciousness and Guerrilla War in Zimbabwe, (London, 1985), pp. 291-292; see also R. S. Roberts, 'The Armed Forces and Chimurenga: Ideology and Historiography', Heritage of Zimbabwe, 7 (1987), pp. 31-47; Irene Staunton, Mothers of the Revolution: The War Experiences of Thirty Zimbabwean Women (London, 1991), passim.
105. Terence Ranger, Peasant Consciousness and Guerrilla War in Zimbabwe, (London, 1985), pp. 291-292; see also R. S. Roberts, 'The Armed Forces and Chimurenga: Ideology and Historiography', Heritage of Zimbabwe, 7 (1987), pp. 31-47; Irene Staunton, Mothers of the Revolution: The War Experiences of Thirty Zimbabwean Women (London, 1991), passim.
106. Terence Ranger, Peasant Consciousness and Guerrilla War in Zimbabwe, (London, 1985), pp. 291-292; see also R. S. Roberts, 'The Armed Forces and Chimurenga: Ideology and Historiography', Heritage of Zimbabwe, 7 (1987), pp. 31-47; Irene Staunton, Mothers of the Revolution: The War Experiences of Thirty Zimbabwean Women (London, 1991), passim.
107. For accounts of teenagers' violence see Lan, Guns and Rain; Kriger, Guerilla War; and Reynolds, Healers and Childhood. For accounts of teenagers' frustration at being unarmed see Patricia Hayes and Virginia Tyson, Children of History (Harare, 1992).
108. For accounts of teenagers' violence see Lan, Guns and Rain; Kriger, Guerilla War; and Reynolds, Healers and Childhood. For accounts of teenagers' frustration at being unarmed see Patricia Hayes and Virginia Tyson, Children of History (Harare, 1992).
109. For accounts of teenagers' violence see Lan, Guns and Rain; Kriger, Guerilla War; and Reynolds, Healers and Childhood. For accounts of teenagers' frustration at being unarmed see Patricia Hayes and Virginia Tyson, Children of History (Harare, 1992).
110. For accounts of teenagers' violence see Lan, Guns and Rain; Kriger, Guerilla War; and Reynolds, Healers and Childhood. For accounts of teenagers' frustration at being unarmed see Patricia Hayes and Virginia Tyson, Children of History (Harare, 1992).
111. Reynolds, Healers and Childhood, pp. 145-151.