Environmental values: A place-based theory

Environmental Ethics

Volumn 19, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 227-244

  Norton, Bryan G ^a   Hannon, Bruce ^b  

^a GEORGIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0000458910     PISSN: 01634275     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5840/enviroethics199719313     Document Type: Article

References (79)

1. A number of recent authors have advocated environmental values that are based on a sense of place. See, for example, Kirkpatrick Sale, Dwellers in the Land (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1985); David Seamon and Robert Mugerauer, eds., Dwelling, Place, and Environment_(New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); David Ehrenfeld, Beginning Again (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); and Mark Sagoff, "Environmental Economics: An Epitaph," Resources, no. 111 (Spring 1993): 2-7; Sagoff, "Settling America: The Concept of Place in Environmental Ethics," Journal of Energy, Natural Resources and Environmental Law 12 (1992): 351-418. These authors continue the exploration of a theme introduced earlier by geographers such as Yi-Fu Tuan, Topophilia: A Study of Environmental Perception, Attitudes, and Values (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1974), and Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977).
2. A number of recent authors have advocated environmental values that are based on a sense of place. See, for example, Kirkpatrick Sale, Dwellers in the Land (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1985); David Seamon and Robert Mugerauer, eds., Dwelling, Place, and Environment_(New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); David Ehrenfeld, Beginning Again (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); and Mark Sagoff, "Environmental Economics: An Epitaph," Resources, no. 111 (Spring 1993): 2-7; Sagoff, "Settling America: The Concept of Place in Environmental Ethics," Journal of Energy, Natural Resources and Environmental Law 12 (1992): 351-418. These authors continue the exploration of a theme introduced earlier by geographers such as Yi-Fu Tuan, Topophilia: A Study of Environmental Perception, Attitudes, and Values (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1974), and Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977).
3. A number of recent authors have advocated environmental values that are based on a sense of place. See, for example, Kirkpatrick Sale, Dwellers in the Land (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1985); David Seamon and Robert Mugerauer, eds., Dwelling, Place, and Environment_(New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); David Ehrenfeld, Beginning Again (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); and Mark Sagoff, "Environmental Economics: An Epitaph," Resources, no. 111 (Spring 1993): 2-7; Sagoff, "Settling America: The Concept of Place in Environmental Ethics," Journal of Energy, Natural Resources and Environmental Law 12 (1992): 351-418. These authors continue the exploration of a theme introduced earlier by geographers such as Yi-Fu Tuan, Topophilia: A Study of Environmental Perception, Attitudes, and Values (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1974), and Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977).
4. A number of recent authors have advocated environmental values that are based on a sense of place. See, for example, Kirkpatrick Sale, Dwellers in the Land (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1985); David Seamon and Robert Mugerauer, eds., Dwelling, Place, and Environment_(New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); David Ehrenfeld, Beginning Again (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); and Mark Sagoff, "Environmental Economics: An Epitaph," Resources, no. 111 (Spring 1993): 2-7; Sagoff, "Settling America: The Concept of Place in Environmental Ethics," Journal of Energy, Natural Resources and Environmental Law 12 (1992): 351-418. These authors continue the exploration of a theme introduced earlier by geographers such as Yi-Fu Tuan, Topophilia: A Study of Environmental Perception, Attitudes, and Values (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1974), and Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977).
5. A number of recent authors have advocated environmental values that are based on a sense of place. See, for example, Kirkpatrick Sale, Dwellers in the Land (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1985); David Seamon and Robert Mugerauer, eds., Dwelling, Place, and Environment_(New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); David Ehrenfeld, Beginning Again (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); and Mark Sagoff, "Environmental Economics: An Epitaph," Resources, no. 111 (Spring 1993): 2-7; Sagoff, "Settling America: The Concept of Place in Environmental Ethics," Journal of Energy, Natural Resources and Environmental Law 12 (1992): 351-418. These authors continue the exploration of a theme introduced earlier by geographers such as Yi-Fu Tuan, Topophilia: A Study of Environmental Perception, Attitudes, and Values (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1974), and Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977).
6. A number of recent authors have advocated environmental values that are based on a sense of place. See, for example, Kirkpatrick Sale, Dwellers in the Land (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1985); David Seamon and Robert Mugerauer, eds., Dwelling, Place, and Environment_(New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); David Ehrenfeld, Beginning Again (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); and Mark Sagoff, "Environmental Economics: An Epitaph," Resources, no. 111 (Spring 1993): 2-7; Sagoff, "Settling America: The Concept of Place in Environmental Ethics," Journal of Energy, Natural Resources and Environmental Law 12 (1992): 351-418. These authors continue the exploration of a theme introduced earlier by geographers such as Yi-Fu Tuan, Topophilia: A Study of Environmental Perception, Attitudes, and Values (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1974), and Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977).
7. A number of recent authors have advocated environmental values that are based on a sense of place. See, for example, Kirkpatrick Sale, Dwellers in the Land (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1985); David Seamon and Robert Mugerauer, eds., Dwelling, Place, and Environment_(New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); David Ehrenfeld, Beginning Again (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); and Mark Sagoff, "Environmental Economics: An Epitaph," Resources, no. 111 (Spring 1993): 2-7; Sagoff, "Settling America: The Concept of Place in Environmental Ethics," Journal of Energy, Natural Resources and Environmental Law 12 (1992): 351-418. These authors continue the exploration of a theme introduced earlier by geographers such as Yi-Fu Tuan, Topophilia: A Study of Environmental Perception, Attitudes, and Values (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1974), and Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977).
8. See Nicholas Freudenberg, Not in Our Backyards! Community Action for Health and the Environment (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1984), for a general discussion of NIMB Yism. For an update, see Nicholas Freudenberg and Carol Steinsapir, "Not in Our Backyards: The Grassroots Environmental Movement" Society and Natural Resources 4 (1991): 235-45.
9. See Nicholas Freudenberg, Not in Our Backyards! Community Action for Health and the Environment (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1984), for a general discussion of NIMB Yism. For an update, see Nicholas Freudenberg and Carol Steinsapir, "Not in Our Backyards: The Grassroots Environmental Movement" Society and Natural Resources 4 (1991): 235-45.
10. Mark Sagoff, The Economy of the Earth (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), esp. pp. 50-57.
11. M. S. Common, R. K. Blarney, and T. W. Norton, "Sustainability and Environmental Valuation," Environmental Values 2 (1993): 299-334, esp. 316-19.
12. Bryan Norton and Robert Ulanowicz, "Scale and Biodiversity Policy: A Hierarchical Approach," Ambio 21 (1992): 244-49, have argued that biodiversity policy, for example, must be addressed at the scale of the "landscape ecosystem" because of the long time horizon of the goal of sustaining biodiversity. These arguments are based on the central assumption of hierarchy theory, that systems of large spatial scale change more slowly than do their components, providing a means to correlate spatial and temporal scale. See note 15.
13. Some readers will surely wonder whether we are making the somewhat stronger claim that the tendency to orient from a place is hereditary. While we do not wish to commit ourselves on this point, we are aware that our general theory is susceptible of an interesting hybrid interpretation. It seems plausible that the tendency to orient from a home-place is hereditary, given its similarity to evolved behaviors in other animals, such as territoriality. However, our theory, given its local bias and commitment to local adaptations of culture to local habitats, also suggests that particular local practices and the values associated with them are learned in response to local environments. Place-orientating behavior may therefore be analogous to linguistic behavior. Just as there seems to be an inborn tendency to learn a language - to hear and imitate speech as patterned, for example - there may be an innate tendency to perceive and value from a specific local space. Moreover, also in analogy to linguistic behavior, the multiplicity of self-replicating language systems that coexist in the world, the content of place-oriented values may similarly be learned in local contexts. This possibility suggests the additional idea that one can, with considerable effort, learn the "language" of a new culture. What is learned in this process can be thought of as the many bits of wisdom that help an individual culture to live, to reproduce, to "sustain" itself, in its particular habitat/local niche.
14. Bruce Hannon, "Sense of Place: Geographic Discounting by People, Animals and Plants," Ecological Economics 10(1994): 157-74; Robert Mitchell and Richard Carson, Property Rights, Protest, and the Siting of Hazardous Waste Facilities (Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future, 1986), p. 4; see Hannon, "The Discounting of Concern," in Environmental Economics, ed. Gonzague Fillet and Takeshi Murota (Geneva: R. Leimgruber, 1987).
15. Bruce Hannon, "Sense of Place: Geographic Discounting by People, Animals and Plants," Ecological Economics 10(1994): 157-74; Robert Mitchell and Richard Carson, Property Rights, Protest, and the Siting of Hazardous Waste Facilities (Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future, 1986), p. 4; see Hannon, "The Discounting of Concern," in Environmental Economics, ed. Gonzague Fillet and Takeshi Murota (Geneva: R. Leimgruber, 1987).
16. Bruce Hannon, "Sense of Place: Geographic Discounting by People, Animals and Plants," Ecological Economics 10(1994): 157-74; Robert Mitchell and Richard Carson, Property Rights, Protest, and the Siting of Hazardous Waste Facilities (Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future, 1986), p. 4; see Hannon, "The Discounting of Concern," in Environmental Economics, ed. Gonzague Fillet and Takeshi Murota (Geneva: R. Leimgruber, 1987).
17. Hannon, "Sense of Place," p. 160.
18. Ibid., p. 159.
19. See Peter Gould and Rodney White, Mental Maps (Boston: Allen and Unwin, 1986), for a mathematical model, and interesting commentary, on the attachment to, and evaluation of, possible locations at which to live.
20. See Bryan G. Norton, "Context and Hierarchy in Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic," Ecological Economics 2 (1990): 119-27, for a discussion of context and perspective as a formative idea of the land ethic.
21. Yi-Fu Tuan, "Man and Nature," Commission on College Geography, Resource Paper 10, Association of American Geographers, Washington, D.C., 1971.
22. Norton and Ulanowicz, "Scale and Biodiversity Policy."
23. Seamon and Mugrauer, Dwelling, Place, and Environment.
24. It is customary to refer to multilevelled theories of scale as "hierarchy theory." See, for example, T. F. H. Allen and Thomas B. Starr, Hierarchy: Perspectives for Ecological Complexity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); Robert O'Neill, D. L. DeAngelis, J. B. Waide, and T. F. H. Allen, A Hierarchical Concept of Ecosystems (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); T. F. H. Allen and Thomas W. Hoekstra, Toward a Unified Ecology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992). For explicit attempts to apply hierarchy theory to practical problems of management and policy, see R. V. O'Neill, "Hierarchy Theory and Global Climate Change," in Thomas Rosswall, Robert G. Woodmansee, and Paul G. Risser, eds., Scales and Global Change (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1988); Bryan G. Norton, "Context and Hierarchy in Aldo Leopold's Theory of Environmental Management," Ecological Economics 2 (1990): 119-27; Norton, Toward Unity among Environmentalists (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); and Norton and Ulanowicz, "Scale and Biodiversity Policy." While we have used the term hierarchy ourselves, it is unfortunate that the term is often taken to imply a "top-down" flow of power and authority even though this implication is expressly not included in the use, by ecologists, of the term. The problem of top-down versus bottom-up authority is discussed below. Because of the confusing implication, we prefer the term multiscalar analysis, and use it whenever possible. When it is unavoidable, however, the term hierarchy is used in the neutral sense which does not imply one or the other directional flows of power relationships. For a more detailed treatment of these issues, see Norton, "Should Environmentalists be Organicists?" Topoi 12 (1993): 21-30.
25. It is customary to refer to multilevelled theories of scale as "hierarchy theory." See, for example, T. F. H. Allen and Thomas B. Starr, Hierarchy: Perspectives for Ecological Complexity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); Robert O'Neill, D. L. DeAngelis, J. B. Waide, and T. F. H. Allen, A Hierarchical Concept of Ecosystems (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); T. F. H. Allen and Thomas W. Hoekstra, Toward a Unified Ecology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992). For explicit attempts to apply hierarchy theory to practical problems of management and policy, see R. V. O'Neill, "Hierarchy Theory and Global Climate Change," in Thomas Rosswall, Robert G. Woodmansee, and Paul G. Risser, eds., Scales and Global Change (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1988); Bryan G. Norton, "Context and Hierarchy in Aldo Leopold's Theory of Environmental Management," Ecological Economics 2 (1990): 119-27; Norton, Toward Unity among Environmentalists (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); and Norton and Ulanowicz, "Scale and Biodiversity Policy." While we have used the term hierarchy ourselves, it is unfortunate that the term is often taken to imply a "top-down" flow of power and authority even though this implication is expressly not included in the use, by ecologists, of the term. The problem of top-down versus bottom-up authority is discussed below. Because of the confusing implication, we prefer the term multiscalar analysis, and use it whenever possible. When it is unavoidable, however, the term hierarchy is used in the neutral sense which does not imply one or the other directional flows of power relationships. For a more detailed treatment of these issues, see Norton, "Should Environmentalists be Organicists?" Topoi 12 (1993): 21-30.
26. It is customary to refer to multilevelled theories of scale as "hierarchy theory." See, for example, T. F. H. Allen and Thomas B. Starr, Hierarchy: Perspectives for Ecological Complexity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); Robert O'Neill, D. L. DeAngelis, J. B. Waide, and T. F. H. Allen, A Hierarchical Concept of Ecosystems (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); T. F. H. Allen and Thomas W. Hoekstra, Toward a Unified Ecology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992). For explicit attempts to apply hierarchy theory to practical problems of management and policy, see R. V. O'Neill, "Hierarchy Theory and Global Climate Change," in Thomas Rosswall, Robert G. Woodmansee, and Paul G. Risser, eds., Scales and Global Change (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1988); Bryan G. Norton, "Context and Hierarchy in Aldo Leopold's Theory of Environmental Management," Ecological Economics 2 (1990): 119-27; Norton, Toward Unity among Environmentalists (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); and Norton and Ulanowicz, "Scale and Biodiversity Policy." While we have used the term hierarchy ourselves, it is unfortunate that the term is often taken to imply a "top-down" flow of power and authority even though this implication is expressly not included in the use, by ecologists, of the term. The problem of top-down versus bottom-up authority is discussed below. Because of the confusing implication, we prefer the term multiscalar analysis, and use it whenever possible. When it is unavoidable, however, the term hierarchy is used in the neutral sense which does not imply one or the other directional flows of power relationships. For a more detailed treatment of these issues, see Norton, "Should Environmentalists be Organicists?" Topoi 12 (1993): 21-30.
27. It is customary to refer to multilevelled theories of scale as "hierarchy theory." See, for example, T. F. H. Allen and Thomas B. Starr, Hierarchy: Perspectives for Ecological Complexity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); Robert O'Neill, D. L. DeAngelis, J. B. Waide, and T. F. H. Allen, A Hierarchical Concept of Ecosystems (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); T. F. H. Allen and Thomas W. Hoekstra, Toward a Unified Ecology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992). For explicit attempts to apply hierarchy theory to practical problems of management and policy, see R. V. O'Neill, "Hierarchy Theory and Global Climate Change," in Thomas Rosswall, Robert G. Woodmansee, and Paul G. Risser, eds., Scales and Global Change (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1988); Bryan G. Norton, "Context and Hierarchy in Aldo Leopold's Theory of Environmental Management," Ecological Economics 2 (1990): 119-27; Norton, Toward Unity among Environmentalists (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); and Norton and Ulanowicz, "Scale and Biodiversity Policy." While we have used the term hierarchy ourselves, it is unfortunate that the term is often taken to imply a "top-down" flow of power and authority even though this implication is expressly not included in the use, by ecologists, of the term. The problem of top-down versus bottom-up authority is discussed below. Because of the confusing implication, we prefer the term multiscalar analysis, and use it whenever possible. When it is unavoidable, however, the term hierarchy is used in the neutral sense which does not imply one or the other directional flows of power relationships. For a more detailed treatment of these issues, see Norton, "Should Environmentalists be Organicists?" Topoi 12 (1993): 21-30.
28. It is customary to refer to multilevelled theories of scale as "hierarchy theory." See, for example, T. F. H. Allen and Thomas B. Starr, Hierarchy: Perspectives for Ecological Complexity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); Robert O'Neill, D. L. DeAngelis, J. B. Waide, and T. F. H. Allen, A Hierarchical Concept of Ecosystems (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); T. F. H. Allen and Thomas W. Hoekstra, Toward a Unified Ecology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992). For explicit attempts to apply hierarchy theory to practical problems of management and policy, see R. V. O'Neill, "Hierarchy Theory and Global Climate Change," in Thomas Rosswall, Robert G. Woodmansee, and Paul G. Risser, eds., Scales and Global Change (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1988); Bryan G. Norton, "Context and Hierarchy in Aldo Leopold's Theory of Environmental Management," Ecological Economics 2 (1990): 119-27; Norton, Toward Unity among Environmentalists (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); and Norton and Ulanowicz, "Scale and Biodiversity Policy." While we have used the term hierarchy ourselves, it is unfortunate that the term is often taken to imply a "top-down" flow of power and authority even though this implication is expressly not included in the use, by ecologists, of the term. The problem of top-down versus bottom-up authority is discussed below. Because of the confusing implication, we prefer the term multiscalar analysis, and use it whenever possible. When it is unavoidable, however, the term hierarchy is used in the neutral sense which does not imply one or the other directional flows of power relationships. For a more detailed treatment of these issues, see Norton, "Should Environmentalists be Organicists?" Topoi 12 (1993): 21-30.
29. It is customary to refer to multilevelled theories of scale as "hierarchy theory." See, for example, T. F. H. Allen and Thomas B. Starr, Hierarchy: Perspectives for Ecological Complexity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); Robert O'Neill, D. L. DeAngelis, J. B. Waide, and T. F. H. Allen, A Hierarchical Concept of Ecosystems (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); T. F. H. Allen and Thomas W. Hoekstra, Toward a Unified Ecology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992). For explicit attempts to apply hierarchy theory to practical problems of management and policy, see R. V. O'Neill, "Hierarchy Theory and Global Climate Change," in Thomas Rosswall, Robert G. Woodmansee, and Paul G. Risser, eds., Scales and Global Change (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1988); Bryan G. Norton, "Context and Hierarchy in Aldo Leopold's Theory of Environmental Management," Ecological Economics 2 (1990): 119-27; Norton, Toward Unity among Environmentalists (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); and Norton and Ulanowicz, "Scale and Biodiversity Policy." While we have used the term hierarchy ourselves, it is unfortunate that the term is often taken to imply a "top-down" flow of power and authority even though this implication is expressly not included in the use, by ecologists, of the term. The problem of top-down versus bottom-up authority is discussed below. Because of the confusing implication, we prefer the term multiscalar analysis, and use it whenever possible. When it is unavoidable, however, the term hierarchy is used in the neutral sense which does not imply one or the other directional flows of power relationships. For a more detailed treatment of these issues, see Norton, "Should Environmentalists be Organicists?" Topoi 12 (1993): 21-30.
30. It is customary to refer to multilevelled theories of scale as "hierarchy theory." See, for example, T. F. H. Allen and Thomas B. Starr, Hierarchy: Perspectives for Ecological Complexity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); Robert O'Neill, D. L. DeAngelis, J. B. Waide, and T. F. H. Allen, A Hierarchical Concept of Ecosystems (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); T. F. H. Allen and Thomas W. Hoekstra, Toward a Unified Ecology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992). For explicit attempts to apply hierarchy theory to practical problems of management and policy, see R. V. O'Neill, "Hierarchy Theory and Global Climate Change," in Thomas Rosswall, Robert G. Woodmansee, and Paul G. Risser, eds., Scales and Global Change (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1988); Bryan G. Norton, "Context and Hierarchy in Aldo Leopold's Theory of Environmental Management," Ecological Economics 2 (1990): 119-27; Norton, Toward Unity among Environmentalists (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); and Norton and Ulanowicz, "Scale and Biodiversity Policy." While we have used the term hierarchy ourselves, it is unfortunate that the term is often taken to imply a "top-down" flow of power and authority even though this implication is expressly not included in the use, by ecologists, of the term. The problem of top-down versus bottom-up authority is discussed below. Because of the confusing implication, we prefer the term multiscalar analysis, and use it whenever possible. When it is unavoidable, however, the term hierarchy is used in the neutral sense which does not imply one or the other directional flows of power relationships. For a more detailed treatment of these issues, see Norton, "Should Environmentalists be Organicists?" Topoi 12 (1993): 21-30.
31. It is customary to refer to multilevelled theories of scale as "hierarchy theory." See, for example, T. F. H. Allen and Thomas B. Starr, Hierarchy: Perspectives for Ecological Complexity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); Robert O'Neill, D. L. DeAngelis, J. B. Waide, and T. F. H. Allen, A Hierarchical Concept of Ecosystems (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); T. F. H. Allen and Thomas W. Hoekstra, Toward a Unified Ecology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992). For explicit attempts to apply hierarchy theory to practical problems of management and policy, see R. V. O'Neill, "Hierarchy Theory and Global Climate Change," in Thomas Rosswall, Robert G. Woodmansee, and Paul G. Risser, eds., Scales and Global Change (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1988); Bryan G. Norton, "Context and Hierarchy in Aldo Leopold's Theory of Environmental Management," Ecological Economics 2 (1990): 119-27; Norton, Toward Unity among Environmentalists (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); and Norton and Ulanowicz, "Scale and Biodiversity Policy." While we have used the term hierarchy ourselves, it is unfortunate that the term is often taken to imply a "top-down" flow of power and authority even though this implication is expressly not included in the use, by ecologists, of the term. The problem of top-down versus bottom-up authority is discussed below. Because of the confusing implication, we prefer the term multiscalar analysis, and use it whenever possible. When it is unavoidable, however, the term hierarchy is used in the neutral sense which does not imply one or the other directional flows of power relationships. For a more detailed treatment of these issues, see Norton, "Should Environmentalists be Organicists?" Topoi 12 (1993): 21-30.
32. See O'Neill et al., A Hierarchical Concept, pp. 170-75, for a discussion of the impacts of the bypassing of constraints on multiscaled systems. More generally, see Alan R. Johnson, "Spatio-temporal Hierarchies in Ecological Theory and Modeling," in "Second International Conference on Integrating Geographic Information Systems and Environmental Modeling," Breckenridge, Colo., 26 September 1993.
33. See O'Neill et al., A Hierarchical Concept, pp. 170-75, for a discussion of the impacts of the bypassing of constraints on multiscaled systems. More generally, see Alan R. Johnson, "Spatio-temporal Hierarchies in Ecological Theory and Modeling," in "Second International Conference on Integrating Geographic Information Systems and Environmental Modeling," Breckenridge, Colo., 26 September 1993.
34. This triscalar approach is introduced in "Reduction versus Integration: Two Approaches to Environmental Values." Also see Norton, "Evaluating Ecosystem States: Two Paradigms of Environmental Management." Ecological Economics 14 (1995): 113-27, and Norton, "Ecological Integrity and Social Values: At What Scale?" Ecosystem Health 1 (1995): 228-41.
35. This triscalar approach is introduced in "Reduction versus Integration: Two Approaches to Environmental Values." Also see Norton, "Evaluating Ecosystem States: Two Paradigms of Environmental Management." Ecological Economics 14 (1995): 113-27, and Norton, "Ecological Integrity and Social Values: At What Scale?" Ecosystem Health 1 (1995): 228-41.
36. This triscalar approach is introduced in "Reduction versus Integration: Two Approaches to Environmental Values." Also see Norton, "Evaluating Ecosystem States: Two Paradigms of Environmental Management." Ecological Economics 14 (1995): 113-27, and Norton, "Ecological Integrity and Social Values: At What Scale?" Ecosystem Health 1 (1995): 228-41.
37. Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac (New York: Oxford University Press, 1949); Susan Flader, Thinking like A Mountain: Aldo Leopold and the Evolution of an Ecological Attitude toward Deer, Wolves, and Forests (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1974); Bryan G. Norton, "The Constancy of Leopold's Land Ethic," Conservation Biology 2 (1988): 93-102; Norton, Toward Unity.
38. Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac (New York: Oxford University Press, 1949); Susan Flader, Thinking like A Mountain: Aldo Leopold and the Evolution of an Ecological Attitude toward Deer, Wolves, and Forests (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1974); Bryan G. Norton, "The Constancy of Leopold's Land Ethic," Conservation Biology 2 (1988): 93-102; Norton, Toward Unity.
39. Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac (New York: Oxford University Press, 1949); Susan Flader, Thinking like A Mountain: Aldo Leopold and the Evolution of an Ecological Attitude toward Deer, Wolves, and Forests (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1974); Bryan G. Norton, "The Constancy of Leopold's Land Ethic," Conservation Biology 2 (1988): 93-102; Norton, Toward Unity.
40. See Aldo Leopold, "Some Fundamentals of Conservation in the Southwest," Environmental Ethics 1 (1979): 131-41 (posthumous publication of an essay written in 1923); Leopold, Sand County Almanac; Madhav Gadgil, "Diversity: Cultural and Biological," Tree 2 (1987): 369-73; Madhav Gadgil and Fikret Berkes, "Traditional Resource Management Systems," Resource Management and Optimization 8( 1991): 127-41; Fikret Berkes, Carl Folke and Madhav Gadgil, "Traditional Ecological Knowledge, Biodiversity, Resilience and Sustainability," Beijer Discussion Paper Series no. 31, Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 1993; Madjay Gadgil, "Ecological Organization of Indian Society," Indian Council of Social Science Research Newsletter 21 (1993): 1-9; Bryan G. Norton, "On What We Should Save: The Role of Culture in Determining Conservation Targets," in Systematics and Conservation Evaluation, ed. P. L. Forey, C. J. Humphries, and R. I. Vane-Wright (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994); See Madhav Gadgil, Fikret Berkes, and Carl Folke, "Indigenous Knowledge for Biodiversity Conservation," for a discussion of factors affecting whether indigenous populations develop conservation constraints Ambio 22 (1993): 151-56. Also see N. V. Joshi and Madhav Gadgil, "On the Role of Refugia in Promoting Prudent Use of Biological Resources," Theoretical Population Biology 40 (1991): 211-29. For an application of localized thinking to international biodiversity policy, see Jeffrey A. McNeely, "Reversing the Loss of Biodiversity: Implementing Political, Economic, and Social Measures" presented at "Symposium on Biological Diversity: Exploring the Complexities," University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz., 25-27 March 1994.
41. See Aldo Leopold, "Some Fundamentals of Conservation in the Southwest," Environmental Ethics 1 (1979): 131-41 (posthumous publication of an essay written in 1923); Leopold, Sand County Almanac; Madhav Gadgil, "Diversity: Cultural and Biological," Tree 2 (1987): 369-73; Madhav Gadgil and Fikret Berkes, "Traditional Resource Management Systems," Resource Management and Optimization 8( 1991): 127-41; Fikret Berkes, Carl Folke and Madhav Gadgil, "Traditional Ecological Knowledge, Biodiversity, Resilience and Sustainability," Beijer Discussion Paper Series no. 31, Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 1993; Madjay Gadgil, "Ecological Organization of Indian Society," Indian Council of Social Science Research Newsletter 21 (1993): 1-9; Bryan G. Norton, "On What We Should Save: The Role of Culture in Determining Conservation Targets," in Systematics and Conservation Evaluation, ed. P. L. Forey, C. J. Humphries, and R. I. Vane-Wright (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994); See Madhav Gadgil, Fikret Berkes, and Carl Folke, "Indigenous Knowledge for Biodiversity Conservation," for a discussion of factors affecting whether indigenous populations develop conservation constraints Ambio 22 (1993): 151-56. Also see N. V. Joshi and Madhav Gadgil, "On the Role of Refugia in Promoting Prudent Use of Biological Resources," Theoretical Population Biology 40 (1991): 211-29. For an application of localized thinking to international biodiversity policy, see Jeffrey A. McNeely, "Reversing the Loss of Biodiversity: Implementing Political, Economic, and Social Measures" presented at "Symposium on Biological Diversity: Exploring the Complexities," University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz., 25-27 March 1994.
42. See Aldo Leopold, "Some Fundamentals of Conservation in the Southwest," Environmental Ethics 1 (1979): 131-41 (posthumous publication of an essay written in 1923); Leopold, Sand County Almanac; Madhav Gadgil, "Diversity: Cultural and Biological," Tree 2 (1987): 369-73; Madhav Gadgil and Fikret Berkes, "Traditional Resource Management Systems," Resource Management and Optimization 8( 1991): 127-41; Fikret Berkes, Carl Folke and Madhav Gadgil, "Traditional Ecological Knowledge, Biodiversity, Resilience and Sustainability," Beijer Discussion Paper Series no. 31, Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 1993; Madjay Gadgil, "Ecological Organization of Indian Society," Indian Council of Social Science Research Newsletter 21 (1993): 1-9; Bryan G. Norton, "On What We Should Save: The Role of Culture in Determining Conservation Targets," in Systematics and Conservation Evaluation, ed. P. L. Forey, C. J. Humphries, and R. I. Vane-Wright (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994); See Madhav Gadgil, Fikret Berkes, and Carl Folke, "Indigenous Knowledge for Biodiversity Conservation," for a discussion of factors affecting whether indigenous populations develop conservation constraints Ambio 22 (1993): 151-56. Also see N. V. Joshi and Madhav Gadgil, "On the Role of Refugia in Promoting Prudent Use of Biological Resources," Theoretical Population Biology 40 (1991): 211-29. For an application of localized thinking to international biodiversity policy, see Jeffrey A. McNeely, "Reversing the Loss of Biodiversity: Implementing Political, Economic, and Social Measures" presented at "Symposium on Biological Diversity: Exploring the Complexities," University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz., 25-27 March 1994.
43. See Aldo Leopold, "Some Fundamentals of Conservation in the Southwest," Environmental Ethics 1 (1979): 131-41 (posthumous publication of an essay written in 1923); Leopold, Sand County Almanac; Madhav Gadgil, "Diversity: Cultural and Biological," Tree 2 (1987): 369-73; Madhav Gadgil and Fikret Berkes, "Traditional Resource Management Systems," Resource Management and Optimization 8( 1991): 127-41; Fikret Berkes, Carl Folke and Madhav Gadgil, "Traditional Ecological Knowledge, Biodiversity, Resilience and Sustainability," Beijer Discussion Paper Series no. 31, Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 1993; Madjay Gadgil, "Ecological Organization of Indian Society," Indian Council of Social Science Research Newsletter 21 (1993): 1-9; Bryan G. Norton, "On What We Should Save: The Role of Culture in Determining Conservation Targets," in Systematics and Conservation Evaluation, ed. P. L. Forey, C. J. Humphries, and R. I. Vane-Wright (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994); See Madhav Gadgil, Fikret Berkes, and Carl Folke, "Indigenous Knowledge for Biodiversity Conservation," for a discussion of factors affecting whether indigenous populations develop conservation constraints Ambio 22 (1993): 151-56. Also see N. V. Joshi and Madhav Gadgil, "On the Role of Refugia in Promoting Prudent Use of Biological Resources," Theoretical Population Biology 40 (1991): 211-29. For an application of localized thinking to international biodiversity policy, see Jeffrey A. McNeely, "Reversing the Loss of Biodiversity: Implementing Political, Economic, and Social Measures" presented at "Symposium on Biological Diversity: Exploring the Complexities," University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz., 25-27 March 1994.
44. See Aldo Leopold, "Some Fundamentals of Conservation in the Southwest," Environmental Ethics 1 (1979): 131-41 (posthumous publication of an essay written in 1923); Leopold, Sand County Almanac; Madhav Gadgil, "Diversity: Cultural and Biological," Tree 2 (1987): 369-73; Madhav Gadgil and Fikret Berkes, "Traditional Resource Management Systems," Resource Management and Optimization 8( 1991): 127-41; Fikret Berkes, Carl Folke and Madhav Gadgil, "Traditional Ecological Knowledge, Biodiversity, Resilience and Sustainability," Beijer Discussion Paper Series no. 31, Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 1993; Madjay Gadgil, "Ecological Organization of Indian Society," Indian Council of Social Science Research Newsletter 21 (1993): 1-9; Bryan G. Norton, "On What We Should Save: The Role of Culture in Determining Conservation Targets," in Systematics and Conservation Evaluation, ed. P. L. Forey, C. J. Humphries, and R. I. Vane-Wright (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994); See Madhav Gadgil, Fikret Berkes, and Carl Folke, "Indigenous Knowledge for Biodiversity Conservation," for a discussion of factors affecting whether indigenous populations develop conservation constraints Ambio 22 (1993): 151-56. Also see N. V. Joshi and Madhav Gadgil, "On the Role of Refugia in Promoting Prudent Use of Biological Resources," Theoretical Population Biology 40 (1991): 211-29. For an application of localized thinking to international biodiversity policy, see Jeffrey A. McNeely, "Reversing the Loss of Biodiversity: Implementing Political, Economic, and Social Measures" presented at "Symposium on Biological Diversity: Exploring the Complexities," University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz., 25-27 March 1994.
45. See Aldo Leopold, "Some Fundamentals of Conservation in the Southwest," Environmental Ethics 1 (1979): 131-41 (posthumous publication of an essay written in 1923); Leopold, Sand County Almanac; Madhav Gadgil, "Diversity: Cultural and Biological," Tree 2 (1987): 369-73; Madhav Gadgil and Fikret Berkes, "Traditional Resource Management Systems," Resource Management and Optimization 8( 1991): 127-41; Fikret Berkes, Carl Folke and Madhav Gadgil, "Traditional Ecological Knowledge, Biodiversity, Resilience and Sustainability," Beijer Discussion Paper Series no. 31, Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 1993; Madjay Gadgil, "Ecological Organization of Indian Society," Indian Council of Social Science Research Newsletter 21 (1993): 1-9; Bryan G. Norton, "On What We Should Save: The Role of Culture in Determining Conservation Targets," in Systematics and Conservation Evaluation, ed. P. L. Forey, C. J. Humphries, and R. I. Vane-Wright (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994); See Madhav Gadgil, Fikret Berkes, and Carl Folke, "Indigenous Knowledge for Biodiversity Conservation," for a discussion of factors affecting whether indigenous populations develop conservation constraints Ambio 22 (1993): 151-56. Also see N. V. Joshi and Madhav Gadgil, "On the Role of Refugia in Promoting Prudent Use of Biological Resources," Theoretical Population Biology 40 (1991): 211-29. For an application of localized thinking to international biodiversity policy, see Jeffrey A. McNeely, "Reversing the Loss of Biodiversity: Implementing Political, Economic, and Social Measures" presented at "Symposium on Biological Diversity: Exploring the Complexities," University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz., 25-27 March 1994.
46. See Aldo Leopold, "Some Fundamentals of Conservation in the Southwest," Environmental Ethics 1 (1979): 131-41 (posthumous publication of an essay written in 1923); Leopold, Sand County Almanac; Madhav Gadgil, "Diversity: Cultural and Biological," Tree 2 (1987): 369-73; Madhav Gadgil and Fikret Berkes, "Traditional Resource Management Systems," Resource Management and Optimization 8( 1991): 127-41; Fikret Berkes, Carl Folke and Madhav Gadgil, "Traditional Ecological Knowledge, Biodiversity, Resilience and Sustainability," Beijer Discussion Paper Series no. 31, Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 1993; Madjay Gadgil, "Ecological Organization of Indian Society," Indian Council of Social Science Research Newsletter 21 (1993): 1-9; Bryan G. Norton, "On What We Should Save: The Role of Culture in Determining Conservation Targets," in Systematics and Conservation Evaluation, ed. P. L. Forey, C. J. Humphries, and R. I. Vane-Wright (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994); See Madhav Gadgil, Fikret Berkes, and Carl Folke, "Indigenous Knowledge for Biodiversity Conservation," for a discussion of factors affecting whether indigenous populations develop conservation constraints Ambio 22 (1993): 151-56. Also see N. V. Joshi and Madhav Gadgil, "On the Role of Refugia in Promoting Prudent Use of Biological Resources," Theoretical Population Biology 40 (1991): 211-29. For an application of localized thinking to international biodiversity policy, see Jeffrey A. McNeely, "Reversing the Loss of Biodiversity: Implementing Political, Economic, and Social Measures" presented at "Symposium on Biological Diversity: Exploring the Complexities," University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz., 25-27 March 1994.
47. See Aldo Leopold, "Some Fundamentals of Conservation in the Southwest," Environmental Ethics 1 (1979): 131-41 (posthumous publication of an essay written in 1923); Leopold, Sand County Almanac; Madhav Gadgil, "Diversity: Cultural and Biological," Tree 2 (1987): 369-73; Madhav Gadgil and Fikret Berkes, "Traditional Resource Management Systems," Resource Management and Optimization 8( 1991): 127-41; Fikret Berkes, Carl Folke and Madhav Gadgil, "Traditional Ecological Knowledge, Biodiversity, Resilience and Sustainability," Beijer Discussion Paper Series no. 31, Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 1993; Madjay Gadgil, "Ecological Organization of Indian Society," Indian Council of Social Science Research Newsletter 21 (1993): 1-9; Bryan G. Norton, "On What We Should Save: The Role of Culture in Determining Conservation Targets," in Systematics and Conservation Evaluation, ed. P. L. Forey, C. J. Humphries, and R. I. Vane-Wright (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994); See Madhav Gadgil, Fikret Berkes, and Carl Folke, "Indigenous Knowledge for Biodiversity Conservation," for a discussion of factors affecting whether indigenous populations develop conservation constraints Ambio 22 (1993): 151-56. Also see N. V. Joshi and Madhav Gadgil, "On the Role of Refugia in Promoting Prudent Use of Biological Resources," Theoretical Population Biology 40 (1991): 211-29. For an application of localized thinking to international biodiversity policy, see Jeffrey A. McNeely, "Reversing the Loss of Biodiversity: Implementing Political, Economic, and Social Measures" presented at "Symposium on Biological Diversity: Exploring the Complexities," University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz., 25-27 March 1994.
48. See Aldo Leopold, "Some Fundamentals of Conservation in the Southwest," Environmental Ethics 1 (1979): 131-41 (posthumous publication of an essay written in 1923); Leopold, Sand County Almanac; Madhav Gadgil, "Diversity: Cultural and Biological," Tree 2 (1987): 369-73; Madhav Gadgil and Fikret Berkes, "Traditional Resource Management Systems," Resource Management and Optimization 8( 1991): 127-41; Fikret Berkes, Carl Folke and Madhav Gadgil, "Traditional Ecological Knowledge, Biodiversity, Resilience and Sustainability," Beijer Discussion Paper Series no. 31, Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 1993; Madjay Gadgil, "Ecological Organization of Indian Society," Indian Council of Social Science Research Newsletter 21 (1993): 1-9; Bryan G. Norton, "On What We Should Save: The Role of Culture in Determining Conservation Targets," in Systematics and Conservation Evaluation, ed. P. L. Forey, C. J. Humphries, and R. I. Vane-Wright (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994); See Madhav Gadgil, Fikret Berkes, and Carl Folke, "Indigenous Knowledge for Biodiversity Conservation," for a discussion of factors affecting whether indigenous populations develop conservation constraints Ambio 22 (1993): 151-56. Also see N. V. Joshi and Madhav Gadgil, "On the Role of Refugia in Promoting Prudent Use of Biological Resources," Theoretical Population Biology 40 (1991): 211-29. For an application of localized thinking to international biodiversity policy, see Jeffrey A. McNeely, "Reversing the Loss of Biodiversity: Implementing Political, Economic, and Social Measures" presented at "Symposium on Biological Diversity: Exploring the Complexities," University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz., 25-27 March 1994.
49. See Aldo Leopold, "Some Fundamentals of Conservation in the Southwest," Environmental Ethics 1 (1979): 131-41 (posthumous publication of an essay written in 1923); Leopold, Sand County Almanac; Madhav Gadgil, "Diversity: Cultural and Biological," Tree 2 (1987): 369-73; Madhav Gadgil and Fikret Berkes, "Traditional Resource Management Systems," Resource Management and Optimization 8( 1991): 127-41; Fikret Berkes, Carl Folke and Madhav Gadgil, "Traditional Ecological Knowledge, Biodiversity, Resilience and Sustainability," Beijer Discussion Paper Series no. 31, Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 1993; Madjay Gadgil, "Ecological Organization of Indian Society," Indian Council of Social Science Research Newsletter 21 (1993): 1-9; Bryan G. Norton, "On What We Should Save: The Role of Culture in Determining Conservation Targets," in Systematics and Conservation Evaluation, ed. P. L. Forey, C. J. Humphries, and R. I. Vane-Wright (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994); See Madhav Gadgil, Fikret Berkes, and Carl Folke, "Indigenous Knowledge for Biodiversity Conservation," for a discussion of factors affecting whether indigenous populations develop conservation constraints Ambio 22 (1993): 151-56. Also see N. V. Joshi and Madhav Gadgil, "On the Role of Refugia in Promoting Prudent Use of Biological Resources," Theoretical Population Biology 40 (1991): 211-29. For an application of localized thinking to international biodiversity policy, see Jeffrey A. McNeely, "Reversing the Loss of Biodiversity: Implementing Political, Economic, and Social Measures" presented at "Symposium on Biological Diversity: Exploring the Complexities," University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz., 25-27 March 1994.
50. John Moore, personal communication.
51. This version is from Thomas Bulfinch, Bulfinch's Mythology (New York: Harper and Row, 1970), pp. 169-71. Bulfinch relied on a Latinized version of the myth, which explains why the gods in this version have Roman names.
52. John Moore, personal communication.
53. Edith Brown Weiss, In Fairness to Future Generations (Tokyo and Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: The United Nations University and Transnational Publishers, 1989), pp. 17-21.
54. We are indebted to Madhav Gadgil of the Centre for Ecological Sciences of the Indian Institute of Science for both the details of this history and for a most stimulating conversation on the local nature of environmental values in Stockholm, July 1992. The protection of sacred groves was a common practice in many ancient cultures, which suggests that locally expressed religious traditions and distinctive local "worldviews" have been connected with limits on the scale of alteration of nature in many traditional cultures. See Gadgil, Berkes, and Folke, "Indigenous Knowledge for Biodiversity Conservation." For an account of the destruction of the Indian forests through centralization under British rule, and of the losing struggles of local, indigenous tribes to maintain control over lands that they held by tenure, see Ramachandra Guha and Madhav Gadgil, "State Forestry and Social Conflict in British India," Past and Present 123 (1989): 141-77, and Madhav Gadgil and Ramachandra Guha, This Fissured Land: An Ecological History of India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992).
55. We are indebted to Madhav Gadgil of the Centre for Ecological Sciences of the Indian Institute of Science for both the details of this history and for a most stimulating conversation on the local nature of environmental values in Stockholm, July 1992. The protection of sacred groves was a common practice in many ancient cultures, which suggests that locally expressed religious traditions and distinctive local "worldviews" have been connected with limits on the scale of alteration of nature in many traditional cultures. See Gadgil, Berkes, and Folke, "Indigenous Knowledge for Biodiversity Conservation." For an account of the destruction of the Indian forests through centralization under British rule, and of the losing struggles of local, indigenous tribes to maintain control over lands that they held by tenure, see Ramachandra Guha and Madhav Gadgil, "State Forestry and Social Conflict in British India," Past and Present 123 (1989): 141-77, and Madhav Gadgil and Ramachandra Guha, This Fissured Land: An Ecological History of India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992).
56. We are indebted to Madhav Gadgil of the Centre for Ecological Sciences of the Indian Institute of Science for both the details of this history and for a most stimulating conversation on the local nature of environmental values in Stockholm, July 1992. The protection of sacred groves was a common practice in many ancient cultures, which suggests that locally expressed religious traditions and distinctive local "worldviews" have been connected with limits on the scale of alteration of nature in many traditional cultures. See Gadgil, Berkes, and Folke, "Indigenous Knowledge for Biodiversity Conservation." For an account of the destruction of the Indian forests through centralization under British rule, and of the losing struggles of local, indigenous tribes to maintain control over lands that they held by tenure, see Ramachandra Guha and Madhav Gadgil, "State Forestry and Social Conflict in British India," Past and Present 123 (1989): 141-77, and Madhav Gadgil and Ramachandra Guha, This Fissured Land: An Ecological History of India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992).
57. Gadgil et al., "Indigenous Knowledge for Biodiversity Conservation," 1993; Gadgil and Berkes, "Traditional Resource Management Systems."
58. Gadgil et al., "Indigenous Knowledge for Biodiversity Conservation," 1993; Gadgil and Berkes, "Traditional Resource Management Systems."
59. See Bruce Hannon, "Energy and Japanese Peasant Agriculture," Journal of Social and Biological Structures 69 (1983): 207-17, for more detail and further references.
60. See, for example, Robert Heilbroner, An Inquiry into the Human Prospect (New York: W. W. Norton, 1974); William Ophuls, The Politics of Scarcity: A Prologue to a Political Theory of the Steady State (San Francisco: Freeman, 1977), and The Politics of Scarcity Revisited: The Unraveling of the American Dream (New York: Freeman, 1992); Bruce Hannon, "World Shogun," Journal of Social and Biological Structures 8 (1985): 329-41; Paul Kennedy, Preparing for the Twenty-First Century (New York: Random House, 1993).
61. See, for example, Robert Heilbroner, An Inquiry into the Human Prospect (New York: W. W. Norton, 1974); William Ophuls, The Politics of Scarcity: A Prologue to a Political Theory of the Steady State (San Francisco: Freeman, 1977), and The Politics of Scarcity Revisited: The Unraveling of the American Dream (New York: Freeman, 1992); Bruce Hannon, "World Shogun," Journal of Social and Biological Structures 8 (1985): 329-41; Paul Kennedy, Preparing for the Twenty-First Century (New York: Random House, 1993).
62. See, for example, Robert Heilbroner, An Inquiry into the Human Prospect (New York: W. W. Norton, 1974); William Ophuls, The Politics of Scarcity: A Prologue to a Political Theory of the Steady State (San Francisco: Freeman, 1977), and The Politics of Scarcity Revisited: The Unraveling of the American Dream (New York: Freeman, 1992); Bruce Hannon, "World Shogun," Journal of Social and Biological Structures 8 (1985): 329-41; Paul Kennedy, Preparing for the Twenty-First Century (New York: Random House, 1993).
63. See, for example, Robert Heilbroner, An Inquiry into the Human Prospect (New York: W. W. Norton, 1974); William Ophuls, The Politics of Scarcity: A Prologue to a Political Theory of the Steady State (San Francisco: Freeman, 1977), and The Politics of Scarcity Revisited: The Unraveling of the American Dream (New York: Freeman, 1992); Bruce Hannon, "World Shogun," Journal of Social and Biological Structures 8 (1985): 329-41; Paul Kennedy, Preparing for the Twenty-First Century (New York: Random House, 1993).
64. See, for example, Robert Heilbroner, An Inquiry into the Human Prospect (New York: W. W. Norton, 1974); William Ophuls, The Politics of Scarcity: A Prologue to a Political Theory of the Steady State (San Francisco: Freeman, 1977), and The Politics of Scarcity Revisited: The Unraveling of the American Dream (New York: Freeman, 1992); Bruce Hannon, "World Shogun," Journal of Social and Biological Structures 8 (1985): 329-41; Paul Kennedy, Preparing for the Twenty-First Century (New York: Random House, 1993).
65. Daniel A. Mazmanian and Jeanne Nienaber, Can Organizations Change? Environmental Protection, Citizen Participation, and the Corps of Engineers (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1979), pp. 19-24. The local citizen is Bruce Hannon.
66. See Herman Daly and John Cobb, For the Common Good (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989), pp. 209-35, and Herman Daly, "Problems with Free Trade: Neoclassical and Steady-State Perspectives," in Durwood Zaelke, Paul Orbuch, and Robert F. Housman, eds., Trade and the Environment: Law, Economics, and Policy (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1993).
67. See Herman Daly and John Cobb, For the Common Good (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989), pp. 209-35, and Herman Daly, "Problems with Free Trade: Neoclassical and Steady-State Perspectives," in Durwood Zaelke, Paul Orbuch, and Robert F. Housman, eds., Trade and the Environment: Law, Economics, and Policy (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1993).
68. Stephen Marglin, "Losing Touch: the Cultural Conditions of Worker Accommodation and Resistance," in Frederique Marglin and Stephen Marglin, eds., Dominating Knowledge (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990); Gadgil et al., "Indigenous Knowledge for Biodiversity Conservation."
69. Stephen Marglin, "Losing Touch: the Cultural Conditions of Worker Accommodation and Resistance," in Frederique Marglin and Stephen Marglin, eds., Dominating Knowledge (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990); Gadgil et al.,
70. William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983). Cronon's book was only the first of a new genre of ecological histories, each entry of which showed how the imposition of European land-use patterns and styles of ownership destroyed traditional systems of land and resource use in colonized areas of the New World, transforming the landscape in the process. See, for example, Timothy Silver, A New Face on the Countryside: Indians, Colonists, and Slaves in South Atlantic Forests, 1500-1800 (Cambridge, U.K., New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Ramon A. Gutierrez, When Jesus Came, The Corn Mothers Went Away (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991). Also see Gadgil and Berkes, "Traditional Resource Management Systems," and Guha and Gadgil, "State Forestry and Social Conflict in British India," for documentation of similar historical patterns in India.
71. William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983). Cronon's book was only the first of a new genre of ecological histories, each entry of which showed how the imposition of European land-use patterns and styles of ownership destroyed traditional systems of land and resource use in colonized areas of the New World, transforming the landscape in the process. See, for example, Timothy Silver, A New Face on the Countryside: Indians, Colonists, and Slaves in South Atlantic Forests, 1500-1800 (Cambridge, U.K., New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Ramon A. Gutierrez, When Jesus Came, The Corn Mothers Went Away (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991). Also see Gadgil and Berkes, "Traditional Resource Management Systems," and Guha and Gadgil, "State Forestry and Social Conflict in British India," for documentation of similar historical patterns in India.
72. William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983). Cronon's book was only the first of a new genre of ecological histories, each entry of which showed how the imposition of European land-use patterns and styles of ownership destroyed traditional systems of land and resource use in colonized areas of the New World, transforming the landscape in the process. See, for example, Timothy Silver, A New Face on the Countryside: Indians, Colonists, and Slaves in South Atlantic Forests, 1500-1800 (Cambridge, U.K., New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Ramon A. Gutierrez, When Jesus Came, The Corn Mothers Went Away (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991). Also see Gadgil and Berkes, "Traditional Resource Management Systems," and Guha and Gadgil, "State Forestry and Social Conflict in British India," for documentation of similar historical patterns in India.
73. William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983). Cronon's book was only the first of a new genre of ecological histories, each entry of which showed how the imposition of European land-use patterns and styles of ownership destroyed traditional systems of land and resource use in colonized areas of the New World, transforming the landscape in the process. See, for example, Timothy Silver, A New Face on the Countryside: Indians, Colonists, and Slaves in South Atlantic Forests, 1500-1800 (Cambridge, U.K., New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Ramon A. Gutierrez, When Jesus Came, The Corn Mothers Went Away (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991). Also see Gadgil and Berkes, "Traditional Resource Management Systems," and Guha and Gadgil, "State Forestry and Social Conflict in British India," for documentation of similar historical patterns in India.
74. William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983). Cronon's book was only the first of a new genre of ecological histories, each entry of which showed how the imposition of European land-use patterns and styles of ownership destroyed traditional systems of land and resource use in colonized areas of the New World, transforming the landscape in the process. See, for example, Timothy Silver, A New Face on the Countryside: Indians, Colonists, and Slaves in South Atlantic Forests, 1500-1800 (Cambridge, U.K., New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Ramon A. Gutierrez, When Jesus Came, The Corn Mothers Went Away (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991). Also see Gadgil and Berkes, "Traditional Resource Management Systems," and Guha and Gadgil, "State Forestry and Social Conflict in British India," for documentation of similar historical patterns in India.
75. Our approach is therefore complementary to the adaptive management approach as proposed and developed by the ecologist, C. S. Holling and other colleagues. For discussion of the sociopolitical aspects of adaptive management, see, especially, Kai Lee, Compass and Gyroscope (Covelo, Calif.: Island Press, 1993), and Lance Gunderson, C. S. Holling, and Stephen S. Light, Barriers and Bridges to the Renewal of Ecosystems and Institutions (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995).
76. Our approach is therefore complementary to the adaptive management approach as proposed and developed by the ecologist, C. S. Holling and other colleagues. For discussion of the sociopolitical aspects of adaptive management, see, especially, Kai Lee, Compass and Gyroscope (Covelo, Calif.: Island Press, 1993), and Lance Gunderson, C. S. Holling, and Stephen S. Light, Barriers and Bridges to the Renewal of Ecosystems and Institutions (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995).
77. See Bryan Norton and Bruce Hannon, "Democracy and Sense of Place Values," under revision.
78. Our approach leads us to expect that a culture of high mobility will be less likely to protect the ecological context that gives meaning to local cultural adaptations. See Sagoff, "Settling America," for a helpful general discussion. But we wonder, optimistically, if it may be possible to encourage a stronger sense of place in local communities, and greater responsibility for local resource use, through public participation in ecosystem management plans and through public education and dialogue. See Norton and Hannon, "Democracy and Sense of Place Values." Clearly more research and discussion is warranted here.
79. Our approach leads us to expect that a culture of high mobility will be less likely to protect the ecological context that gives meaning to local cultural adaptations. See Sagoff, "Settling America," for a helpful general discussion. But we wonder, optimistically, if it may be possible to encourage a stronger sense of place in local communities, and greater responsibility for local resource use, through public participation in ecosystem management plans and through public education and dialogue. See Norton and Hannon, "Democracy and Sense of Place Values." Clearly more research and discussion is warranted here.