How perceived environmental uncertainty influences the marketing orientation of U.S. daily newspapers

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 73, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 285-303

  Beam, Randal A ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0000495206     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769909607300202     Document Type: Article

References (98)

1. Readership research is one kind of market research.
2. John C. Schweitzer, "Marketing Research in the Newspaper Business," in Readings in Media Management, ed. Stephen Lacy, Ardyth Sohn, and Robert Giles (Columbia, SC: Media Management and Economics Division of AEJMC, 1992),153-80; Doug Underwood, When MBA's Rule the Newsroom (NY: Columbia University Press, 1993), xi-xii, 110-16; John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1994), 6-7.
3. John C. Schweitzer, "Marketing Research in the Newspaper Business," in Readings in Media Management, ed. Stephen Lacy, Ardyth Sohn, and Robert Giles (Columbia, SC: Media Management and Economics Division of AEJMC, 1992),153-80; Doug Underwood, When MBA's Rule the Newsroom (NY: Columbia University Press, 1993), xi-xii, 110-16; John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1994), 6-7.
4. John C. Schweitzer, "Marketing Research in the Newspaper Business," in Readings in Media Management, ed. Stephen Lacy, Ardyth Sohn, and Robert Giles (Columbia, SC: Media Management and Economics Division of AEJMC, 1992),153-80; Doug Underwood, When MBA's Rule the Newsroom (NY: Columbia University Press, 1993), xi-xii, 110-16; John H. McManus, Market-Driven Journalism: Let the Citizen Beware (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1994), 6-7.
5. Don R. Pember, Mass Media in America, 6th ed. (NY: Macmillan, 1992), 127.
6. Philip Meyer, The Newspaper Survival Handbook: An Editor's Guide to Marketing Research (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1985), 8-10.
7. Larry S. Lowe and George deTarnowsky, "Newspaper Research: A Growing Consultant Opportunity," Journal of Professional Marketing Services 10 (December 1993): 45-54.
8. Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom, 14-25; McManus, Market-Driven Journalism, 1-16.
9. Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom, 14-25; McManus, Market-Driven Journalism, 1-16.
10. The environment plays a key role in open-systems models of organizations. For an extended discussion of organizations and their environments, see W. Richard Scott, Organizations: Rational, Natural and Open Systems, 3d ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1992), 123-316.
11. John Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance: The Role of Strategic Choice," Sociology 6 (January 1972):2-22; Richard L. Daft and Karl E. Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations as Interpretation Systems," Journal of Management Review 9, no. 2 (1984): 284-95; Gregory G. Dess and Nancy K. Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formation: A Conceptual Integration," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 2 (1987): 313-30; H. Kirk Downey and John W. Slocum, "Uncertainty: Measures, Research, and Sources of Variation," Academy of Management Journal 18 (September 1975): 562-78; H. Kirk Downey, Don Hellriegel, and John W. Slocum Jr., "Environmental Uncertainty: The Construct and Its Application," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (December 1975): 613-29; Robert B. Duncan, "Characteristics of Organizational Environments and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty," Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (September 1972):313-27; Barbara W. Keats, "A Causal Model of Linkages Among Environmental Dimensions, Macro Organizational Characteristics and Performance," Academy of Management Journal 31 (September 1988): 570-98; Christine S. Koberg and Gerardo R. Ungson, "The Effects of Environmental Uncertainty and Dependence on Organizational Structure and Performance: A Comparative Study," Journal of Management 13, no. 4 (1987):725-37; Angeline W. McArthur and Paul C. Nystrom, "Environmental Dynamism, Complexity, and Munificence as Moderators of Strategy-Performance Relationships," Journal of Business Research 23 (December 1991): 349-61; Edwin A. Gerloff, Nan Kanoff Muir, and Wayne Bodensteiner, "Three Components of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Exploratory Analysis of the Effects of Aggregation," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 749-68; Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Lorsch, Organization and Environment (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1967); Donald L. McCabe, "The Assessment of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty and Economic Performance," Human Relations 43, no. 12 (1990): 1203-1218; Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, and Jeffrey Pfeffer, "Organization-Environment: Concepts and Issues," Industrial Relations 13, no. 3 (1974): 244-64; Danny Miller and Peter H. Friesen, "Strategy-Making and Environment: The Third Link," Strategic Management Journal 4, no. 3 (1983): 221-35; Frances J. Milliken, "Perceiving and Interpreting Environmental Change: An Examination of College Administrators' Interpretation of Changing Demographics," Academy of Management Journal 33, no. 1 (1990): 42-63; Frances J. Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty About the Environment: State, Effect, and Response Uncertainty," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 1 (1987): 133-43; Delbert M. Nebecker, "Situational Favorability and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Integrative Approach," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (June 1975): 281-94; Robert D. Russell and Craig Russell, "An Examination of the Effects of Organizational Norms, Organization Structure and Environmental Uncertainty on Entrepreneurial Strategy," Journal of Management 18, no. 4 (1992): 639-56; Mark P. Sharfman and James W. Dean Jr., "Conceptualizing and Measuring the Organizational Environment: A Multidimensional Approach," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 681-700.
12. John Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance: The Role of Strategic Choice," Sociology 6 (January 1972):2-22; Richard L. Daft and Karl E. Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations as Interpretation Systems," Journal of Management Review 9, no. 2 (1984): 284-95; Gregory G. Dess and Nancy K. Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formation: A Conceptual Integration," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 2 (1987): 313-30; H. Kirk Downey and John W. Slocum, "Uncertainty: Measures, Research, and Sources of Variation," Academy of Management Journal 18 (September 1975): 562-78; H. Kirk Downey, Don Hellriegel, and John W. Slocum Jr., "Environmental Uncertainty: The Construct and Its Application," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (December 1975): 613-29; Robert B. Duncan, "Characteristics of Organizational Environments and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty," Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (September 1972):313-27; Barbara W. Keats, "A Causal Model of Linkages Among Environmental Dimensions, Macro Organizational Characteristics and Performance," Academy of Management Journal 31 (September 1988): 570-98; Christine S. Koberg and Gerardo R. Ungson, "The Effects of Environmental Uncertainty and Dependence on Organizational Structure and Performance: A Comparative Study," Journal of Management 13, no. 4 (1987):725-37; Angeline W. McArthur and Paul C. Nystrom, "Environmental Dynamism, Complexity, and Munificence as Moderators of Strategy-Performance Relationships," Journal of Business Research 23 (December 1991): 349-61; Edwin A. Gerloff, Nan Kanoff Muir, and Wayne Bodensteiner, "Three Components of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Exploratory Analysis of the Effects of Aggregation," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 749-68; Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Lorsch, Organization and Environment (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1967); Donald L. McCabe, "The Assessment of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty and Economic Performance," Human Relations 43, no. 12 (1990): 1203-1218; Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, and Jeffrey Pfeffer, "Organization-Environment: Concepts and Issues," Industrial Relations 13, no. 3 (1974): 244-64; Danny Miller and Peter H. Friesen, "Strategy-Making and Environment: The Third Link," Strategic Management Journal 4, no. 3 (1983): 221-35; Frances J. Milliken, "Perceiving and Interpreting Environmental Change: An Examination of College Administrators' Interpretation of Changing Demographics," Academy of Management Journal 33, no. 1 (1990): 42-63; Frances J. Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty About the Environment: State, Effect, and Response Uncertainty," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 1 (1987): 133-43; Delbert M. Nebecker, "Situational Favorability and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Integrative Approach," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (June 1975): 281-94; Robert D. Russell and Craig Russell, "An Examination of the Effects of Organizational Norms, Organization Structure and Environmental Uncertainty on Entrepreneurial Strategy," Journal of Management 18, no. 4 (1992): 639-56; Mark P. Sharfman and James W. Dean Jr., "Conceptualizing and Measuring the Organizational Environment: A Multidimensional Approach," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 681-700.
13. John Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance: The Role of Strategic Choice," Sociology 6 (January 1972):2-22; Richard L. Daft and Karl E. Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations as Interpretation Systems," Journal of Management Review 9, no. 2 (1984): 284-95; Gregory G. Dess and Nancy K. Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formation: A Conceptual Integration," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 2 (1987): 313-30; H. Kirk Downey and John W. Slocum, "Uncertainty: Measures, Research, and Sources of Variation," Academy of Management Journal 18 (September 1975): 562-78; H. Kirk Downey, Don Hellriegel, and John W. Slocum Jr., "Environmental Uncertainty: The Construct and Its Application," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (December 1975): 613-29; Robert B. Duncan, "Characteristics of Organizational Environments and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty," Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (September 1972):313-27; Barbara W. Keats, "A Causal Model of Linkages Among Environmental Dimensions, Macro Organizational Characteristics and Performance," Academy of Management Journal 31 (September 1988): 570-98; Christine S. Koberg and Gerardo R. Ungson, "The Effects of Environmental Uncertainty and Dependence on Organizational Structure and Performance: A Comparative Study," Journal of Management 13, no. 4 (1987):725-37; Angeline W. McArthur and Paul C. Nystrom, "Environmental Dynamism, Complexity, and Munificence as Moderators of Strategy-Performance Relationships," Journal of Business Research 23 (December 1991): 349-61; Edwin A. Gerloff, Nan Kanoff Muir, and Wayne Bodensteiner, "Three Components of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Exploratory Analysis of the Effects of Aggregation," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 749-68; Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Lorsch, Organization and Environment (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1967); Donald L. McCabe, "The Assessment of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty and Economic Performance," Human Relations 43, no. 12 (1990): 1203-1218; Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, and Jeffrey Pfeffer, "Organization-Environment: Concepts and Issues," Industrial Relations 13, no. 3 (1974): 244-64; Danny Miller and Peter H. Friesen, "Strategy-Making and Environment: The Third Link," Strategic Management Journal 4, no. 3 (1983): 221-35; Frances J. Milliken, "Perceiving and Interpreting Environmental Change: An Examination of College Administrators' Interpretation of Changing Demographics," Academy of Management Journal 33, no. 1 (1990): 42-63; Frances J. Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty About the Environment: State, Effect, and Response Uncertainty," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 1 (1987): 133-43; Delbert M. Nebecker, "Situational Favorability and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Integrative Approach," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (June 1975): 281-94; Robert D. Russell and Craig Russell, "An Examination of the Effects of Organizational Norms, Organization Structure and Environmental Uncertainty on Entrepreneurial Strategy," Journal of Management 18, no. 4 (1992): 639-56; Mark P. Sharfman and James W. Dean Jr., "Conceptualizing and Measuring the Organizational Environment: A Multidimensional Approach," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 681-700.
14. John Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance: The Role of Strategic Choice," Sociology 6 (January 1972):2-22; Richard L. Daft and Karl E. Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations as Interpretation Systems," Journal of Management Review 9, no. 2 (1984): 284-95; Gregory G. Dess and Nancy K. Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formation: A Conceptual Integration," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 2 (1987): 313-30; H. Kirk Downey and John W. Slocum, "Uncertainty: Measures, Research, and Sources of Variation," Academy of Management Journal 18 (September 1975): 562-78; H. Kirk Downey, Don Hellriegel, and John W. Slocum Jr., "Environmental Uncertainty: The Construct and Its Application," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (December 1975): 613-29; Robert B. Duncan, "Characteristics of Organizational Environments and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty," Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (September 1972):313-27; Barbara W. Keats, "A Causal Model of Linkages Among Environmental Dimensions, Macro Organizational Characteristics and Performance," Academy of Management Journal 31 (September 1988): 570-98; Christine S. Koberg and Gerardo R. Ungson, "The Effects of Environmental Uncertainty and Dependence on Organizational Structure and Performance: A Comparative Study," Journal of Management 13, no. 4 (1987):725-37; Angeline W. McArthur and Paul C. Nystrom, "Environmental Dynamism, Complexity, and Munificence as Moderators of Strategy-Performance Relationships," Journal of Business Research 23 (December 1991): 349-61; Edwin A. Gerloff, Nan Kanoff Muir, and Wayne Bodensteiner, "Three Components of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Exploratory Analysis of the Effects of Aggregation," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 749-68; Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Lorsch, Organization and Environment (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1967); Donald L. McCabe, "The Assessment of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty and Economic Performance," Human Relations 43, no. 12 (1990): 1203-1218; Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, and Jeffrey Pfeffer, "Organization-Environment: Concepts and Issues," Industrial Relations 13, no. 3 (1974): 244-64; Danny Miller and Peter H. Friesen, "Strategy-Making and Environment: The Third Link," Strategic Management Journal 4, no. 3 (1983): 221-35; Frances J. Milliken, "Perceiving and Interpreting Environmental Change: An Examination of College Administrators' Interpretation of Changing Demographics," Academy of Management Journal 33, no. 1 (1990): 42-63; Frances J. Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty About the Environment: State, Effect, and Response Uncertainty," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 1 (1987): 133-43; Delbert M. Nebecker, "Situational Favorability and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Integrative Approach," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (June 1975): 281-94; Robert D. Russell and Craig Russell, "An Examination of the Effects of Organizational Norms, Organization Structure and Environmental Uncertainty on Entrepreneurial Strategy," Journal of Management 18, no. 4 (1992): 639-56; Mark P. Sharfman and James W. Dean Jr., "Conceptualizing and Measuring the Organizational Environment: A Multidimensional Approach," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 681-700.
15. John Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance: The Role of Strategic Choice," Sociology 6 (January 1972):2-22; Richard L. Daft and Karl E. Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations as Interpretation Systems," Journal of Management Review 9, no. 2 (1984): 284-95; Gregory G. Dess and Nancy K. Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formation: A Conceptual Integration," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 2 (1987): 313-30; H. Kirk Downey and John W. Slocum, "Uncertainty: Measures, Research, and Sources of Variation," Academy of Management Journal 18 (September 1975): 562-78; H. Kirk Downey, Don Hellriegel, and John W. Slocum Jr., "Environmental Uncertainty: The Construct and Its Application," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (December 1975): 613-29; Robert B. Duncan, "Characteristics of Organizational Environments and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty," Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (September 1972):313-27; Barbara W. Keats, "A Causal Model of Linkages Among Environmental Dimensions, Macro Organizational Characteristics and Performance," Academy of Management Journal 31 (September 1988): 570-98; Christine S. Koberg and Gerardo R. Ungson, "The Effects of Environmental Uncertainty and Dependence on Organizational Structure and Performance: A Comparative Study," Journal of Management 13, no. 4 (1987):725-37; Angeline W. McArthur and Paul C. Nystrom, "Environmental Dynamism, Complexity, and Munificence as Moderators of Strategy-Performance Relationships," Journal of Business Research 23 (December 1991): 349-61; Edwin A. Gerloff, Nan Kanoff Muir, and Wayne Bodensteiner, "Three Components of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Exploratory Analysis of the Effects of Aggregation," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 749-68; Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Lorsch, Organization and Environment (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1967); Donald L. McCabe, "The Assessment of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty and Economic Performance," Human Relations 43, no. 12 (1990): 1203-1218; Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, and Jeffrey Pfeffer, "Organization-Environment: Concepts and Issues," Industrial Relations 13, no. 3 (1974): 244-64; Danny Miller and Peter H. Friesen, "Strategy-Making and Environment: The Third Link," Strategic Management Journal 4, no. 3 (1983): 221-35; Frances J. Milliken, "Perceiving and Interpreting Environmental Change: An Examination of College Administrators' Interpretation of Changing Demographics," Academy of Management Journal 33, no. 1 (1990): 42-63; Frances J. Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty About the Environment: State, Effect, and Response Uncertainty," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 1 (1987): 133-43; Delbert M. Nebecker, "Situational Favorability and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Integrative Approach," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (June 1975): 281-94; Robert D. Russell and Craig Russell, "An Examination of the Effects of Organizational Norms, Organization Structure and Environmental Uncertainty on Entrepreneurial Strategy," Journal of Management 18, no. 4 (1992): 639-56; Mark P. Sharfman and James W. Dean Jr., "Conceptualizing and Measuring the Organizational Environment: A Multidimensional Approach," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 681-700.
16. John Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance: The Role of Strategic Choice," Sociology 6 (January 1972):2-22; Richard L. Daft and Karl E. Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations as Interpretation Systems," Journal of Management Review 9, no. 2 (1984): 284-95; Gregory G. Dess and Nancy K. Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formation: A Conceptual Integration," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 2 (1987): 313-30; H. Kirk Downey and John W. Slocum, "Uncertainty: Measures, Research, and Sources of Variation," Academy of Management Journal 18 (September 1975): 562-78; H. Kirk Downey, Don Hellriegel, and John W. Slocum Jr., "Environmental Uncertainty: The Construct and Its Application," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (December 1975): 613-29; Robert B. Duncan, "Characteristics of Organizational Environments and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty," Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (September 1972):313-27; Barbara W. Keats, "A Causal Model of Linkages Among Environmental Dimensions, Macro Organizational Characteristics and Performance," Academy of Management Journal 31 (September 1988): 570-98; Christine S. Koberg and Gerardo R. Ungson, "The Effects of Environmental Uncertainty and Dependence on Organizational Structure and Performance: A Comparative Study," Journal of Management 13, no. 4 (1987):725-37; Angeline W. McArthur and Paul C. Nystrom, "Environmental Dynamism, Complexity, and Munificence as Moderators of Strategy-Performance Relationships," Journal of Business Research 23 (December 1991): 349-61; Edwin A. Gerloff, Nan Kanoff Muir, and Wayne Bodensteiner, "Three Components of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Exploratory Analysis of the Effects of Aggregation," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 749-68; Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Lorsch, Organization and Environment (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1967); Donald L. McCabe, "The Assessment of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty and Economic Performance," Human Relations 43, no. 12 (1990): 1203-1218; Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, and Jeffrey Pfeffer, "Organization-Environment: Concepts and Issues," Industrial Relations 13, no. 3 (1974): 244-64; Danny Miller and Peter H. Friesen, "Strategy-Making and Environment: The Third Link," Strategic Management Journal 4, no. 3 (1983): 221-35; Frances J. Milliken, "Perceiving and Interpreting Environmental Change: An Examination of College Administrators' Interpretation of Changing Demographics," Academy of Management Journal 33, no. 1 (1990): 42-63; Frances J. Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty About the Environment: State, Effect, and Response Uncertainty," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 1 (1987): 133-43; Delbert M. Nebecker, "Situational Favorability and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Integrative Approach," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (June 1975): 281-94; Robert D. Russell and Craig Russell, "An Examination of the Effects of Organizational Norms, Organization Structure and Environmental Uncertainty on Entrepreneurial Strategy," Journal of Management 18, no. 4 (1992): 639-56; Mark P. Sharfman and James W. Dean Jr., "Conceptualizing and Measuring the Organizational Environment: A Multidimensional Approach," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 681-700.
17. John Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance: The Role of Strategic Choice," Sociology 6 (January 1972):2-22; Richard L. Daft and Karl E. Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations as Interpretation Systems," Journal of Management Review 9, no. 2 (1984): 284-95; Gregory G. Dess and Nancy K. Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formation: A Conceptual Integration," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 2 (1987): 313-30; H. Kirk Downey and John W. Slocum, "Uncertainty: Measures, Research, and Sources of Variation," Academy of Management Journal 18 (September 1975): 562-78; H. Kirk Downey, Don Hellriegel, and John W. Slocum Jr., "Environmental Uncertainty: The Construct and Its Application," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (December 1975): 613-29; Robert B. Duncan, "Characteristics of Organizational Environments and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty," Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (September 1972):313-27; Barbara W. Keats, "A Causal Model of Linkages Among Environmental Dimensions, Macro Organizational Characteristics and Performance," Academy of Management Journal 31 (September 1988): 570-98; Christine S. Koberg and Gerardo R. Ungson, "The Effects of Environmental Uncertainty and Dependence on Organizational Structure and Performance: A Comparative Study," Journal of Management 13, no. 4 (1987):725-37; Angeline W. McArthur and Paul C. Nystrom, "Environmental Dynamism, Complexity, and Munificence as Moderators of Strategy-Performance Relationships," Journal of Business Research 23 (December 1991): 349-61; Edwin A. Gerloff, Nan Kanoff Muir, and Wayne Bodensteiner, "Three Components of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Exploratory Analysis of the Effects of Aggregation," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 749-68; Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Lorsch, Organization and Environment (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1967); Donald L. McCabe, "The Assessment of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty and Economic Performance," Human Relations 43, no. 12 (1990): 1203-1218; Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, and Jeffrey Pfeffer, "Organization-Environment: Concepts and Issues," Industrial Relations 13, no. 3 (1974): 244-64; Danny Miller and Peter H. Friesen, "Strategy-Making and Environment: The Third Link," Strategic Management Journal 4, no. 3 (1983): 221-35; Frances J. Milliken, "Perceiving and Interpreting Environmental Change: An Examination of College Administrators' Interpretation of Changing Demographics," Academy of Management Journal 33, no. 1 (1990): 42-63; Frances J. Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty About the Environment: State, Effect, and Response Uncertainty," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 1 (1987): 133-43; Delbert M. Nebecker, "Situational Favorability and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Integrative Approach," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (June 1975): 281-94; Robert D. Russell and Craig Russell, "An Examination of the Effects of Organizational Norms, Organization Structure and Environmental Uncertainty on Entrepreneurial Strategy," Journal of Management 18, no. 4 (1992): 639-56; Mark P. Sharfman and James W. Dean Jr., "Conceptualizing and Measuring the Organizational Environment: A Multidimensional Approach," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 681-700.
18. John Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance: The Role of Strategic Choice," Sociology 6 (January 1972):2-22; Richard L. Daft and Karl E. Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations as Interpretation Systems," Journal of Management Review 9, no. 2 (1984): 284-95; Gregory G. Dess and Nancy K. Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formation: A Conceptual Integration," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 2 (1987): 313-30; H. Kirk Downey and John W. Slocum, "Uncertainty: Measures, Research, and Sources of Variation," Academy of Management Journal 18 (September 1975): 562-78; H. Kirk Downey, Don Hellriegel, and John W. Slocum Jr., "Environmental Uncertainty: The Construct and Its Application," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (December 1975): 613-29; Robert B. Duncan, "Characteristics of Organizational Environments and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty," Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (September 1972):313-27; Barbara W. Keats, "A Causal Model of Linkages Among Environmental Dimensions, Macro Organizational Characteristics and Performance," Academy of Management Journal 31 (September 1988): 570-98; Christine S. Koberg and Gerardo R. Ungson, "The Effects of Environmental Uncertainty and Dependence on Organizational Structure and Performance: A Comparative Study," Journal of Management 13, no. 4 (1987):725-37; Angeline W. McArthur and Paul C. Nystrom, "Environmental Dynamism, Complexity, and Munificence as Moderators of Strategy-Performance Relationships," Journal of Business Research 23 (December 1991): 349-61; Edwin A. Gerloff, Nan Kanoff Muir, and Wayne Bodensteiner, "Three Components of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Exploratory Analysis of the Effects of Aggregation," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 749-68; Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Lorsch, Organization and Environment (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1967); Donald L. McCabe, "The Assessment of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty and Economic Performance," Human Relations 43, no. 12 (1990): 1203-1218; Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, and Jeffrey Pfeffer, "Organization-Environment: Concepts and Issues," Industrial Relations 13, no. 3 (1974): 244-64; Danny Miller and Peter H. Friesen, "Strategy-Making and Environment: The Third Link," Strategic Management Journal 4, no. 3 (1983): 221-35; Frances J. Milliken, "Perceiving and Interpreting Environmental Change: An Examination of College Administrators' Interpretation of Changing Demographics," Academy of Management Journal 33, no. 1 (1990): 42-63; Frances J. Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty About the Environment: State, Effect, and Response Uncertainty," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 1 (1987): 133-43; Delbert M. Nebecker, "Situational Favorability and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Integrative Approach," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (June 1975): 281-94; Robert D. Russell and Craig Russell, "An Examination of the Effects of Organizational Norms, Organization Structure and Environmental Uncertainty on Entrepreneurial Strategy," Journal of Management 18, no. 4 (1992): 639-56; Mark P. Sharfman and James W. Dean Jr., "Conceptualizing and Measuring the Organizational Environment: A Multidimensional Approach," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 681-700.
19. John Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance: The Role of Strategic Choice," Sociology 6 (January 1972):2-22; Richard L. Daft and Karl E. Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations as Interpretation Systems," Journal of Management Review 9, no. 2 (1984): 284-95; Gregory G. Dess and Nancy K. Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formation: A Conceptual Integration," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 2 (1987): 313-30; H. Kirk Downey and John W. Slocum, "Uncertainty: Measures, Research, and Sources of Variation," Academy of Management Journal 18 (September 1975): 562-78; H. Kirk Downey, Don Hellriegel, and John W. Slocum Jr., "Environmental Uncertainty: The Construct and Its Application," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (December 1975): 613-29; Robert B. Duncan, "Characteristics of Organizational Environments and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty," Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (September 1972):313-27; Barbara W. Keats, "A Causal Model of Linkages Among Environmental Dimensions, Macro Organizational Characteristics and Performance," Academy of Management Journal 31 (September 1988): 570-98; Christine S. Koberg and Gerardo R. Ungson, "The Effects of Environmental Uncertainty and Dependence on Organizational Structure and Performance: A Comparative Study," Journal of Management 13, no. 4 (1987):725-37; Angeline W. McArthur and Paul C. Nystrom, "Environmental Dynamism, Complexity, and Munificence as Moderators of Strategy-Performance Relationships," Journal of Business Research 23 (December 1991): 349-61; Edwin A. Gerloff, Nan Kanoff Muir, and Wayne Bodensteiner, "Three Components of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Exploratory Analysis of the Effects of Aggregation," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 749-68; Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Lorsch, Organization and Environment (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1967); Donald L. McCabe, "The Assessment of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty and Economic Performance," Human Relations 43, no. 12 (1990): 1203-1218; Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, and Jeffrey Pfeffer, "Organization-Environment: Concepts and Issues," Industrial Relations 13, no. 3 (1974): 244-64; Danny Miller and Peter H. Friesen, "Strategy-Making and Environment: The Third Link," Strategic Management Journal 4, no. 3 (1983): 221-35; Frances J. Milliken, "Perceiving and Interpreting Environmental Change: An Examination of College Administrators' Interpretation of Changing Demographics," Academy of Management Journal 33, no. 1 (1990): 42-63; Frances J. Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty About the Environment: State, Effect, and Response Uncertainty," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 1 (1987): 133-43; Delbert M. Nebecker, "Situational Favorability and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Integrative Approach," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (June 1975): 281-94; Robert D. Russell and Craig Russell, "An Examination of the Effects of Organizational Norms, Organization Structure and Environmental Uncertainty on Entrepreneurial Strategy," Journal of Management 18, no. 4 (1992): 639-56; Mark P. Sharfman and James W. Dean Jr., "Conceptualizing and Measuring the Organizational Environment: A Multidimensional Approach," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 681-700.
20. John Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance: The Role of Strategic Choice," Sociology 6 (January 1972):2-22; Richard L. Daft and Karl E. Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations as Interpretation Systems," Journal of Management Review 9, no. 2 (1984): 284-95; Gregory G. Dess and Nancy K. Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formation: A Conceptual Integration," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 2 (1987): 313-30; H. Kirk Downey and John W. Slocum, "Uncertainty: Measures, Research, and Sources of Variation," Academy of Management Journal 18 (September 1975): 562-78; H. Kirk Downey, Don Hellriegel, and John W. Slocum Jr., "Environmental Uncertainty: The Construct and Its Application," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (December 1975): 613-29; Robert B. Duncan, "Characteristics of Organizational Environments and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty," Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (September 1972):313-27; Barbara W. Keats, "A Causal Model of Linkages Among Environmental Dimensions, Macro Organizational Characteristics and Performance," Academy of Management Journal 31 (September 1988): 570-98; Christine S. Koberg and Gerardo R. Ungson, "The Effects of Environmental Uncertainty and Dependence on Organizational Structure and Performance: A Comparative Study," Journal of Management 13, no. 4 (1987):725-37; Angeline W. McArthur and Paul C. Nystrom, "Environmental Dynamism, Complexity, and Munificence as Moderators of Strategy-Performance Relationships," Journal of Business Research 23 (December 1991): 349-61; Edwin A. Gerloff, Nan Kanoff Muir, and Wayne Bodensteiner, "Three Components of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Exploratory Analysis of the Effects of Aggregation," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 749-68; Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Lorsch, Organization and Environment (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1967); Donald L. McCabe, "The Assessment of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty and Economic Performance," Human Relations 43, no. 12 (1990): 1203-1218; Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, and Jeffrey Pfeffer, "Organization-Environment: Concepts and Issues," Industrial Relations 13, no. 3 (1974): 244-64; Danny Miller and Peter H. Friesen, "Strategy-Making and Environment: The Third Link," Strategic Management Journal 4, no. 3 (1983): 221-35; Frances J. Milliken, "Perceiving and Interpreting Environmental Change: An Examination of College Administrators' Interpretation of Changing Demographics," Academy of Management Journal 33, no. 1 (1990): 42-63; Frances J. Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty About the Environment: State, Effect, and Response Uncertainty," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 1 (1987): 133-43; Delbert M. Nebecker, "Situational Favorability and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Integrative Approach," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (June 1975): 281-94; Robert D. Russell and Craig Russell, "An Examination of the Effects of Organizational Norms, Organization Structure and Environmental Uncertainty on Entrepreneurial Strategy," Journal of Management 18, no. 4 (1992): 639-56; Mark P. Sharfman and James W. Dean Jr., "Conceptualizing and Measuring the Organizational Environment: A Multidimensional Approach," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 681-700.
21. John Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance: The Role of Strategic Choice," Sociology 6 (January 1972):2-22; Richard L. Daft and Karl E. Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations as Interpretation Systems," Journal of Management Review 9, no. 2 (1984): 284-95; Gregory G. Dess and Nancy K. Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formation: A Conceptual Integration," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 2 (1987): 313-30; H. Kirk Downey and John W. Slocum, "Uncertainty: Measures, Research, and Sources of Variation," Academy of Management Journal 18 (September 1975): 562-78; H. Kirk Downey, Don Hellriegel, and John W. Slocum Jr., "Environmental Uncertainty: The Construct and Its Application," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (December 1975): 613-29; Robert B. Duncan, "Characteristics of Organizational Environments and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty," Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (September 1972):313-27; Barbara W. Keats, "A Causal Model of Linkages Among Environmental Dimensions, Macro Organizational Characteristics and Performance," Academy of Management Journal 31 (September 1988): 570-98; Christine S. Koberg and Gerardo R. Ungson, "The Effects of Environmental Uncertainty and Dependence on Organizational Structure and Performance: A Comparative Study," Journal of Management 13, no. 4 (1987):725-37; Angeline W. McArthur and Paul C. Nystrom, "Environmental Dynamism, Complexity, and Munificence as Moderators of Strategy-Performance Relationships," Journal of Business Research 23 (December 1991): 349-61; Edwin A. Gerloff, Nan Kanoff Muir, and Wayne Bodensteiner, "Three Components of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Exploratory Analysis of the Effects of Aggregation," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 749-68; Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Lorsch, Organization and Environment (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1967); Donald L. McCabe, "The Assessment of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty and Economic Performance," Human Relations 43, no. 12 (1990): 1203-1218; Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, and Jeffrey Pfeffer, "Organization-Environment: Concepts and Issues," Industrial Relations 13, no. 3 (1974): 244-64; Danny Miller and Peter H. Friesen, "Strategy-Making and Environment: The Third Link," Strategic Management Journal 4, no. 3 (1983): 221-35; Frances J. Milliken, "Perceiving and Interpreting Environmental Change: An Examination of College Administrators' Interpretation of Changing Demographics," Academy of Management Journal 33, no. 1 (1990): 42-63; Frances J. Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty About the Environment: State, Effect, and Response Uncertainty," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 1 (1987): 133-43; Delbert M. Nebecker, "Situational Favorability and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Integrative Approach," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (June 1975): 281-94; Robert D. Russell and Craig Russell, "An Examination of the Effects of Organizational Norms, Organization Structure and Environmental Uncertainty on Entrepreneurial Strategy," Journal of Management 18, no. 4 (1992): 639-56; Mark P. Sharfman and James W. Dean Jr., "Conceptualizing and Measuring the Organizational Environment: A Multidimensional Approach," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 681-700.
22. John Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance: The Role of Strategic Choice," Sociology 6 (January 1972):2-22; Richard L. Daft and Karl E. Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations as Interpretation Systems," Journal of Management Review 9, no. 2 (1984): 284-95; Gregory G. Dess and Nancy K. Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formation: A Conceptual Integration," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 2 (1987): 313-30; H. Kirk Downey and John W. Slocum, "Uncertainty: Measures, Research, and Sources of Variation," Academy of Management Journal 18 (September 1975): 562-78; H. Kirk Downey, Don Hellriegel, and John W. Slocum Jr., "Environmental Uncertainty: The Construct and Its Application," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (December 1975): 613-29; Robert B. Duncan, "Characteristics of Organizational Environments and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty," Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (September 1972):313-27; Barbara W. Keats, "A Causal Model of Linkages Among Environmental Dimensions, Macro Organizational Characteristics and Performance," Academy of Management Journal 31 (September 1988): 570-98; Christine S. Koberg and Gerardo R. Ungson, "The Effects of Environmental Uncertainty and Dependence on Organizational Structure and Performance: A Comparative Study," Journal of Management 13, no. 4 (1987):725-37; Angeline W. McArthur and Paul C. Nystrom, "Environmental Dynamism, Complexity, and Munificence as Moderators of Strategy-Performance Relationships," Journal of Business Research 23 (December 1991): 349-61; Edwin A. Gerloff, Nan Kanoff Muir, and Wayne Bodensteiner, "Three Components of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Exploratory Analysis of the Effects of Aggregation," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 749-68; Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Lorsch, Organization and Environment (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1967); Donald L. McCabe, "The Assessment of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty and Economic Performance," Human Relations 43, no. 12 (1990): 1203-1218; Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, and Jeffrey Pfeffer, "Organization-Environment: Concepts and Issues," Industrial Relations 13, no. 3 (1974): 244-64; Danny Miller and Peter H. Friesen, "Strategy-Making and Environment: The Third Link," Strategic Management Journal 4, no. 3 (1983): 221-35; Frances J. Milliken, "Perceiving and Interpreting Environmental Change: An Examination of College Administrators' Interpretation of Changing Demographics," Academy of Management Journal 33, no. 1 (1990): 42-63; Frances J. Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty About the Environment: State, Effect, and Response Uncertainty," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 1 (1987): 133-43; Delbert M. Nebecker, "Situational Favorability and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Integrative Approach," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (June 1975): 281-94; Robert D. Russell and Craig Russell, "An Examination of the Effects of Organizational Norms, Organization Structure and Environmental Uncertainty on Entrepreneurial Strategy," Journal of Management 18, no. 4 (1992): 639-56; Mark P. Sharfman and James W. Dean Jr., "Conceptualizing and Measuring the Organizational Environment: A Multidimensional Approach," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 681-700.
23. John Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance: The Role of Strategic Choice," Sociology 6 (January 1972):2-22; Richard L. Daft and Karl E. Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations as Interpretation Systems," Journal of Management Review 9, no. 2 (1984): 284-95; Gregory G. Dess and Nancy K. Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formation: A Conceptual Integration," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 2 (1987): 313-30; H. Kirk Downey and John W. Slocum, "Uncertainty: Measures, Research, and Sources of Variation," Academy of Management Journal 18 (September 1975): 562-78; H. Kirk Downey, Don Hellriegel, and John W. Slocum Jr., "Environmental Uncertainty: The Construct and Its Application," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (December 1975): 613-29; Robert B. Duncan, "Characteristics of Organizational Environments and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty," Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (September 1972):313-27; Barbara W. Keats, "A Causal Model of Linkages Among Environmental Dimensions, Macro Organizational Characteristics and Performance," Academy of Management Journal 31 (September 1988): 570-98; Christine S. Koberg and Gerardo R. Ungson, "The Effects of Environmental Uncertainty and Dependence on Organizational Structure and Performance: A Comparative Study," Journal of Management 13, no. 4 (1987):725-37; Angeline W. McArthur and Paul C. Nystrom, "Environmental Dynamism, Complexity, and Munificence as Moderators of Strategy-Performance Relationships," Journal of Business Research 23 (December 1991): 349-61; Edwin A. Gerloff, Nan Kanoff Muir, and Wayne Bodensteiner, "Three Components of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Exploratory Analysis of the Effects of Aggregation," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 749-68; Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Lorsch, Organization and Environment (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1967); Donald L. McCabe, "The Assessment of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty and Economic Performance," Human Relations 43, no. 12 (1990): 1203-1218; Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, and Jeffrey Pfeffer, "Organization-Environment: Concepts and Issues," Industrial Relations 13, no. 3 (1974): 244-64; Danny Miller and Peter H. Friesen, "Strategy-Making and Environment: The Third Link," Strategic Management Journal 4, no. 3 (1983): 221-35; Frances J. Milliken, "Perceiving and Interpreting Environmental Change: An Examination of College Administrators' Interpretation of Changing Demographics," Academy of Management Journal 33, no. 1 (1990): 42-63; Frances J. Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty About the Environment: State, Effect, and Response Uncertainty," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 1 (1987): 133-43; Delbert M. Nebecker, "Situational Favorability and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Integrative Approach," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (June 1975): 281-94; Robert D. Russell and Craig Russell, "An Examination of the Effects of Organizational Norms, Organization Structure and Environmental Uncertainty on Entrepreneurial Strategy," Journal of Management 18, no. 4 (1992): 639-56; Mark P. Sharfman and James W. Dean Jr., "Conceptualizing and Measuring the Organizational Environment: A Multidimensional Approach," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 681-700.
24. John Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance: The Role of Strategic Choice," Sociology 6 (January 1972):2-22; Richard L. Daft and Karl E. Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations as Interpretation Systems," Journal of Management Review 9, no. 2 (1984): 284-95; Gregory G. Dess and Nancy K. Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formation: A Conceptual Integration," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 2 (1987): 313-30; H. Kirk Downey and John W. Slocum, "Uncertainty: Measures, Research, and Sources of Variation," Academy of Management Journal 18 (September 1975): 562-78; H. Kirk Downey, Don Hellriegel, and John W. Slocum Jr., "Environmental Uncertainty: The Construct and Its Application," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (December 1975): 613-29; Robert B. Duncan, "Characteristics of Organizational Environments and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty," Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (September 1972):313-27; Barbara W. Keats, "A Causal Model of Linkages Among Environmental Dimensions, Macro Organizational Characteristics and Performance," Academy of Management Journal 31 (September 1988): 570-98; Christine S. Koberg and Gerardo R. Ungson, "The Effects of Environmental Uncertainty and Dependence on Organizational Structure and Performance: A Comparative Study," Journal of Management 13, no. 4 (1987):725-37; Angeline W. McArthur and Paul C. Nystrom, "Environmental Dynamism, Complexity, and Munificence as Moderators of Strategy-Performance Relationships," Journal of Business Research 23 (December 1991): 349-61; Edwin A. Gerloff, Nan Kanoff Muir, and Wayne Bodensteiner, "Three Components of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Exploratory Analysis of the Effects of Aggregation," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 749-68; Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Lorsch, Organization and Environment (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1967); Donald L. McCabe, "The Assessment of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty and Economic Performance," Human Relations 43, no. 12 (1990): 1203-1218; Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, and Jeffrey Pfeffer, "Organization-Environment: Concepts and Issues," Industrial Relations 13, no. 3 (1974): 244-64; Danny Miller and Peter H. Friesen, "Strategy-Making and Environment: The Third Link," Strategic Management Journal 4, no. 3 (1983): 221-35; Frances J. Milliken, "Perceiving and Interpreting Environmental Change: An Examination of College Administrators' Interpretation of Changing Demographics," Academy of Management Journal 33, no. 1 (1990): 42-63; Frances J. Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty About the Environment: State, Effect, and Response Uncertainty," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 1 (1987): 133-43; Delbert M. Nebecker, "Situational Favorability and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Integrative Approach," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (June 1975): 281-94; Robert D. Russell and Craig Russell, "An Examination of the Effects of Organizational Norms, Organization Structure and Environmental Uncertainty on Entrepreneurial Strategy," Journal of Management 18, no. 4 (1992): 639-56; Mark P. Sharfman and James W. Dean Jr., "Conceptualizing and Measuring the Organizational Environment: A Multidimensional Approach," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 681-700.
25. John Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance: The Role of Strategic Choice," Sociology 6 (January 1972):2-22; Richard L. Daft and Karl E. Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations as Interpretation Systems," Journal of Management Review 9, no. 2 (1984): 284-95; Gregory G. Dess and Nancy K. Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formation: A Conceptual Integration," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 2 (1987): 313-30; H. Kirk Downey and John W. Slocum, "Uncertainty: Measures, Research, and Sources of Variation," Academy of Management Journal 18 (September 1975): 562-78; H. Kirk Downey, Don Hellriegel, and John W. Slocum Jr., "Environmental Uncertainty: The Construct and Its Application," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (December 1975): 613-29; Robert B. Duncan, "Characteristics of Organizational Environments and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty," Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (September 1972):313-27; Barbara W. Keats, "A Causal Model of Linkages Among Environmental Dimensions, Macro Organizational Characteristics and Performance," Academy of Management Journal 31 (September 1988): 570-98; Christine S. Koberg and Gerardo R. Ungson, "The Effects of Environmental Uncertainty and Dependence on Organizational Structure and Performance: A Comparative Study," Journal of Management 13, no. 4 (1987):725-37; Angeline W. McArthur and Paul C. Nystrom, "Environmental Dynamism, Complexity, and Munificence as Moderators of Strategy-Performance Relationships," Journal of Business Research 23 (December 1991): 349-61; Edwin A. Gerloff, Nan Kanoff Muir, and Wayne Bodensteiner, "Three Components of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Exploratory Analysis of the Effects of Aggregation," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 749-68; Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Lorsch, Organization and Environment (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1967); Donald L. McCabe, "The Assessment of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty and Economic Performance," Human Relations 43, no. 12 (1990): 1203-1218; Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, and Jeffrey Pfeffer, "Organization-Environment: Concepts and Issues," Industrial Relations 13, no. 3 (1974): 244-64; Danny Miller and Peter H. Friesen, "Strategy-Making and Environment: The Third Link," Strategic Management Journal 4, no. 3 (1983): 221-35; Frances J. Milliken, "Perceiving and Interpreting Environmental Change: An Examination of College Administrators' Interpretation of Changing Demographics," Academy of Management Journal 33, no. 1 (1990): 42-63; Frances J. Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty About the Environment: State, Effect, and Response Uncertainty," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 1 (1987): 133-43; Delbert M. Nebecker, "Situational Favorability and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Integrative Approach," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (June 1975): 281-94; Robert D. Russell and Craig Russell, "An Examination of the Effects of Organizational Norms, Organization Structure and Environmental Uncertainty on Entrepreneurial Strategy," Journal of Management 18, no. 4 (1992): 639-56; Mark P. Sharfman and James W. Dean Jr., "Conceptualizing and Measuring the Organizational Environment: A Multidimensional Approach," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 681-700.
26. John Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance: The Role of Strategic Choice," Sociology 6 (January 1972):2-22; Richard L. Daft and Karl E. Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations as Interpretation Systems," Journal of Management Review 9, no. 2 (1984): 284-95; Gregory G. Dess and Nancy K. Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formation: A Conceptual Integration," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 2 (1987): 313-30; H. Kirk Downey and John W. Slocum, "Uncertainty: Measures, Research, and Sources of Variation," Academy of Management Journal 18 (September 1975): 562-78; H. Kirk Downey, Don Hellriegel, and John W. Slocum Jr., "Environmental Uncertainty: The Construct and Its Application," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (December 1975): 613-29; Robert B. Duncan, "Characteristics of Organizational Environments and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty," Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (September 1972):313-27; Barbara W. Keats, "A Causal Model of Linkages Among Environmental Dimensions, Macro Organizational Characteristics and Performance," Academy of Management Journal 31 (September 1988): 570-98; Christine S. Koberg and Gerardo R. Ungson, "The Effects of Environmental Uncertainty and Dependence on Organizational Structure and Performance: A Comparative Study," Journal of Management 13, no. 4 (1987):725-37; Angeline W. McArthur and Paul C. Nystrom, "Environmental Dynamism, Complexity, and Munificence as Moderators of Strategy-Performance Relationships," Journal of Business Research 23 (December 1991): 349-61; Edwin A. Gerloff, Nan Kanoff Muir, and Wayne Bodensteiner, "Three Components of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Exploratory Analysis of the Effects of Aggregation," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 749-68; Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Lorsch, Organization and Environment (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1967); Donald L. McCabe, "The Assessment of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty and Economic Performance," Human Relations 43, no. 12 (1990): 1203-1218; Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, and Jeffrey Pfeffer, "Organization-Environment: Concepts and Issues," Industrial Relations 13, no. 3 (1974): 244-64; Danny Miller and Peter H. Friesen, "Strategy-Making and Environment: The Third Link," Strategic Management Journal 4, no. 3 (1983): 221-35; Frances J. Milliken, "Perceiving and Interpreting Environmental Change: An Examination of College Administrators' Interpretation of Changing Demographics," Academy of Management Journal 33, no. 1 (1990): 42-63; Frances J. Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty About the Environment: State, Effect, and Response Uncertainty," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 1 (1987): 133-43; Delbert M. Nebecker, "Situational Favorability and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Integrative Approach," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (June 1975): 281-94; Robert D. Russell and Craig Russell, "An Examination of the Effects of Organizational Norms, Organization Structure and Environmental Uncertainty on Entrepreneurial Strategy," Journal of Management 18, no. 4 (1992): 639-56; Mark P. Sharfman and James W. Dean Jr., "Conceptualizing and Measuring the Organizational Environment: A Multidimensional Approach," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 681-700.
27. John Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance: The Role of Strategic Choice," Sociology 6 (January 1972):2-22; Richard L. Daft and Karl E. Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations as Interpretation Systems," Journal of Management Review 9, no. 2 (1984): 284-95; Gregory G. Dess and Nancy K. Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formation: A Conceptual Integration," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 2 (1987): 313-30; H. Kirk Downey and John W. Slocum, "Uncertainty: Measures, Research, and Sources of Variation," Academy of Management Journal 18 (September 1975): 562-78; H. Kirk Downey, Don Hellriegel, and John W. Slocum Jr., "Environmental Uncertainty: The Construct and Its Application," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (December 1975): 613-29; Robert B. Duncan, "Characteristics of Organizational Environments and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty," Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (September 1972):313-27; Barbara W. Keats, "A Causal Model of Linkages Among Environmental Dimensions, Macro Organizational Characteristics and Performance," Academy of Management Journal 31 (September 1988): 570-98; Christine S. Koberg and Gerardo R. Ungson, "The Effects of Environmental Uncertainty and Dependence on Organizational Structure and Performance: A Comparative Study," Journal of Management 13, no. 4 (1987):725-37; Angeline W. McArthur and Paul C. Nystrom, "Environmental Dynamism, Complexity, and Munificence as Moderators of Strategy-Performance Relationships," Journal of Business Research 23 (December 1991): 349-61; Edwin A. Gerloff, Nan Kanoff Muir, and Wayne Bodensteiner, "Three Components of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Exploratory Analysis of the Effects of Aggregation," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 749-68; Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Lorsch, Organization and Environment (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1967); Donald L. McCabe, "The Assessment of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty and Economic Performance," Human Relations 43, no. 12 (1990): 1203-1218; Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, and Jeffrey Pfeffer, "Organization-Environment: Concepts and Issues," Industrial Relations 13, no. 3 (1974): 244-64; Danny Miller and Peter H. Friesen, "Strategy-Making and Environment: The Third Link," Strategic Management Journal 4, no. 3 (1983): 221-35; Frances J. Milliken, "Perceiving and Interpreting Environmental Change: An Examination of College Administrators' Interpretation of Changing Demographics," Academy of Management Journal 33, no. 1 (1990): 42-63; Frances J. Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty About the Environment: State, Effect, and
28. John Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance: The Role of Strategic Choice," Sociology 6 (January 1972):2-22; Richard L. Daft and Karl E. Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations as Interpretation Systems," Journal of Management Review 9, no. 2 (1984): 284-95; Gregory G. Dess and Nancy K. Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formation: A Conceptual Integration," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 2 (1987): 313-30; H. Kirk Downey and John W. Slocum, "Uncertainty: Measures, Research, and Sources of Variation," Academy of Management Journal 18 (September 1975): 562-78; H. Kirk Downey, Don Hellriegel, and John W. Slocum Jr., "Environmental Uncertainty: The Construct and Its Application," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (December 1975): 613-29; Robert B. Duncan, "Characteristics of Organizational Environments and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty," Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (September 1972):313-27; Barbara W. Keats, "A Causal Model of Linkages Among Environmental Dimensions, Macro Organizational Characteristics and Performance," Academy of Management Journal 31 (September 1988): 570-98; Christine S. Koberg and Gerardo R. Ungson, "The Effects of Environmental Uncertainty and Dependence on Organizational Structure and Performance: A Comparative Study," Journal of Management 13, no. 4 (1987):725-37; Angeline W. McArthur and Paul C. Nystrom, "Environmental Dynamism, Complexity, and Munificence as Moderators of Strategy-Performance Relationships," Journal of Business Research 23 (December 1991): 349-61; Edwin A. Gerloff, Nan Kanoff Muir, and Wayne Bodensteiner, "Three Components of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Exploratory Analysis of the Effects of Aggregation," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 749-68; Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Lorsch, Organization and Environment (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1967); Donald L. McCabe, "The Assessment of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty and Economic Performance," Human Relations 43, no. 12 (1990): 1203-1218; Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, and Jeffrey Pfeffer, "Organization-Environment: Concepts and Issues," Industrial Relations 13, no. 3 (1974): 244-64; Danny Miller and Peter H. Friesen, "Strategy-Making and Environment: The Third Link," Strategic Management Journal 4, no. 3 (1983): 221-35; Frances J. Milliken, "Perceiving and Interpreting Environmental Change: An Examination of College Administrators' Interpretation of Changing Demographics," Academy of Management Journal 33, no. 1 (1990): 42-63; Frances J. Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty About the Environment: State, Effect, and Response Uncertainty," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 1 (1987): 133-43; Delbert M. Nebecker, "Situational Favorability and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Integrative Approach," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (June 1975): 281-94; Robert D. Russell and Craig Russell, "An Examination of the Effects of Organizational Norms, Organization Structure and Environmental Uncertainty on Entrepreneurial Strategy," Journal of Management 18, no. 4 (1992): 639-56; Mark P. Sharfman and James W. Dean Jr., "Conceptualizing and Measuring the Organizational Environment: A Multidimensional Approach," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 681-700.
29. John Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance: The Role of Strategic Choice," Sociology 6 (January 1972):2-22; Richard L. Daft and Karl E. Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations as Interpretation Systems," Journal of Management Review 9, no. 2 (1984): 284-95; Gregory G. Dess and Nancy K. Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formation: A Conceptual Integration," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 2 (1987): 313-30; H. Kirk Downey and John W. Slocum, "Uncertainty: Measures, Research, and Sources of Variation," Academy of Management Journal 18 (September 1975): 562-78; H. Kirk Downey, Don Hellriegel, and John W. Slocum Jr., "Environmental Uncertainty: The Construct and Its Application," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (December 1975): 613-29; Robert B. Duncan, "Characteristics of Organizational Environments and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty," Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (September 1972):313-27; Barbara W. Keats, "A Causal Model of Linkages Among Environmental Dimensions, Macro Organizational Characteristics and Performance," Academy of Management Journal 31 (September 1988): 570-98; Christine S. Koberg and Gerardo R. Ungson, "The Effects of Environmental Uncertainty and Dependence on Organizational Structure and Performance: A Comparative Study," Journal of Management 13, no. 4 (1987):725-37; Angeline W. McArthur and Paul C. Nystrom, "Environmental Dynamism, Complexity, and Munificence as Moderators of Strategy-Performance Relationships," Journal of Business Research 23 (December 1991): 349-61; Edwin A. Gerloff, Nan Kanoff Muir, and Wayne Bodensteiner, "Three Components of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Exploratory Analysis of the Effects of Aggregation," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 749-68; Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Lorsch, Organization and Environment (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1967); Donald L. McCabe, "The Assessment of Perceived Environmental Uncertainty and Economic Performance," Human Relations 43, no. 12 (1990): 1203-1218; Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, and Jeffrey Pfeffer, "Organization-Environment: Concepts and Issues," Industrial Relations 13, no. 3 (1974): 244-64; Danny Miller and Peter H. Friesen, "Strategy-Making and Environment: The Third Link," Strategic Management Journal 4, no. 3 (1983): 221-35; Frances J. Milliken, "Perceiving and Interpreting Environmental Change: An Examination of College Administrators' Interpretation of Changing Demographics," Academy of Management Journal 33, no. 1 (1990): 42-63; Frances J. Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty About the Environment: State, Effect, and Response Uncertainty," Academy of Management Review 12, no. 1 (1987): 133-43; Delbert M. Nebecker, "Situational Favorability and Perceived Environmental Uncertainty: An Integrative Approach," Administrative Science Quarterly 20 (June 1975): 281-94; Robert D. Russell and Craig Russell, "An Examination of the Effects of Organizational Norms, Organization Structure and Environmental Uncertainty on Entrepreneurial Strategy," Journal of Management 18, no. 4 (1992): 639-56; Mark P. Sharfman and James W. Dean Jr., "Conceptualizing and Measuring the Organizational Environment: A Multidimensional Approach," Journal of Management 17, no. 4 (1991): 681-700.
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34. Francis J. Aguilar, Scanning the Business Environment (NY: Macmillan, 1967); Daniel F. Jennings and James R. Lumpkin, "Insights Between Environmental Scanning Activities and Porter's Generic Strategies: An Empirical Analysis," Journal of Management 18 (December 1992): 791-803; Danny Miller, "Environmental Fit vs. Internal Fit," Organization Science 3, no. 2 (1992): 159-78; William L. Renfro and James L Morrison, "Detecting Signals of Change: The Environmental Scanning Process," The Futurist 28 (August 1984): 49-53 ; Ram Subramanian, Nirmala Fernandes, and Earl Harper, "Environmental Scanning in U.S. Companies: Their Nature and Their Relationship to Performance," Management International Review 33, no. 3 (1993): 271-86; Henry Tosi, Ramon Aldag, and Ronald Storey, "On the Measurement of Environment: An Assessment of Lawrence and Lorsch's Environmental Uncertainty Subscale," Administrative Science Quarterly 18 (March 1973): 27-36; Rosalie L. Tung, "Dimensions of Organizational Environments: An Exploratory Study of Their Impact on Organization Structure," Academy of Management Journal 22 (December 1979): 672-93.
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46. M.L. Stein, "Re-establishing Relevance for Readers," Editor & Publisher, 5 March 1994, 16-17; Robert G. Picard, "Research and Development Still Misses Its Mark," Editor & Publisher, 19 December 1992, 46-47, 56; Tim Triplett, "Marketing Research Guides Paper's Pulitzer-Winning Series," Marketing News, 23 May 1994, 1,5; Mark Fitzgerald, "25/43 Project a Reader Success," Editor & Publisher, 26 October 1991, 10, 39; George Garneau, "Reaching 'At Risk' and 'Potential' Readers," Editor & Publisher, 4 May 1991, 14-15,110; M.L. Stein, "Research for the Newsroom," Editor & Publisher, 27 April 1991, 15, 18; Mary Alice Bagby, "Transforming Newspapers for Readers," Presstime, April 1991, 18-25; Gene Goltz, "Reviving a Romance With Readers Is the Biggest Challenge for Many Newspapers," Presstime, February 1988, 16-22.
47. M.L. Stein, "Re-establishing Relevance for Readers," Editor & Publisher, 5 March 1994, 16-17; Robert G. Picard, "Research and Development Still Misses Its Mark," Editor & Publisher, 19 December 1992, 46-47, 56; Tim Triplett, "Marketing Research Guides Paper's Pulitzer-Winning Series," Marketing News, 23 May 1994, 1,5; Mark Fitzgerald, "25/43 Project a Reader Success," Editor & Publisher, 26 October 1991, 10, 39; George Garneau, "Reaching 'At Risk' and 'Potential' Readers," Editor & Publisher, 4 May 1991, 14-15,110; M.L. Stein, "Research for the Newsroom," Editor & Publisher, 27 April 1991, 15, 18; Mary Alice Bagby, "Transforming Newspapers for Readers," Presstime, April 1991, 18-25; Gene Goltz, "Reviving a Romance With Readers Is the Biggest Challenge for Many Newspapers," Presstime, February 1988, 16-22.
48. M.L. Stein, "Re-establishing Relevance for Readers," Editor & Publisher, 5 March 1994, 16-17; Robert G. Picard, "Research and Development Still Misses Its Mark," Editor & Publisher, 19 December 1992, 46-47, 56; Tim Triplett, "Marketing Research Guides Paper's Pulitzer-Winning Series," Marketing News, 23 May 1994, 1,5; Mark Fitzgerald, "25/43 Project a Reader Success," Editor & Publisher, 26 October 1991, 10, 39; George Garneau, "Reaching 'At Risk' and 'Potential' Readers," Editor & Publisher, 4 May 1991, 14-15,110; M.L. Stein, "Research for the Newsroom," Editor & Publisher, 27 April 1991, 15, 18; Mary Alice Bagby, "Transforming Newspapers for Readers," Presstime, April 1991, 18-25; Gene Goltz, "Reviving a Romance With Readers Is the Biggest Challenge for Many Newspapers," Presstime, February 1988, 16-22.
49. M.L. Stein, "Re-establishing Relevance for Readers," Editor & Publisher, 5 March 1994, 16-17; Robert G. Picard, "Research and Development Still Misses Its Mark," Editor & Publisher, 19 December 1992, 46-47, 56; Tim Triplett, "Marketing Research Guides Paper's Pulitzer-Winning Series," Marketing News, 23 May 1994, 1,5; Mark Fitzgerald, "25/43 Project a Reader Success," Editor & Publisher, 26 October 1991, 10, 39; George Garneau, "Reaching 'At Risk' and 'Potential' Readers," Editor & Publisher, 4 May 1991, 14-15,110; M.L. Stein, "Research for the Newsroom," Editor & Publisher, 27 April 1991, 15, 18; Mary Alice Bagby, "Transforming Newspapers for Readers," Presstime, April 1991, 18-25; Gene Goltz, "Reviving a Romance With Readers Is the Biggest Challenge for Many Newspapers," Presstime, February 1988, 16-22.
50. M.L. Stein, "Re-establishing Relevance for Readers," Editor & Publisher, 5 March 1994, 16-17; Robert G. Picard, "Research and Development Still Misses Its Mark," Editor & Publisher, 19 December 1992, 46-47, 56; Tim Triplett, "Marketing Research Guides Paper's Pulitzer-Winning Series," Marketing News, 23 May 1994, 1,5; Mark Fitzgerald, "25/43 Project a Reader Success," Editor & Publisher, 26 October 1991, 10, 39; George Garneau, "Reaching 'At Risk' and 'Potential' Readers," Editor & Publisher, 4 May 1991, 14-15,110; M.L. Stein, "Research for the Newsroom," Editor & Publisher, 27 April 1991, 15, 18; Mary Alice Bagby, "Transforming Newspapers for Readers," Presstime, April 1991, 18-25; Gene Goltz, "Reviving a Romance With Readers Is the Biggest Challenge for Many Newspapers," Presstime, February 1988, 16-22.
51. Audience interest is often listed as an important news value. See, for example, Melvin Mencher, News Reporting and Writing (Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown, 1984), 68.
52. Underwood, When MBA's Rule the Newsroom, xiii-xv; William Glaberson, "Media: The Miami Herlad's ninefold path to reader enlightenment raises some journalists' eyebrows," The New York Times, 23 Oct. 1995, sec. C, p. 7.
53. Underwood, When MBA's Rule the Newsroom, xiii-xv; William Glaberson, "Media: The Miami Herlad's ninefold path to reader enlightenment raises some journalists' eyebrows," The New York Times, 23 Oct. 1995, sec. C, p. 7.
54. Commission on Freedom of the Press, A Free and Responsible Press (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1947); Stephen Klaidman and Tom L. Beauchamp, The Virtuous Journalist (NY: Oxford University Press, 1987).
55. Commission on Freedom of the Press, A Free and Responsible Press (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1947); Stephen Klaidman and Tom L. Beauchamp, The Virtuous Journalist (NY: Oxford University Press, 1987).
56. Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom; Doug Underwood and Keith Stamm, "Balancing Business With Journalism: Newsroom Policies at 12 West Coast Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 69 (summer 1992): 301-17.
57. Underwood, When MBAs Rule the Newsroom; Doug Underwood and Keith Stamm, "Balancing Business With Journalism: Newsroom Policies at 12 West Coast Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly 69 (summer 1992): 301-17.
58. For a discussion of the concept of professionalism, see Randal A. Beam, Journalism Professionalism as an Organizational-Level Concept, Journalism Monographs, no. 121 (Columbia, SC: AEJMC, 1990).
59. Beam, "Journalism Professionalism."
60. Jon Udell, The Economics of the American Newspaper (NY: Hastings House, 1978), 26.
61. Scott, for example, defines organizations as systems of interdependent activities linking shifting coalitions of participants in which the systems are embedded in the environments in which they operate. See Scott, Organizations: Rational, Natural and Open Systems, 25.
62. Duncan, "Characteristics of Organizational Environments," 314.
63. Duncan, "Characteristics of Organizational Environments," 317.
64. Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty," 136.
65. One way to assess the homogeneity of responses among editors at a given newspaper is to conduct one-way analyses of variance on the items in which editors were asked about their perceptions of their newspaper's environment. For all these items, the between-groups (between newspapers) variance was significantly greater than the within-groups (within newspapers) variance. From this, it could be concluded that at a given newspaper, editors' responses tended to be more alike than different.
66. Aggregation of data is a common - though not uncontroversial -practice in organizational research. See Alan Bryman, Research Methods and Organizational Studies (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989), 230-33.
67. Mark Fitzgerald, "All Things to All People," Editor & Publisher, 7 Jan. 1995, 11-14; Howard Kurtz, "For Nation's Newspapers, the News Isn't Good," The Washington Post, 1 Dec. 1991, sec. H, pp. 1, 6; Jim Batten, "A Message From Jim Batten," Knight-Ridder News, winter 1990, 2A.
68. Mark Fitzgerald, "All Things to All People," Editor & Publisher, 7 Jan. 1995, 11-14; Howard Kurtz, "For Nation's Newspapers, the News Isn't Good," The Washington Post, 1 Dec. 1991, sec. H, pp. 1, 6; Jim Batten, "A Message From Jim Batten," Knight-Ridder News, winter 1990, 2A.
69. Mark Fitzgerald, "All Things to All People," Editor & Publisher, 7 Jan. 1995, 11-14; Howard Kurtz, "For Nation's Newspapers, the News Isn't Good," The Washington Post, 1 Dec. 1991, sec. H, pp. 1, 6; Jim Batten, "A Message From Jim Batten," Knight-Ridder News, winter 1990, 2A.
70. Readership research is defined as any formal, systematic techniques for gathering information from a newspaper's audience members or potential audience members about those members' informational wants or needs, or about characteristics believed to be associated with the audience members' informational wants or needs. Common kinds of readership research include focus groups, experiments, or probability and nonprobability surveys. Readership research is among a variety of techniques that a newspaper might use to attempt to assess the informational wants and needs of its audience. Other techniques include informal or chance discussions with audience members; letters to the editor; unsolicited complaints or compliments directed to the newspaper; and information from industry-wide efforts to identify audience informational wants and needs. But readership research constitutes the most proactive and expensive effort to identify the informational wants and needs of readers.
71. Jean Gaddy Wilson and Iris Igawa, "Strategy No. 11: 'Expand News Coverage,'" Presstime, November 1991, 45; David Noack, "Getting Readers Involved," Editor & Publisher, 23 April 1994, 22, 26,30.
72. Jean Gaddy Wilson and Iris Igawa, "Strategy No. 11: 'Expand News Coverage,'" Presstime, November 1991, 45; David Noack, "Getting Readers Involved," Editor & Publisher, 23 April 1994, 22, 26,30.
73. In creating these indices, responses of editors at a given newspaper were averaged for each content category. That produced an organizational-level estimate of the degree to which readership research had influenced major changes for that content category at the newspaper.
74. Scores on the four indices covaried strongly. Each of the possible bivariate Pearson correlation coefficients among the four indices was significant at the p≤.05 level and in the expected direction.
75. With two exceptions, ≤community≤ in these measures generally refers to the Metropolitan or Primary Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA or PMSA, as defined by the U.S. Census Bureau) in which the newspaper's main office is located. If those offices are not within an MSA or PMSA, community refers to the county in which the newspaper's main office is located. The exceptions are the competition measure, which is based on the number of generalcirculation daily newspapers in the county in which the newspaper's main office is located, and the circulation growth measure, which is based on the paper's total daily circulation and its household growth in the paper's primary area of business.
76. This relatively crude indicator of competition was used because it was easily computed and interpreted. Despite its drawbacks, it has been used successfully in previous research. See Stephen Lacy and Jan P. Vermeer, "Theoretical and Practical Considerations in Operationalizing Newspaper and Television News Competition," The Journal of Media Economics 8, no. 1 (1995): 53.
77. Debra Gersh, "Percentage of Minorities in Newsrooms Up," Editor & Publisher, 17 April 1993, 42.
78. The sample of newspapers was drawn by taking a list of the 1,529 U.S. daily newspaper companies in business in 1990, which was ordered by total daily circulation from largest to smallest. That list was divided into three groups (large, medium, and small), each accounting for about 21 million of the total U.S. daily circulation of about 62 million. The 40 largest U.S. daily newspaper companies comprised the large-paper group, the next 188 companies the medium-paper group, and the remaining 1,301 companies the smallpaper group. Thirty newspaper companies were selected from both the large- and medium-paper groups using an interval sampling technique with a random starting point. Forty companies were selected in a similar way from the small-paper group. This sampling strategy assured representation of large- and medium-sized newspapers, which are less numerous than small dailies. In cases in which one company published two papers with separate or largely separate editorial staffs, one of the two papers was randomly selected for the sample.
79. About 38 percent of these respondents were editors, managing editors, deputy managing editors, or news editors; about 19 percent city editors; 18 percent features editors; 13 percent editorial page editors; 9 percent sports editors; and 3 percent business editors.
80. Responses were received from 28 of the large-circulation newspaper companies (274,000 daily circulation and up), from 27 of the medium-circulation companies (59,700 to 273,999 circulation) and from 23 of the small-circulation companies (59,699 circulation and below).
81. Editor & Publisher Market Guide 1990 (NY: Editor & Publisher, 1990).
82. Of the 1,529 daily newspaper companies in the population sampled, the largest 228 account for two-thirds of all daily circulation.
83. This significance level was chosen because of the relatively small sample size. The intent in selecting a significance level that is more generous than is customary was to avoid a Type II error.
84. For an explanation of how W was computed, see Elazar J. Pedhazur, Multiple Regression in Behavioral Research: Explanation and Prediction, 2d ed. (NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1982), 616-23.
85. Raymond E. Miles and Charles C. Snow, "Organizations: New Concepts for New Forms," California Management Review 28, no. 3 (1986): 62-73.
86. Child, "Organizational Structure"; Michael E. Porter, Competitive Strategies (NY: The Free Press, 1980), 3.
87. Child, "Organizational Structure"; Michael E. Porter, Competitive Strategies (NY: The Free Press, 1980), 3.
88. Keith R. Stamm, Newspaper Use and Community Ties: Toward a Dynamic Theory (Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing, 1985).
89. The source for these data was either Census statistics or information based on the Editor & Publisher Market Guide.
90. Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance"; Daft and Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations"; Dess and Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formulation"; Downey, Hellriegel, and Slocum, "Environmental Uncertainty"; Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty."
91. Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance"; Daft and Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations"; Dess and Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formulation"; Downey, Hellriegel, and Slocum, "Environmental Uncertainty"; Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty."
92. Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance"; Daft and Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations"; Dess and Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formulation"; Downey, Hellriegel, and Slocum, "Environmental Uncertainty"; Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty."
93. Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance"; Daft and Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations"; Dess and Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formulation"; Downey, Hellriegel, and Slocum, "Environmental Uncertainty"; Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty."
94. Child, "Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance"; Daft and Weick, "Toward a Model of Organizations"; Dess and Origer, "Environment, Structure and Consensus in Strategy Formulation"; Downey, Hellriegel, and Slocum, "Environmental Uncertainty"; Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty."
95. Downey and Slocum, "Uncertainty: Measures, Research and Sources of Variation."
96. Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty"; Milliken, "Perceiving and Interpreting Environmental Change."
97. Milliken, "Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty"; Milliken, "Perceiving and Interpreting Environmental Change."
98. Underwood, When MBA's Rule the Newsroom.